MODULE 1: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

 Anthropology – relates to sociology, it always describes human, human behavior and human
socities around the world.
 Cultural Anthropology – studies human societies, and elements of cultural life.
 Linguistic Anthropology- which focuses on language in a certain society.
 Sociology- is the study of human social relationships and institutions. The purpose is to
understand how human action and consciousness.
 Political Science- is a social science that deals with humans and their interactions.
 Political Science Perspective- it deals with the nature and formation of the state and attempts
to understand its forms and functions.
 Anthropological Perspectives- are culture, cultural relativism, fieldwork, human diversity,
holism, biocultural focus.

THE FOUR MAIN PERSPECTIVES OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1. Cross- cultural Emphasis

2. Evolutionary Emphasis
3. Ecological Emphasis
4. Holistic Ephasis

 Sociological Perspective- introduces the discipline of sociology including something about its
history, questions, theory, and scientific methods and what distinguishes its form other social
science discipline.

THREE MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

1. The Functionalist Perspective

2. The Conflict Perspective
3. The Symbolic Interaction Perspective
 Theoretical Perspective- is used to analyze and explain objects of social study and facilitate
organizing sociological knowledge.
 Functionalist Perspective- societies are taught to function like organism with various social
institutions working together like organs to maintain and reproduce society.
 The Conflict Perspective- sees social life as a competition and focuses on the distribution of
resources, power and inequality.
 Political Science- two competing sides or lateral decisions democracy.

MODULE 2: ANALYZE THE CONCEPTS, ASPECTS, AND CHANGES IN/OF CULTURE

AND SOCIETY
 CULTURE- refers to a group or community which shares common experiences that shape the
way its members understand the world.

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

 SYMBOL- is anything that is used to stand for something else

 LANGUAGE- is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people.
 VALUES- are essential in our life because they help us to grow and develop.
 ARTIFACTS- cultural artifact or artefact is a term used in the social sciences, particularly
anthropology, ethnology, sociology for anything created by humans which gives information
about the culture of its creator and users.
 NORMS- are rules or expectations of behavior and thoughts based on shared beliefs within a
specific cultural or social group.
 SOCIAL CHANGE- variations or modifications in the patterns of social organization of sub groups
within society.
  CULTURAL CHANGE- refers to all alterations affecting new traits or trait complexes and changes
in a cultures content and structure.
 CULTURAL RELATIVISM-is an ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make
judgments using the standards of one’s own culture.
 CULTURAL DIVERSITY- refers to the existence of a variety of cultures within a society,
organization or community.
 SOCIAL HIERARCHIES- refers to systems of organizing and ranking individuals or groups within a
society.
 POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES- are set of beliefs, values and, principles that guide individuals
understanding and politics.

COMMON POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

 LIBERALISM- emphasizes individual rights, equality, democracy, and the protection of civil
liberties.
 CONSERVATISM- values tradition, order, and stability.
 SOCIALISM- advocates for collective ownership and control of the means of production, aiming
to reduce economic inequality and promote social justice.
 COMMUNISM- is more radical form of socialism that seeks to establish a classless society where
the means of production are commonly owned.
 LIBERTARIANISM- emphasizes individual freedom and limited government intervention in both
social and economic affairs.
 FASCISM- is an authoritarian ideology that prioritize the nation of race above the individual.

CULTURAL DIFFUSION- refers to the spread of cultural beliefs, practices, ideas, customs, technologies,
and artifacts from one society to another.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION

