WELLS:

 Well are defined as openings or holes dug or drilled in to an aquifer (water bearing formation) with a view
of withdrawing water for drinking, agricultural or other uses.
 Selection of sites for wells
 Subsurface Soil Types:
 The amount of water supplied by an aquifer (water bearing formation) is as important as its quality. Most
sand and gravel deposits contain significant amounts of drinking water. However, the amount of water
which can actually be pumped depends on how thick these deposits are and their permeability (how easy it
is for water to flow through it). In general, the larger the grain size and the thicker the deposit, the higher
the yield of the aquifer.
 Try to avoid siting and developing wells in shallow sand and gravel deposits if the water table is less than 3
meters below surface.
 Wells constructed in silt or clay soils will have very low yields regardless of how they are constructed.
 Finally, limestone, sandstone or quartzitic rock may also yield adequate quantities of water. Best yields are
found where there is a thick zone of weathered rock with many cracks (fractures).
 Vegetation:
 During the dry season, survey for indications of groundwater by looking at the alignment of ant mounds and
green vegetation in the midst of an arid landscape. Annual plants, such as grasses and ferns, are not good
indicators because they come and go with the seasons
 Topography
 The water table commonly follows the land surface. While the lowest areas (valley bottoms or depressions
where water accumulates after rains) are generally the best places to drill.


 Surface Water
 Successful wells are often drilled near rivers; groundwater may be available even if the river is temporarily dry .
Reliable wells have even been located near broad sandy riverbeds which are active once every 5-10 years.
 If the well water remains turbid after construction, the soils may be providing inadequate filtration and
contaminated river water may be entering the well.

 surface drainage patterns can be used to determine rock type:

 Trellis and rectangular drainage develops where dipping, fractured sedimentary rocks are present; these are
the most favorable areas for high yield aquifers.
 Dendritic or branching patterns with a large number of tributaries are typical of drainage in areas of
impermeable crystalline rock such as gneiss.
 Sources of Contamination
 Well water should be tested to ensure that it is free from disease-causing organisms.
 avoid drilling in areas where unsuitable quality water is known to occur and keep wells as far away as
possible from potential sources of pollution.
 Accessibility

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  Issues of accessibility to well should be clearly addressed in the Community Water Supply Agreement Wells
should be as close as possible to houses because people use a lot less water if wells are located far from
their home.
 Preparation of a Site Map
 A map of the village and surrounding area should be prepared. Add to the map all relevant features such as
houses, animal pens, pit toilets, rivers, swampy areas, garbage disposal areas and indicate the direction in
which the land slopes .Draw all possible well sites on the map and select the best site

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS for ground water:

i) Geological mapping of the area for an accurate information regarding the lithological character, mode of origin
and petrological features of the rocks, both on surface and width.
ii) Study of the aquifer structure, with special stress on its exposure and relation with other material.
 Geological maps:
 From the contoured geological maps, sections can be prepared from which fairly accurate details will be
available for subsurface geology of the area. Using these information identify the potential water bearing
properties of that area.
 The basic geological map, when supplemented with information about the water bearing properties of the
formation as determined from the field observation becomes a valuable document and is called
hydrogeological map.
 Areal photographs
 The areal photographs are taken during areal surveys aboard planes from near the ground surface. and also
using satellite pictures called landsat imageries.
 In the areal photography and satellite imagery stress is laid to delineate faults, fractures systems, land forms,
drainage patterns and major recharge and discharge zones.
 Test drilling:
 It is a general practice to dig test wells in the area of investigation. It will provide the information about:
1. Exact nature of the geological material with depth
2. Capacity of various formations to yield water
3. Quality of the water available
Geophysical investigation:
 Geophysical explorations for ground water are based on the fact that rock formation differ in their
gravitational, magnitude, seismic and radioactive behavior. And this is the more imp test to identify the
water bearing rocks.
 Electrical resistivity method :
 Resistivity, or the inverse of electrical conductivity, is an imp measure of the capacity of a rock to allow an
electric current through it.
 Dry rocks and sediments, dense compact and pore less rocks will offer a greater resistance to the electrical
current compared to loose, porous and wet saturated samples.
 The wenner configuration:
 In this method , inserting two electrodes in to the ground at a specific distance from each other. Direct
current is to be introduced through these electrodes and they are called current electrodes.
 As the current is introduced, it travels from one electrode, passes through the material and leaves the
ground at the other current electrode.
 In b/w current will meet the resistance from the material and there will be a drop in its potential.
 This drop in potential is measured through 2 more electrodes called the potential electrode that are
inserted b/w current electrode.
 The resistivity measured by these potential electrodes is recorded as apparent resistivity, þ and is given by
the relationship:
∆V
 Þ= 2πa
I
a= spacing cont, ∆V= potential difference, I=current
 a) One ground water well (per acquifer) for everyhectare of land; minimum four wells - oneupgradient, three
down-gradient
 (b) Observations of g.w. level fluctuations and groundwater flow

