FET 2022-2023

ANALOG ELECTRONICS I: EEF 260

CHAPTER 1: SEMICONDUCTORS AND DIODES
Objectives
When you have studied the material in this chapter you should
 Be familiar with the basic electrical properties of conductors, insulator and
semiconductor;
 Have an understanding of the mechanics of electrical conductor in pure and doped
semiconductor materials;
 Be aware of the operation and characteristics of pn junction diode for both forward
and reverse bias conditions;
 Be able to describe the use of various forms of diode including Zener diodes
 Understand the operation of a range of circuit base on the use of diodes, including
power rectifers, ‖wave-shapers‖ and voltage references.
1.0 Introduction
The name electronics comes from electrons. Electron is a very small, invisible particle of
electricity present in all materials.
Electronics can therefore be defined as applications involving the control of electrons in a
vacuum, as in vacuum tubes, in gas, or vapor, and most importantly in a solid state semi –
conductor materials used for transistor and IC.
We have always considered electronics apparatus (for example amplifier, TV, phone…) as
―black-box», but have not yet looked in detail at the operation of the devices at the heart of
these systems. In many applications we may ignore the internal operation of these
components and look simply at their external characteristics. However, it is sometime
necessary and very interesting, to look in more detail at the construction of the active
component of our system to gain more insight into their characteristics and their operation.
Most modern electronic systems are based on semiconductor devices of one form or another.
In this chapter, we will look at the nature and characteristics of semiconductors and discover
why they are so useful.
1-1- Electrical properties of solids
Solid materials may be divided with respect to their electrical properties into three
categories: conductors, insulators and semiconductors. The different characteristics of
these groups are produced by the atomic structure of the materials and particular by the
distribution of electrons in the outer orbits of the atoms. These outermost electrons are termed

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valence electrons and they play a major part in determining many of the properties of the
material.

 The term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous flow of charge
when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals.
Conductor have a cloud of free electrons at all temperatures above absolute zero. This is
formed by the weakly bound ―valence‖ electrons in the outermost orbits of the atoms. If an
electric field is applied across such a material, electrons will flow causing an electric current.
Example: copper, aluminium.

 An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure from
an applied voltage source.
In insulating materials, the valence electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei of the atoms and
very few are able to break free to conduct electricity. The application of an electric field does
not cause a current to flow since there are no mobile charge carriers.
Example: wood, mica

 A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level some-where

between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor.
At very low temperatures semiconductors have the properties of an insulator. However, at
higher temperatures some electrons are free to move and the materials take on the properties
of a conductor a poor one. Nevertheless semiconductors have some useful characteristics
which make them distinct from both insulators and conductors.
Example : silicon, germanium
1-2- Energy levels
In the isolated atomic structure there are discrete (individual) energy levels associated with
each orbiting electron, as shown in Fig. (a). Each material will, in fact, have its own set of
permissible energy levels for the electrons in its atomic structure.
The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy state, and any electron
that has left its parent atom has a higher energy state than any electron in the atomic structure.

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Between the discrete energy levels are gaps in which no electrons in the isolated atomic
structure can appear. As the atoms of a material are brought closer together to form the
crystal lattice structure, there is an interaction between atoms that will result in the electrons
in a particular orbit of one atom having slightly different energy levels from electrons in the
same orbit of an adjoining atom. The net result is an expansion of the discrete levels of
possible energy states for the valence electrons to that of bands as shown in Fig. (b). Note
that there are boundary levels and maximum energy states in which any electron in the
atomic lattice can find itself, and there remains a forbidden region between the valence band
and the ionization level. Recall that ionization is the mechanism whereby an electron can
absorb sufficient energy to break away from the atomic structure and enter the
conduction band. You will note that the energy associated with each electron is measured in
electron Volts (eV: 1 eV= 1.6*10-19J)
At 0 K or absolute zero (273.15°C), all the valence electrons of semiconductor materials find
themselves locked in their outermost shell of the atom with energy levels associated with the
valence band of Fig. b. However, at room temperature (25°C) a large number of valence
electrons have acquired sufficient energy to leave the valence band, cross the energy gap
defined by Eg in Fig. (b) and enter the conduction band. For silicon Eg is 1.1 eV, for
germanium 0.67 eV, and for gallium arsenide 1.41 eV. The obviously lower Eg for
germanium accounts for the increased number of carriers in that material as compared to
silicon at room temperature. Note for the insulator that the energy gap is typically 5 eV or
more, which severely limits the number of electrons that can enter the conduction band at
room temperature. The conductor has electrons in the conduction band even at 0 K.
Quite obviously, therefore, at room temperature there are more than enough free carriers to
sustain a heavy flow of charge, or current.