1. DIRECT CONTACT –when cultures come into direct contact through trade, migration, or
conquest, they often exchange goods, ideas and practices.
2. MIGRATION –when people migrate from one region to another, they bring their cultural
practices and traditions with them which can influence the culture of their destination.
3. TRADE- trade networks have historically been important channels for cultural diffusion.
4. MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY – in the modern era, advancements in technology and the
rise of mass media have accelerated cultural diffusion.
5. COLONIZATION AND IMMPERIALISM – through colonization and imperialism, dominant
cultures have imposed their values, languages, and institutions on colonized territories,
leading to the diffusion of their culture.
 CULTURAL DIFFUSION – can lead to both positive and negative outcomes.
 HOMOGENIZATION – where local traditions and languages are eroded in favor of dominant
cultures and can sometimes result in conflicts over cultural identity and authenticity.
 GLOBALIZATION – with its interconnectedness and increased mobility of people, good and
ideas, plays a significant role in cultural homogenization.
 MASS MEDIA – including television, music, and internet, also contribute to cultural
homogenization by disseminating standardized cultural products and narratives across borders.
 TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS – such as the internet and social media platforms, further
accelerate cultural homogenization by facilitating the rapid dissemination of information, ideas
and trends on a global scale.
 ECONOMIC INTEGRATION – through the process such as international trade, investment, and
tourism, also drives cultural homogenization by promoting the diffusion of global brands,
consumer lifestyle and business practices.
 IMPERIALISM – where dominant cultures impose their values and norms on others, as well as
cultural alienation.
  CULTURAL HYBRIDIZATION – also known as cultural hybridity or cultural mixing, refers to the
blending and synthesis of elements from different cultural traditions to create new cultural.

1. SYNCRETISM – involves the merging or reconciliation of different religious or spiritual beliefs

and practices.
2. FUSION CUISINE- blends ingredients, techniques and flavors from different culinary traditions to
create innovative dishes.
3. CULTURAL APPROPRIATION – occurs when elements of one culture are adopted by another
culture.
4. LANGUAGE MIXING – also known as code – switching involves the use of multiple languages or
dialects within a single conversation or communication context.
5. ART AND MUSIC – artist and musicians often draw inspiration from diverse cultural traditions to
create hybrid forms of art and music.

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM – refers to the practice of promoting and imposing the cultural values, norms,
and beliefs of one dominant culture over others.

KEY FEATURES OF CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

 MEDIA DOMINANCE – powerful media industries, often based in Western countries,

play a central role in disseminating cultural products and narratives globally.
 LANGUAGE HEGEMONY – the dominance of English as a global lingua franca
reinforces cultural imperialism by privileging the spread of Western ideas and
perspectives.
 CONSUMER CULTURE – Western consumer culture characterized by materialism,
individualism and conspicuous consumption is often promoted as a symbol of
modernity and progress.
 CULTURAL STEREOTYPING – can perpetuate stereotypes and distortions of Non –
western cultures, reducing them to exotic or primitive caricatures.
 CULTURAL DEPENDENCY – as local cultural industries struggle to compete with global
media conglomerates, there is a risk of cultural dependency.

 CULTURAL HEGEMONY – according to MARXIST thinker GRAMSCI ANTONIO refers to

the dominance or leadership of one social group or class over others.

KEY CONCEPTS OF CULTURAL HEGEMONY

1. IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL- involves the dissemination of dominant ideologies, beliefs and

worldviews that serve the interests of the ruling class.
2. CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS – hegemonic control is exercised through various cultural institutions
such as education, media, religion, literature, arts and entertainment.
3. CONSENT & CONSENT MANUFACTURING – Hegemonic domination relies on the consent of
subordinate groups who internalize & reproduce dominant ideologies & values even when they
may not directly benefit
4. COUNTER HEGEMONY –Gramsci argues that the cultural hegemony is not absolute and can
contested through the construction of counter-hegemonic cultural narratives, discourses, &
movements.

MODULE 3: THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN ATTAINING

CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING
 CULTURAL DIFFERENCES- are dominant than cultural universal, despite how much individuals
have similarity.
 CULTURAL UNIVERSALS- are patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies.
  CULTURAL VARIATION- refers to the rich diversity in social patterns that different human group
exhibit around the world.
 CULTURAL RELATIVISM- refers to the practice of assesing a culture by its own standards rather
than viewing it through the lens of one’s own culture.
 MULTICULTURALISM- refers to the practice of assesing a culture by its own standards rather
than viewing it through the lens of one’s own culture.
 ETHNOCENTRISM- can be so strong that when confronted with all the differences of a new
culture, one may experience disorientation and frustration.In sociology we call this culture
shock.
 CULTURE SHOCK- is the feeling of disoriented,uncertain, out of place or even fearful when
immersed in an unfamiliar culture.