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  (c) Collection of groundwater samples (monthly/bi-monthly) for g.w. quality testing for 1 year prior tolandfill
construction .
 The suggested minimum investigation is listed in Table 17.1. A detailedinvestigation plan may be drawn up in
consultation with a ground waterspecialist/water resources engineer or a hydrogeologist. The output from
such aninvestigation should yield the following:
 a) Depth to groundwater table and its seasonal variations
 b) Ground water flow direction
 c) Baseline ground water quality parameters all drinking water qualityparameters

 The suggested minimum investigation is listed in Table 17.1. A detailedinvestigation plan may be drawn up in
consultation with a ground waterspecialist/water resources engineer or a hydrogeologist. The output from
such aninvestigation should yield the following:
 a) Depth to groundwater table and its seasonal variations
 b) Ground water flow direction
 c) Baseline ground water quality parameters all drinking water qualityparameters
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE OF GROUNDWATER METHODS AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING:
• WHAT IS RAIN WATER HARVESTING :
• The principle of collecting and using precipitation from a catchments surface.
• ARTIFICAL RECHARGE TO GROUND WATER :
• Artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is augmented
at a rate exceeding that obtaining under natural conditions or replenishment. Any man-made
scheme or facility that adds water to an aquifer may be considered to be an artificial
recharge system
• WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING :
• Rain water harvesting is essential because :-
• Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on ground water.
• Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rain water into the sub-soil has decreased drastically and
recharging of ground water has diminished.
• RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES :
• There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings.
• Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.
• Recharge to ground water.

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• The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional techniques and structures used were
underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water is a new concept of
rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are :-
• Open Well: Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge structure. The well lining should have
openings (weep holes) at regular intervals to allow seepage of water through the sides.

• Bore Wells: If a bore well is used for recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) should preferably be a
slotted or perforated pipe so that more surface area is available for the water to percolate.

• Percolation / Recharge Trenches: - These are constructed when the permeable stream is available
at shallow depth. A percolation trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled
with porous media like pebbles, boulders or broken bricks.
• Recharge / Percolation Pits: - Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer.
These are constructed 1.5 to 3 m wide and 2 m to 3 m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a
brick/stone wall with openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals and is backfilled with boulders,
gravels and coarse sand.
• Counter Trenches: Contour trenches are used both on hill slopes as well as on degraded and barren
wastelands for soil and moisture conservation and a-forestation purposes.
• Check Dam: A check dam is generally constructed on small streams and long gullies formed by the
erosive activity of water.
• Percolation Pond: A percolation pond, like an irrigation tank, has a structure to impound rainwater
flowing through a watershed, and a waste weir to dispose of the surplus flow in excess of the
storage capacity of the lake created.
• Recharge Ring Well: Water to be recharged is guided through a pipe to the bottom of the Ring well
or below the water level to avoid scouring of bottom and entrapment of air bubbles in the aquifer.
• Recharge wells: Recharge wells of 100-to 300-mm. diameter are generally constructed for
recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through filter media to avoid choking of
recharge wells.
• Collection for immediate use: Water can be collected in barrels for immediate use.
ATTRIBUTES OF GROUNDWATER :
• There is more ground water than surface water
• Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.