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1-3- Resistance of material

The conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge, or current. That is, the
higher the conductivity level, the lower the resistance level. In tables, the term resistivity (φ,
Greek letter rho) is often used when comparing the resistance levels of materials. In metric
units, the resistivity of a material is measured in Ω -cm or Ω-m. The basic resistance
equation R =φl/A)
In Table 1.1, typical resistivity values are provided for three broad categories of materials.

Note in Table 1.1 the extreme range between the conductor and insulating materials for the 1-
cm length (1-cm2 area) of the material. Eighteen places separate the placement of the decimal
point for one number from the other. Ge and Si have received the attention they have for a
number of reasons. One very important consideration is the fact that they can be
manufactured to a very high purity level. In fact, recent advances have reduced impurity
levels in the pure material to 1 part in 10 billion (1:10,000,000,000). One might ask if these
low impurity levels are really necessary.
1-4 Doping
The addition of small amounts of impurities to a semiconductor can drastically affect its
properties. Of particular interest are impurities of materials that can fit within the crystal
lattice of the semiconductor, but which have a different number of valence electrons. An
example of such an impurity is the presence of phosphorus in silicon.
Phosphorus is a pentavalent material, that is, it has five valence electrons in its
outer electron shell. When a phosphorus atom is present within the lattice of a piece of
silicon, four of its valence electrons are tightly bound by the covalent bonding. However, the
fifth electron is only weakly bound and is therefore free to move within the lattice and
contribute to an electric current. Materials such as phosphorus are known as donor
impurities since they produce an excess of free electrons. Semiconductors containing such
impurities are called n-type semiconductors since they have free negative charge carriers.
Boron has three valence electrons and is thus a trivalent material. When a boron
atom is present within a silicon crystal the absence of an electron in the outer shell leaves a
space (a hole) which can accept an electron from an adjacent atom to complete its covalent
bonds. This hole moves from atom to atom and acts as a mobile positive charge carrier in

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exactly the same manner as the holes generated in the intrinsic material by thermal vibration.
Materials such as boron are known as acceptor impurities since they accept electrons to
produce holes. Semiconductors containing such impurities are called p-type semiconductors
since they have free positive charge carriers.

1-5 Extrinsic materials n-type and p-type

The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by the addition of
certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor material. These impurities,
although only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter the band structure sufficiently
to totally change the electrical properties of the material.
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an
extrinsic material.
Both the n- and p-type materials are formed by adding a predetermined number of impurity
atoms into a germanium or silicon base. The n-type is created by introducing those
impurity elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony,
arsenic.
When an acceptor element is used as the dopant, holes constitute the most common carrier,
and the resulting semiconductor is said to be a p-type semiconductor.
Doping usually takes place at such levels that the concentration of carriers due to the dopant
is significantly greater than the intrinsic concentration of the original semiconductor.
 n-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5– n-type material is formed by adding
pentavalent (5 valence electrons) impurity atoms
 electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
 holes are called minority carriers in n-type material

 p-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3 valence electrons) impurity atoms

 holes are called majority carriers in p-type material
 electrons are called minority carriers in p-type material

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1- 6 The PN Junction Diode

The semiconductor diode is formed by simply bringing the n- and p-type materials together
(constructed from the same base—Ge or Si), as shown in Fig. At the instant the two materials
are ―joined‖ the electrons and holes in the region of the junction will combine, resulting in a
lack of carriers in the region near the junction.
– the n region has many conduction electrons
– the p region has many holes
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due to the
depletion of carriers in this region.
• As a result of recombination, a large number of positive (in the n region) and negative (in
the p region) ions builds up near the pn junction, essentially depleting the region of any
conduction electrons or holes - termed the depletion region

 The barrier potential of a PN Junction Diode VB

• VB, is the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field
– At 25°C, it is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium
– As the junction temperature increases, the barrier potential decreases, and vice versa

1-7 I-V characteristics of PN Junction Diode

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Breakdown Voltage: It is the minimum voltage at which p-n junction breaks down with
sudden rise in reverse current.
Knee Voltage: It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.
Maximum forward Current: It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a p-n
junction can conduct without damage to the junction . current that a p-n junction can conduct
without damage to the junction .
Peak Inverse voltage (PIV): It is the maxium reverse voltage that can be applied to the p-n
junction without damage to the junction .
Maximum power rating: It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction
without damaging it.
1-8 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the
actual terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region.
Diode Approximation:
Ideal diode const. voltage drop model Piecewise linear model

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 Ideal diode: When diode is forward biased, resistance offered is zero, When it is reverse
biased resistance offered is infinity. It acts as a perfect switch.