 RUTH BENEDICT (1887-1948 )- anthropologist argued that each culture has an internally
consistent pattern of thoughts and actions ,which alone could be the basis for judging the merits
and morality of the culture’s practices.
 William Graham Summer(1840-1910)-described the term involves a belief or attitudes that
one’s own culture is better than all other(1906).

VARIATION BETWEEN CULTURES - within a human group, certain segments of the society develop
cultural patterns that differs from the patterns of the dominant society.

 SUBCULTURE- is a culture that is shared with a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values
which differ from a larger society.
EX: Hanukah is lesser Jewish festival lasting 8 days from the 25th day of Kislev (in December)
Cockfighting is a blood sport in which two roosters specifically bred for aggression are placed
beak to beak in a small ring and encouraged to fight to the death.
 COUNTER CULTURE- is a culture practice by groups whose values and norms place it at odds
with mainstream society or a group that actively rejects the dominant cultural values and
norms.
EX: Paramilitary is a semi-militarized force whose organizational structure, tactics, trainings, and
functions are similar to professional military and not included as a parts of formal armed forces
like NPA and ISIS groups.
 HIGH CULTURE- is a culture practiced and patronized by the upper classes of the society.
EX: classical music, watching opera, live theater
 POPULAR CULTURE- is a culture practiced or patronized by the middle and working classes of
the society.
EX: movies, rock concert, watching soap opera over the televisions
 CULTURAL CHANGE- is observed when new opens up new ways of living and when new ideas
enter a culture as a result of globalization.

ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

 It promotes cooperation- embracing the differences of the different society can create
cooperation because it allows a stronger bond with one another in the society.
 Respect and Equality is encouraged- people from different culture with different ideas that
share their own perspectives and experiences in the society can promote respect and equality
 It preserves human cultures- respect with the diverse set of traditions, ideas and practices
would help preserve the culture.
 Cultural relativism creates a society without judgement- worrying and practicing your own
culture prevent disagreement & judgement in the society.

MODULE 4: SIGNIFICANCE OF CULTURAL SYMBOLS AND PRACTICES

The evolution theory states that all forms of life started from simple forms and transformed to complex
ones. It was introduced by the naturalist and biologist known for his theory of evolution and the process
of natural selection - Charles Darwin who is called the Father of Evolution -in his published work, On the
Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL SELECTION

1. Variation- every species is made up of a variety of individuals with some better adapted to
their environments compared to the others.
2. Inheritance- organisms produce offspring with different sets of traits that can be inherited.
3. Survival of the Fittest-organisms that have traits most suitable to their environment will
survive and these variations are passed on to their offspring in subsequent generations.
Cultural evolution, on the other hand, refers to the changes or development in cultures
from a simple form to a more complex form of human culture.

The Mean of Cultural Adaptations of Early Humans

• Cranial - The brain was important for making tools. Homo erectus was believed to be the first homo to
use language for exchanging ideas, cooperative hunting, giving names to object, places, animals, and
plants, and developing different rituals particularly for burial purposes.

• Teeth - Were very essential during the early times not just for holding food. Hunter gatherer hominids
also used their teeth for hunting animals.

• Bipedal - The most essential characteristics of Hominids is walking upright on two legs. Hominids
needed to walk on two legs to be able to free their hands completely, enabling them to make and use
tools, to stretch in order to get fruits from trees easily, and to vigilantly stand and see further over the
tall grass.

• Philippine Prehistoric Man - The Philippine is also home to prehistoric humans whose culture is at part
with counterparts from other parts of the world. Recent discoveries have led to interesting accounts
about the origin of our race and how humans lived during the prehistoric times.

• Tabon Man - The Tabon Man used to be the oldest confirmed modern human in the Philippines,
dating back to 16,500 years ago (14,000 BC).

