Structuralism
1. Introduction:
Emerging as a pivotal intellectual movement in the mid-20th century,
structuralism has profoundly shaped a wide array of academic fields, including
linguistics, anthropology, psychology, literary theory, and cultural studies.
Central to structuralism is the assertion that human culture and cognition can
be understood by analyzing the underlying structures that inform them. This
perspective is grounded in the belief that these hidden frameworks influence
how we perceive and engage with our world.
The roots of structuralism trace back to Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure,
whose work in the early 20th century revolutionized linguistic studies. Saussure
proposed that language consists of signs, made up of the signifier (the form of a
word) and the signified (the concept it represents). This relationship
demonstrates that meaning is derived not from the words themselves but from
their differences and relationships within the broader linguistic system.
Building on Saussure’s ideas, structuralism was extended to anthropology by
figures like Claude Lévi-Strauss. He applied structuralist methodologies to the
analysis of myths, kinship, and cultural practices, suggesting that all human
cultures, despite their diversity, share common underlying structures. According
to Lévi-Strauss, decoding these structures unveils universal patterns of human
thought and behavior.
In literary theory, structuralism introduced a novel approach to text analysis.
Scholars such as Roland Barthes and Gérard Genette demonstrated that
narratives are not standalone creations but are embedded within larger
linguistic and cultural codes. This shift moved the focus away from authorial
intent and toward the structural elements of texts, thereby influencing
subsequent theoretical movements.
While structuralism has been criticized for its rigidity and determinism,
potentially overlooking the fluid and nuanced aspects of human experience, its
impact remains significant. It laid the foundational groundwork for
post-structuralist and other contemporary theoretical approaches that continue
to guide academic discourse.
In essence, structuralism offers a robust framework for deciphering the
complexities of human culture and cognition. By exploring the deep structures
beneath our perceptions and interactions, it reveals the intricate patterns
interlinking various facets of human life. This chapter serves as an introductory
overview of the enduring influence and importance of structuralist thought
across diverse disciplines.
2. Foundational Thinkers and Major Works
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Saussure, a pioneering Swiss linguist,
fundamentally transformed the study of language and semiotics. His theories
were posthumously compiled and published by his students.
Major Work: Course in General Linguistics (1916) - Compiled by Charles Bally
and Albert Sechehaye, this text introduces crucial concepts in structural
linguistics. Saussure differentiates between 'langue' (the language system) and
'parole' (speech acts), and underscores the arbitrary nature of the sign and the
significance of differences in generating meaning. This work established the
foundation for structuralist and semiotic theory.
Key Concepts:
● Linguistic Sign: Integrates the signifier (form) and the signified (concept).
● Langue and Parole: 'Langue' is the system of language, while 'parole'
constitutes actual speech.
● Synchronic vs. Diachronic: Synchronic analysis examines language at a
specific time, while diachronic analysis studies its evolution.
Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009) Lévi-Strauss, a prominent French
anthropologist, applied structuralist principles to the understanding of human
societies. He is recognized as one of anthropology's most influential figures.
Major Works: The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949) - This book explores
the universal principles underlying kinship systems, analyzing marriage rules
and family structures to reflect deeper social patterns. Mythologiques series
(1964-1971) - This four-volume series investigates the structural analysis of
myths from various cultures, asserting that myths share common structures
reflecting universal human thought processes. Key volumes include:
● The Raw and the Cooked (1964)
● From Honey to Ashes (1966)
● The Origin of Table Manners (1968)
● The Naked Man (1971)
Key Concepts:
● Binary Oppositions: Cultural structures organized around pairs of
opposites, like raw/cooked and nature/culture.
● Mythemes: Basic units of mythological thought.
● Structural Anthropology: Studies the underlying structures of human
culture and society.
Roland Barthes (1915-1980) Barthes, a French literary theorist and
semiotician, explored diverse aspects of cultural criticism and theory.
Major Works: Mythologies (1957) - This collection of essays dissects
contemporary myths in everyday life, revealing the ideological meanings within
cultural artifacts. S/Z (1970) - A detailed structural analysis of Honoré de
Balzac's novella Sarrasine, breaking it into 561 lexias and examining their
underlying codes, illustrating Barthes’ approach to textual deconstruction.
Key Concepts:
● Denotation and Connotation: Denotation is the literal meaning, while
connotation refers to the cultural meanings associated with a sign.
● Myth: Speech that turns history into nature, making cultural constructs
seem natural.
● Death of the Author: Suggests that the author's intent is irrelevant to text
interpretation; meaning is created by the reader.
Gérard Genette (1930-2018) Genette, a distinguished French literary theorist,
is renowned for his work on narrative structures and poetics.
Major Works: Narrative Discourse (1980) - This study systematically explores
narrative structures, introducing concepts such as order, duration, frequency,
and focalization (narrative perspective). Figures series (1966-2002) - A
collection of essays addressing various literary theory and poetics topics,
including metaphor, metonymy, and narrative structure.
Key Concepts:
● Narratology: The study of narrative structures.
● Focalization: The perspective from which a narrative is told.
● Intertextuality: Textual relationships and references.
● Order, Duration, Frequency: Terms describing time manipulation in
narratives.
Algirdas Julien Greimas (1917-1992) Greimas, a Lithuanian-French linguist and
semiotician, is noted for his contributions to narrative theory and semiotics.
Major Work: Sémantique structurale (1966) - Greimas develops structural
semantic theory, presenting the 'actantial model' for analyzing characters' roles
and functions in narratives.
Key Concepts:
● Actantial Model: Framework analyzing characters' narrative roles.
● Semiotic Square: Tool mapping logical relationships between semiotic
categories.
Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) Lacan, a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist,
intertwined structuralism with psychoanalytic theory through his
reinterpretation of Freud’s ideas.
Major Work: Écrits (1966) - A collection of essays and lectures exploring
language, the unconscious, and human subjectivity, introducing the 'mirror
stage' and the role of language in shaping the psyche.
Key Concepts:
● Mirror Stage: A developmental phase where a child forms a sense of self
via their reflection.
● The Real, the Imaginary, and the Symbolic: Three orders structuring
human experience and psychoanalytic theory.
Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) Jakobson, a renowned Russian-American
linguist and literary theorist, significantly contributed to structuralism with his
pioneering work in phonology, poetics, and communication theory.
Major Work: Fundamentals of Language (1956) - Co-authored with Morris
Halle, this work outlines Jakobson's phonological theories and his
communication model, foundational to language and semiotics study.
Key Concepts:
● Phonological Distinctive Features: Speech sounds as sets of distinctive
phonological features.
● Communication Model: A model defining six functions of language,
underscoring its multifaceted nature.
● Structural Analysis of Language: Viewing language as a structured
system of signs.
● Binary Oppositions: Using binary oppositions (e.g., voiced vs. voiceless
sounds) to understand language structure.
● Interdisciplinary Impact: Jakobson's ideas influence fields beyond
linguistics, like literary theory and anthropology.
3. Conclusion
Despite criticisms of its rigidity and determinism, structuralism's legacy
endures, foundational for post-structuralist and contemporary theoretical
approaches shaping academic inquiry today. By examining the deep structures
beneath our perceptions and interactions, structuralism reveals the intricate,
connecting patterns of human culture and cognition, underscoring its lasting
relevance and influence across disciplines.