 Constant voltage drop model: When forward voltage is more than 0.7 V, for Si diode
then it conducts and offers zero resistance. The drop across the diode is 0.7V. When
reverse biased it offers infinite resistance.

 Piecewise linear model: When forward voltage is more than 0.7 V, for Si diode then it
conducts and offers resistance. When reverse biased it offers very high resistance but not
infinity.
1-9 Load Line Analysis for a p-n junction diode

V=Vd+IdRL Id=(V-Vd)/RL
 The straight line represented by the above equation is known as the load line.
The load line passes through two points, I = 0, Vd = V and Vd= 0, I = V / RL.
The intersection point of load line and diode characteristics curve gives the operating point.
1-10 Series Diode Configurations

The ―arrowhead‖ in the diode symbol points in the direction opposite the electron flows
– The anode (A) is the p region – The cathode (K) is the n region
 Reverse Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)

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If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p-n junction such that the positive
terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-
type material figure (c).
 Forward Bias Condition (VD ˃ 0 V)
A forward-bias or ―on‖ condition is established by applying the positive potential to the p-
type material and the negative potential to the n-type material figure (b).

1-11 Forward and reverse currents

The current flowing through a pn junction can be approximately related to the applied voltage
by the expression
 eV 
I  I s  exp  1
 KT 
Where I is the current through the junction,
e is the electron charge,
V is the applied voltage,
k is Boltzmann’s constant,
T is the absolute temperature TC + 273°
 is a constant in the range 1 to 2 determined by the junction material. Here a positive
applied voltage represents a forward bias voltage and a positive current a forward current.
The constant  is approximately 1 for germanium and about 2 for silicon.
EXAMPLE 1.1 At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components in an
enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT
1-12 RESISTANCE LEVELS

As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of the
diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve. Three different
levels will be introduced.

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1-13 Diode and applications

1- Rectification
One of the important applications of the semiconductor diode is rectification of AC signals,
that is, the ability to convert an AC signal with zero average (DC) value to a signal with a
nonzero DC value. The application of the semiconductor diode as a rectifier is very useful in
obtaining DC voltage supplies from the readily available AC line voltage. Here, we illustrate
the basic principle of rectification, using an ideal diode—for simplicity, and also because the
large-signal model is appropriate when the diode is used in applications involving large AC
voltage and current levels.
a) Half wave rectifier
Figure below illustrates the process called half-wave rectification. A diode is connected to an
AC source and to a load resistor, RL, forming a half-wave rectifier. Keep in mind that all
ground symbols represent the same point electrically. Let’s examine what happens during one
cycle of the input voltage using the ideal model for the diode. When the sinusoidal input
voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and conducts current through the
load resistor, as shown in part (a). The current produces an output voltage across the load RL,
which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.

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(a) During the positive alternation of the 50 Hz input voltage, the output voltage looks
like the positive half of the input voltage. The current path is through ground back to
the source.

(b) During the negative alternation of the input voltage, the current is 0, so the output
voltage is also 0.

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 Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage

The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value you would measure
on a dc voltmeter. Vp is the peak value of the voltage. The VAVG is approximately 31.8% of
Vp for a half-wave rectified voltage.

 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak value of the input voltage, and the diode must
be capable of withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse voltage. For the diode in Figure
below, the maximum value of reverse voltage, designated as PIV, occurs at the peak of each
negative alternation of the input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased. A diode should be
rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.
PIV = Vp (in )

b) Full wave Rectifier

Another rectifier circuit commonly available as a single integrated circuit package1 is the
bridge rectifier, which employs four diodes in a bridge configuration, similar to the
Wheatstone bridge.