• Homo Luzonensis - It was excavated in 2007 in Callao Cave, Peñablanca, Cagayan Valley, Philippines by
an international multidisciplinary team led by Dr. Armand Salvador Mijares, anarchaeologist from the
University of the Philippines and a National Geographic grantee. It was named Homo luzonensis after
the country’s biggest island of Luzon where it was recovered.

Human Biocultural Evolution

 Hominids “Manlike Primates”

- The development of the different species of primates which were able to evolve in 40 million years
ago. There have been various relics of hominids which could be described as manlike primates.

 Homo Habilis “Handy Man”

-The apelike men who first to used stone tools as weapons and protection of their enemies. They are
recognized as the first true human. Lived about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago.

 Homo Erectus " The Upright Man"

This manlike specie could walk straight with almost the same brain with modern man. He made refined
stone stools for hunting and weapons for protection of the enemies.

The following are the major discovered fossils:

a. Pithecanthropus Erectus “Java Man” –Discovered by Eugene Dubois at Trinil, Java, Indonesia in 1891.

b. Sinanthropus Pekinensis “Peking Man” –Discovered at Choukoutien village, Beijing, China in 1929.

Homo Sapiens “The Thinking Man”

It was believed that this was the direct descendant of modern man who lived about 250,000 years ago.
They buried their dead, used had tools and had religion. The following are Homo Sapiens subspecies:
a. Neanderthal Man –Discovered in Neanderthal valley near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856 who lived in
cave and dependent in hunting and fishing.

b. Cro-Magnon Man – Discovered by a French archaeologist Louis Lartet in the Cro Magnon Cave in
Southern France. It was believed to live in Europe, Asia and Africa. As a prehistoric man, they were the
first to produce art in cave paintings and crafting decorated tools and accessories.

4 Capacity of Human to Develop Culture

1. Our Thinking Capacity

The primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture is the developed brain. It has the
necessary parts for facilitating pertinent skills such as speaking, touching, feeling, seeing, and smelling.

2. Our gripping Capacity

Look at your hands. Notice how your thumb relates with your other fingers. This capacity to directly
oppose your thumb with your other fingers is an exclusive trait of humans.

a) Power grip enabled humans to wrap the thumb and fingers on an object; it became the
cornerstone of our capacity to hold tool firmly for hunting and other activities.
b) Precision grip enabled humans to hold and pick objects steadily using fingers.

3. Our speaking

As the brain is the capacity source of humans’ capacity to comprehend sound and provide meaning to it,
the vocal tract as the mechanism by which sounds are produced and reproduced to transmit ideas and
values

4. Our walking/ Standing Capacity

Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and quadropedalism. Bipedalism is the capacity to
walk and stand on two feet, whereas quadropedalism uses all four limbs. Although apes are semi-
bipedal, humans are the only fully bipedal primates.

Cultural and Sociopolitical Development

1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age)3 million years to 8,000 B.C.

 Use of simple pebble tools.
 Learned to live in caves.
 Discovered the use of fires.

2. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) Occurred sometime about10,000 BCE

 Stone tools were shaped by polishing or grinding.
 Settlement in permanent villages.
 Dependence on domesticated plants or animals.
3. Age of Metals4,000 B.C. – 1,500 B.C
 The used of metal such as bronze, copper, and iron produced a new historical development
form cradles civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, including India and China which later on
spread throughout Asia.

The Early types of Society

1. Hunting and Gathering Society -Very simple –fire, arrow, baskets. Earliest and simplest form of
Society.
2. Horticultural and Pastoral Society -Digging sticks occasionally blade tools. Simple crop
cultivation, some surplus and exchange.
3. Agrarian Society -Largely agricultural but much surplus; increased market exchange and
substantial trade
 4. Industrial Society -Advance sources of energy; mechanized production. Industrial few engage in
agriculture or direct production; much surplus; fully developed market economy.