Figure : Full-wave bridge rectifier

The analysis of the bridge rectifier is simple to understand by visualizing the operation of the
rectifier for the two half-cycles of the AC waveform separately.
The key is that, as illustrated in Figure, diodes D1 and D3 conduct during the positive half-
cycle, while diodes D2 and D4 conduct during the negative half-cycle. Because of the
structure of the bridge, the flow of current through the load resistor is in the same direction

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(from c to d) during both halves of the cycle; hence, the full-wave rectification of the
waveform.

During the positive half-cycle of vS (t), D1 and D3 During the negative half-cycle of vS (t), D2 and
are forward-biased and iL = vS (t)/RL (ideal diodes). D4 are forward-biased and iL = vS (t)/RL (ideal
diodes).
Figure: Operation of bridge rectifier
The original and rectified waveforms are shown in Figure (a) for the case of ideal diodes and
a 30-V peak AC source.

Figure (a) Unrectified source voltage; (b) Rectified load voltage (ideal diodes
The number of positive alternations that make up the full-wave rectified voltage is twice that
of the half-wave voltage for the same time interval. The average value, which is the value
measured on a dc voltmeter, for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the
half-wave, as shown in the following formula:

VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.

 Applications of rectifier Circuits
 Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
 Battery Charging Circuits
 Simple Diode Circuits
– Protective Circuits against
 Overcurrent
 Polarity Reversal

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2) Regulation
 Zener diode
This region of unique characteristics is employed in the design of Zener diodes, which have
the graphic symbol appearing in Fig. 1a.
Both the semiconductor diode and zener diode are presented side by side in Fig 1. to ensure
that the direction of conduction of each is clearly understood together with the required
polarity of the applied voltage. For the semiconductor diode the ―on‖ state will support a
current in the direction of the arrow in the symbol. For the Zener diode the direction of
conduction is opposite to that of the arrow in the symbol. Note also that the polarity of VD
and VZ are the same as would be obtained if each were a resistive element.

Figure 1: Conduction direction: (a) Zener diode; (b) semi-conductor diode.

The complete equivalent circuit of the Zener diode in the Zener region includes a small
dynamic resistance and dc battery equal to the Zener potential, as shown in Fig. below.

Figure: Zener equivalent circuit: (a) complete; (b) approximate.

The Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown are two different mechanisms by which a
PN junction breaks. The Zener and Avalanche breakdown both occur in diode under reverse
bias. The avalanche breakdown occurs because of the ionisation of electrons and hole pairs
whereas the Zener diode occurs because of heavy doping.

The Zener diode allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an
ideal diode. It also permits to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain
value known as breakdown voltage.
• The zener diode is used to provide an output reference voltage that is stable despite changes
in input voltage
– Used as a reference in regulated power supplies– Used as a reference in regulated power
supplies

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– The zener diode is designed for operation in the reverse breakdown region, where the
voltage remains almost constant over a wide range of reverse current values.
A- Zener equivalent circuits

 The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by

PZ = VZ IZ
 Applications of Zener Circuits
 Overvoltage Protection
 Setting Reference Voltages

B- Zener diode as a regulator

The use of the Zener diode as a regulator is so common that three conditions surrounding the
analysis of the basic Zener regulator are considered.
The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in Fig. 1. The applied dc voltage is
fixed, as is the load resistor.

Fig. 1:Basic Zener regulator

Zener diode:
Case 1: Vi (input) and RL (load fixed) Fixed
The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into two steps.

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STEP 1: Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network and
calculating the voltage across the resulting open circuit.
Applying step 1 to the network of Fig.1. results in the network of Fig. 2, where an
application of the voltage divider rule results in V=VL=RLVi/R+RL

Fig. 2 Determining the state of the Zener diode.

 If V ≥ VZ, the Zener diode is on, and the appropriate equivalent model can be
substituted.
 If V < VZ, the diode is off, and the open-circuit equivalence is substituted.