Components of Culture

1. Material Culture –It is the physical objects a society produces, things people create and use.
These are tools, furniture, clothing, automobiles, and computer systems, to name a few.
1.1 Technology -A Society’s culture consists of not only physical objects but also rules for using
those objects. Using items of material culture, particularly tools, requires various skills,
which are part of the nonmaterial culture.
2. Non-material Culture –It consists of elements termed norms, values, beliefs, and language
shared by the members of a society. Non-material culture is considered as the carriers of
culture.
2.1. Language -the most defining characteristics of human being is the ability to develop and use
highly complex systems of symbols like language. A symbol, as sociologists say, is the very
foundation of culture The essence of culture is the sharing of meanings among members of a
society.
2.2 Beliefs -These are ideas that people hold about the universe or any part of the total reality
surrounding them. These are the things how people perceive reality.
2.3. Values -They are shared ideas about desirable goals.
2.4. Norms -These are shared rules of conduct that specify how people ought to think and act.
2.4.1. Mores -These are norms associated with strong ideas of right and wrong.
2.4.2. Folkways -These are norms that are simply the customary, normal habitual ways a group
does things.
2.4.3. Laws -These are often referred to as formal norms.

 Prehistoric cave art is important because it serves as the best means of showing the interaction
between our primitive ancestors and the world as they perceived it. Cave paintings were
believed to be made from charcoal and other materials available
 The Iron Age, which is generally characterized by the use of metal works, made many countries
more technologically advanced.

MODULE 5: SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Gerhard Lenski -American sociologist; Technological progress is the most basic factor in the evolution of
societies and cultures.
Communication is vital in the different stages of human development.

SOCIO-CULTURAL STAGE -about the stage of progression characterized by technology advancements,

innovations, and transmissions

 Hunting and Gathering stage -refers to the early nomads who transfer from one place to
another to get food for their survival. This stage is the oldest and most basic way of living.
 Pastoral Stage -One of principal livelihoods is animal domestication. They have settlements but
they don’t stay in one place permanently. Pastoralists are merely farmers who specialize in
herding animals like sheep, goats, cattle, or horses.
 Horticultural Stage -Communities are formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allow
them to grow stable crops. Cultivation of plants such as wheat and rice are practiced.
 Agricultural Stage -They start to cultivate cereals such as wheat, barley, etc. They begin farming
and domesticating animals such as sheep, goats, and pigs. A more advanced cultivation tools are
produced and farming skills.
 Industrial Stage -Advanced form of technology leads to the invention of machineries.
Agricultural society is transformed to production and manufacturing. Advanced form of energy is
used to operate factory machineries.
 Workers are classified into two:
(1) independent craftsmen - Independent craftsmen have their own tools and own working
hours
(2) workers under the factory system - working in factories have employers who own the
tools and manage their working hours.

 Industrial Stage -Manufacturing shifts from manual labor to machineries. There is a significant
increase in the number of professionals and technical workers employed and a decline in the
number of skilled and semi-skilled workers

THE SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Politics is one of the pillars in every society. Along with economics and morality, it plays an

important role in promoting the welfare of the people as it is universal and not static.

Heraclitus -Greek philosopher, once said,

“there is nothing permanent in the world.” Everything changes – indeed, there is constant change as no
one can cross the same river twice. Politics has its own pacing and pattern change and development in
accordance with the needs of society.

The Divine Right Theory -Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704), one of the principal French
theorists of divine right, asserted that the king’s person and authority were sacred; that his power was
modelled on that of a father’s and was absolute, deriving from God; and that he was governed by reason
It is the oldest theory formulated to explain the medieval form of governance.
The Social Contract Theory -This refers to the political philosophy or agreement between the
government and the people. This theory states that the moral and/or political obligations of all persons
are dependent upon a contract or agreement among them to form the society in which they live.
The Force Theory
It is a theory where the state has its origin from force. It is believed that the tribe acquired its territory
and people through force, and the kingdom is transformed into an empire with the use of force. Going
into battle is a means to gain power and control a certain territory.

John Locke (1632-1704) - On human nature, people are born with natural rights but have to give up
some freedom to protect these rights.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - The only good government is one formed out of the free will by
the people. To protect the people, he approves direct democracy or a state guided by the general will.

The Evolution of Political System

Cultural evolution led to the transformation of different societies and political systems which is called
the socio-political development.

The family refers to the basic social institution and primary group in the society. The types of family
are categorized as follows;

On the basis of organization

1. Nuclear family - a man and a woman united through marriage and have biological or adopted
children; partners of the same sex, whose children may be the couple’s biological or adopted
offspring. The most basic and universal form of social organization.
2. Extended Family - includes other members such as aunt, uncle, grandparents, or cousins living
under the same roof.
3. Patrilocal Family- refers to a custom when the wife after marriage goes to live with the
husband’s family.
4. Matrilocal Family –refers to a social pattern when the couple after marriage moves to live with
the wife’s family.
 5. Neolocal Residence –refers to a marriage pattern when the couple after marriage moves to
settle in an independent residence which is neither attached to the bride’s family of origin nor
the bridegroom’s family of origin.
6. Patrilineal Family - when descent is traced through the father.
7. Matrilineal Family - when descent is traced along the female line.
8. Monogamous Family - refers to a family which consists of one husband and one wife at a given
time.
9. Polygamous Family - when one man marries several women or vice versa at a given time.

On the basis of blood relationship

1. Consanguine Family - individuals have the same father and thus share the right to his
inheritance
2. Conjugal Family – refers to a nuclear family that may consist of a married couple and their
children and relatives through marriage.
3. Bands - refer to a small association of family living together whose relationship is due to
marriage, descent, friendship, and common interest.
4. Clan – is a non-corporate descent group whose members claim descent from a common
ancestor (real or mythical)
5. Tribes - like bands are still essentially egalitarian in that no one family or residential group is
politically or economically superior to others.
6. Chiefdom – refers to a regional society in which one or more local groups are organized under a
single ruling individual, called the chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people.
7. State - refers to the political organization of society distinguished from other social groups by its
objective which is to establishment order and security through its laws that it enforces within its
territory and by its sovereignty.
a) Population – State is a community of persons; without population there can be no state.
b) Territory – Definite territory is an essential element of the state. The size can be big or small but
it has to be a definite, well-marked portion of the territory, under sovereignty of the state.
c) Government – The organization, machinery, instrument through which the sovereign power of
state is used.
d) Sovereignty – This is the most exclusive element of the State as it refers to the supreme power
or authority of the State to govern itself.

Each society needs the state because of the following reasons:

a. It provides security against external aggressions and war; it is for this reason the state
maintains an army.
b. It grants and guarantees the rights of the people.
c. It issues and regulates currency and coinage.
d. It ensures security against internal disturbances, disorders, and crimes; thus, the state
has to maintain its police force.
e. It grants citizenship and protects the interests and rights of its citizens.
f. It conducts foreign relations, foreign trade, and economic relations.
g. It secures the goals of national interest in international relations.

GROUP 6: BECOMING A MEMBER OF A SOCIETY

Enculturation- form of cultural transmission by which society transmits its culture and behavior to its
members by surrounding developing members with appropriate models process of socialization to
maintain the norms of one’s heritage and culture, including the salient values, ideas, and concepts.

ENCULTURATION & ACCULTURATION -processes whereby newcomers come to participate in the

normative practices of a cultural community
  Enculturation- signals the case in which the newcomer is an immature member of the cultural
community into which she or he is being socialized
 Acculturation- signals the case in which the newcomer is not a member of the cultural
community

SOCIALIZATION - process of social influence through which a person acquires the culture or subculture of
his/her group, and in the course of acquiring these cultural elements, the individual's self and
personality are shaped process of learning that enables the learner to perform social roles

KEY PARTS/ MAJOR ASPECTS OF SOCIALIZATION

 context
 content and process
 results or outcomes

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIALIZATION - enables a person to learn the different cultural languages, norms,
values, and one’s role in the society in order to fit the group

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE GOALS OF SOCIALIZATION:

1. Gender Stereotypes - Cultural expectations for gender roles and gendered behavior are
conveyed to children through color-coded clothes and sorts of game
2. Race- Since white people bear a disproportionate experience of police violence, they can
encourage their children to defend and know their rights when the authorities try to violate
them. In contrast, parents of color must instruct their children to remain calm, compliant and
secure in the presence of law enforcement.