Case 1: Vi and RL Fixed

STEP 2: Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired
unknowns.
For the network of Fig. 2, the ―on‖ state will result in the equivalent network of Fig. 3.
Since voltages across parallel elements must be the same, we find that VL=VZ

The Zener diode current must be determined by an application of KCL. That is,

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IR=IZ+IL IZ = IR-IL
IL=VL/RL and IR=VR/R=(Vi-VL)/R
The power dissipated by the Zener diode is given by PZ=VZIZ

Case 2 : Fixed Vi, Variable RL

Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values (and therefore load
current) that will ensure that the Zener is in the ―on‖ state.
Too small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL across the load resistor less
than VZ, and the Zener device will be in the ―off‖ state.
To determine the minimum load resistance of that will turn the Zener diode on, simply
calculate the value of RL that will result in a load voltage VL = VZ. That is,

Solving for R, we have

Once the diode is in the ―on‖ state, the voltage across R remains fixed at

VR=Vi –VZ

The Zener current

Iz=IR-IL
Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet, it does affect the range of RL
and therefore IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the minimum IL as
ILmin=IR-IZM
The maximum load resistance is given by RLmax= VZ/ILMAX

Case 3: Fixed RL, Variable Vi

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For fixed values of RL in Fig. , the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the
Zener diode on.
The minimum turn-on voltage Vi = Vimin is determined by

The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current IZM . Since
IZM=IR - IL, IRmax=IZM+IL

Since IL is fixed at VZ /RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum
Vi is defined by
VImax=VRMAX+VZ VImax=IRMAXR+VZ
3) Lighting
The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches, and all forms of
instrumentation has contributed to the current extensive interest in structures that will emit
light when properly biased. The two types in common use today to perform this function are
the light-emitting diode (LED) and the liquid-crystal display (LCD). The LED falls within the
family of p-n junction devices
 The light-emitting diode (LED)
– when the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material
and recombine with holes in the p-type material
– Since the electrons in the conduction band are at a higher energy level than the holes in the
valence band, when recombination takes place, energy is released in the form of heat and
light
– A large exposed surface on one layer of the LED permits the photons to be emitted as light,
termed electroluminescence

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ANALOG ELECTRONICS 1: EEF 260

TUTORIAL 1: SEMI-CONDUCTOR AND DIODES

I. SEMI-CONDUCTORS:

1) What is the basic difference between conductors and insulators?

2) Name two of the best conductive materials.
3) What is the most widely used semi-conductive material?
4) What is meant by the term intrinsic?
5) Define doping.
6) How is an n-type semiconductor formed?
7) How is a p-type semiconductor formed?
8) What is the majority carrier in an n-type semiconductor?
9) What is the majority carrier in a p-type semiconductor?
10) What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
11) What is a pn junction?
12) What is the typical value of the barrier potential for a silicon diode?
13) What is the typical value of the barrier potential for a germanium diode?
14) Using Table 1.1

(a) Determine the resistance of a silicon sample having an area of 1 cm2 and a length of 3 cm.
(b) Repeat part (a) if the length is 1 cm and the area 4 cm2
(c) Repeat part (a) if the length is 8 cm and the area 0.5 cm2
15) For each of the energy diagrams in Figure 1 below, determine the class of material
based on relative comparisons.

Figure 1

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EEF 260 ANALOG ELECTRONICS 1: Tutorial N2

EXERCISE 1: Analysis of light-emitting diode

For the circuit of the opposite Figure, determine:
(1) The LED power consumption;
(2) The resistance RS;
(3) The power required by the voltage source.
Diode operating point: VLED = 1.7V; ILED = 40 mA; VS = 10V.

EXERCICE 2: Consider the circuit

1. What type of circuit is this?

2. Sketch the voltage waveform across
2K resistor.
3. What is the PIV for each diode?
4. Determine the dc level and the
required PIV of each diode.

EXERCISE 3 : Consider the following circuit constructed around a zener diode

characterized by the data below:
– Forward voltage Vf = 0.7 V,
– Zener voltage VZ = 5.1 V,
The input sine wave has maximum amplitude of 10V and the resistor’s value is 1 kΩ.
Explain the working principle and deduce the output wave form.

Figure 3

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EXERCISE 4 : DIODES AS A LOGIC GATE

1) Determine the output level for the positive logic AND gate of Figure 4

Figure 4

2) Determine Vo for the network of Figure 5

Figure 5

EXERCISE 5 : What can be the use of the circuit of Figure 6?

Circuit supplies
DC
between 10V
Supply and 15 V
15 V

Stand-by Batteries

Figure 6

EXERCISE 6: For each of the following circuit, deduce the output wave form (Vout) for a
sine wave input signal.
Data: maximum input amplitude is 2V; R=1KΩ; Vd=0.7V

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ZENER DIODE

Exercise 7 :

Figure 1

Exercise 8 :

Figure 2

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