TWO PRINCIPAL PROCESSES OF CULTURAL TRANSMISSION:

 Socialization- involves the deliberate shaping of an individual

 Enculturation- form of cultural transmission because of the cultural learning that people create,
remember, and deal with as a product of innovation

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION AND ENCULTURATION

 FAMILY
 SCHOOL
 MASS MEDIA
 GOVERNMENT

CONFORMITY- yielding to group pressures

- reflects a relatively rational process in which people construct a norm from other people’s
behavior in order to determine correct and appropriate behavior for themselves

-type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior to fit in or align their
attitudes and behaviors with the people they interact or socialized with

-gives a sense of identity and belongingness that enables a person to feel accepted in a certain
group

There are different situations when people conform; psychologists have categorized three main types
of conformity as:

 Compliance - is considered the weakest form of conformity. Involves going along with the view
of the majority while still privately maintaining one's own point of view.
 Identification - is a process where an individual imitates another person's behavior and beliefs
while in their presence. This is a short-term change and only occurs due to the influence of
someone the individual admires.
  Internalization - is the most profound form of conformity, where an individual accepts and
integrates the standards or beliefs of others or society into their own. This involves a long-term
change in both public behavior and private beliefs.

Factors that Influence Conformity

 Situational Factors- are a matter of observation and then repetition of what is observed.
 Individual Factors- focus more on the personal characteristic of an individual such as strong
leadership ability, will power, and self-confidence that give him/her a small chance or
tendency to conform to other people. (Ability to stand out)
 Cultural Factors

DEVIANCE- recognized violation of cultural norms

-cultural product of interactions between people whose occupations involved either

committing crimes or catching criminals

- a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or

codified law

EFFECTS OF DEVIANCE ON SOCIETY

1. It is one way that social change occurs.

2. It helps people adjust to change.
3. It has a way of promoting social solidarity by distinguishing “us” from “them”.
4. It provides a way in which some individuals and groups can introduce their agendas to the rest
of the society, and elevate their status while doing it.

SOCIAL STRAIN THEORY -developed by famed American sociologist Robert K. Merton; social structures
may pressure citizens to commit crimes

TYPES OF STRAIN

 STRUCTURAL - refers to the processes at the societal level that filter down and affect how the
individual perceives his or her needs
 INDIVIDUAL - refers to the frictions and pains experienced by an individual as he or she looks for
ways to satisfy individual needs

Robert K. Merton -stated that there are five types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection of
social goals and the institutional means of achieving them:

1. Conformity- is the process of changing one's beliefs, attitudes, actions, or perceptions to align with
those of a desired group or those whose approval is sought.

2. Innovation- It involves reinventing things or learning how to do things in a new manner. Innovators
continue to seek success; however, they reject socially acceptable means of achieving them.

3. Ritualism- It is the regular observance or practice of rituals, especially when excessive or without
regard to its function.

(Ex. Staying in dead-end jobs such as a home care giver position because it enables them to adhere to
society’s achievement and social norms)

4. Retreatism- It is a reaction of people towards society, in which one rejects both the cultural goals and
the traditional means to achieve success, then find a different way to escape it.

5. Rebellion- It seeks to substitute new goals and means for existing goals and means.

SOCIAL CONTROL

 -process of creating and maintaining stability

 -power of society over individuals
  -elicits certain behavior which empowers individuals to obey and conform to the norms

UNDERLYING GOALS OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

 to maintain social order

 to regulate individual actions
 to avoid conflict in the society

SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

-contends that when an individual’s ties to the conventional order or normative standards are weak or
nonexistent, they end up committing criminal behavior;

-individuals who have low self-esteem and have difficulty in facing the problems and trials they
encounter in life have a greater chance to commit deviant acts

FOUR ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL BOND:

 Attachment- is defined as a strong emotional tie that bonds one person intimately with another
person. It measures our connections to others
 Commitment- is a dedication to a particular organization, cause, belief, and a willingness to get
involved.
 Involvement - is the fact or condition of being involved with or of participating in something.
Involvement minimizes deviance.
 Belief - is a conviction or idea about the nature of reality that an individual or group accepts as
true.

TWO BASIC FORMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL:

 INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL- enforced by family members and other people we usually
interact or socialize with
 FORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL- organization or systems that use strict and delineated rules, values,
morals, and the like that we are commonly told or compelled to obey

MODULE 7: How Society is Organized

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

1. Structural-Functionalism -sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet

the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society.
 HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903) -claimed that just like the different organs of the body the
various parts of society worked together to keep society functioning. These parts of society were
the social institutions such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the
economy.
 ÉMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917) -believed that society was composed of interdependent and
interconnected parts that were put together to keep instability held collectively by shared social
construct which served to regulate social life such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs,
customs, fashion, and rituals.
 ALFRED RADCLIFF-BROWN (1881–1955) -considered the entire parts of community work
together to maintain stability for a healthy society. The purpose of any continual human action
as played in social life as a whole contributed to social instability.
 ROBERT MERTON (1910–2003) -noted that social processes had functions.
a. MANIFEST FUNCTIONS -the consequences of a social process that are sought or
anticipated.
b. LATENT FUNCTIONS -the unsought consequences of a social process.
c. DYSFUNCTIONS -Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation
of society.

2. Conflict Theory -looks at society as a competition for limited resources.

  Karl Marx (1818–1883) -believed that society was composed of individuals in various social
classes competing for resources such as food, clothing, shelter, and employment.
 Max Weber (1864-1920) -added that aside from economic inequalities, there were also
inequalities of social structure and political power that caused struggle.

3. Symbolic Interactionism -the human relationship of individuals within a society or human

interaction in which people make sense of their social worlds or communication through
exchange of language, symbols and its meaning.
 Charles Horton Cooley -introduced the looking-glass self (1902) to describe how a person’s self
of self grows out of interactions with others.
 George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) –is considered as the founding father of symbolic
interactionism. His student, Herbert Blumer (1900-1987), coined the term and characterized it
with these basic premises.
 Nancy J. Herman and Larry T. Reynolds (1994) -declared that this orientation showed people as
active individuals in the process of socialization than merely state of human action.
 Macionis (2012) -the increase of group members trims down the exquisite interaction of
individual members.
 Erving Goffman (1922–1982) -focus on the importance of interaction in building a society led to
develop a technique called dramaturgical analysis.

FORMS OF SOCIAL GROUPS

Group as distinguished from other Collection of People like:

1. Aggregate - collection of people who are in the same place at the same time without interacting
with each other.
2. Category - collection of people who share distinctive characteristics (sex, race, income/social
class, occupation, religion, beliefs)
3. Collectivity - Collection of people in a given place and time.

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

 PRIMARY GROUP -a small group with members engaged in tight, private and lasting
relationships. This group is noticeable by the care the members have for each other as well as
the common activities and culture they share.
 SECONDARY GROUP -can be a small or a big social group usually formed for a short-term period.
The members are not related to one another and are not influenced by personal feelings.

GROUP BOUNDARIES

1. IN-GROUP -is a social group to which a person identifies with. He or she may feel loyalty and
respect toward the other members of this group.
2. OUT-GROUP - are groups to which a person does not identify with. He or she may feel
dislike or hatred toward a member of this group.
3. REFERENCE GROUP - Group that is significant to us as models even though we ourselves
may not be a part of the group.
4. SOCIAL NETWORKS - influential in a wide range of online platforms used for building social
relationships with other people including sharing of political opinions, likes and dislikes, and
can even show trending societal issues or personalities.

TYPES OF GROUP BOUNDARIES

A. Formal Group Boundaries -groups in which duties and privileges are clearly defined and
expectations are prescribed, independent of the person who happens to occupy a given
position.
B. Informal Group Boundaries - they are unplanned, have no explicit rules for membership, and do
not have specific objectives to be attained.