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 • Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply.
• Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
• Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity.
• Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms.
• Ground water needs little treatment before use.
• Ground water has no turbidity and colour.
• Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower sanitary quality surface
water.
• Ground water is usually universally available.
• Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.
• There is no conveyance losses in ground water based supplies.
• Ground water has low vulnerability to drought.
• Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.
Sea water intrusion and remedial measures.
• Seawater intrusion is the movement of seawater into fresh water aquifers due to natural processes
or human activities. Seawater intrusion is caused by decreases in groundwater levels or by rises in
seawater levels. When you pump out fresh water rapidly, you lower the height of the freshwater in
the aquifer forming a cone of depression. The salt water rises 40 feet for every 1 foot of freshwater
depression and forms a cone of ascension

• Preventions:
• Keeping outdoor watering to a minimum.
• Reusing or recycling water when possible.
• Augmenting fresh ground-water recharge by, for example, using surface ponds to slow surface
runoff and raise infiltration rates.
• Constructing wells that do not penetrate deeper below sea level than necessary.
• In multiple-well systems, pumping wells alternately.
• Sizing pumps for lower pumping rates and minimizing lengths of pumping cycles.

UNIT: VI
Earthquakes:
EARTHQUAKE DEFINITIONS
• THESE MOMENTARY SHOCKS EXPERIENCED BY THE EARTH AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS AND
DIFFERENT TIMES ARE CALLED AS EARTHQUAKES
• TECHNICALLY EARTHQUAKES MAY BE DEFINED AS
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 • “Vibrations induced in the earths crust due to internal or external causes that are virtually shake up
a part of the crust and all the structures and living and non living things existing on it”
• FEATURES
• These vibrations cause moments in the ground which are of short durations.
• These vibrations are greatly variable in intensity direction and magnitude.
• These are the strongest quickest and most unexpected of natural calamities.
• Since then a number of earthquakes have visited many other parts of the world leaving behind
trails of destruction and deviation.
• The study of earth quake is of great significance for engineering geologist and civil engineer
Terminology
Seismology:

 the science dealing with the study of earthquake in all their aspects is called seismology
Focus
an earthquake is generally due to some disturbance or displacements in rock at some depth below the
surface of the earth
 Shock waves originate from that point of disturbance and travel in all directions Causing vibrations
 This place or point of origin of the earthquakes below the surface of the earth is termed as its focus
 In present seismology focus represents a zone rather than a point
 Focus lie few hundred kilometers below the surface
Epicenter
point or place on surface vertically above the focus of a particular earthquake is termed as epicenter
 It’s the place on surface where the vibrations from a particular earthquake reach first of all
 Its the location of maximum damage
 No earthquake with focus deeper than 700km has been recorded so far
Seismic waves
during earthquake elastic waves are generated at the focus these waves are called as seismic waves
 These waves travel in all directions with their characteristic velocities
 These waves are mainly classified into 3 types
(a) p waves
 these are also called as primary waves push and pull waves longitudinal waves and compression
waves.
 These are fastest of seismic waves
 These are longitudinal ion character i.e. particles vibrate in the direction of propagation
(b) s waves
 these are also called as secondary waves shear waves the transverse waves distortional waves
 These waves are transverse in character i.e. particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of
propagation
 The fact that s waves does not propagate through liquid medium has helped geologist a lot in
understanding the nature of the core o the earth
(c) L waves
 these are also called long waves or surface waves as their journey is confined mainly to the surface
layers of the earth these waves are sluggish and recorded only after the arrival of the p and s waves
 These waves are of two types

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  The Rayleigh waves in which the displacement of the particle is of complex nature partly being in
the direction of propagation and partl7y at right angles to it
 The love waves in which displacement of the particle is horizontal that is in the direction of
propagation
Seismograph
the instrument designed to record the earth motion set up by the seismic waves is called seismograph
 The of motion produced by the seismograph is called seismogram
Seismic zoning
classification of an area into zones of varying earthquakes and also geological settings of the area
 Broad zoning to cover large areas or countries in its folds
 Microzoning only actually seismic record data is used for macrozoning
 Lot of exploration and computation become necessary in the large scale seismic zoning
 In India there are 3 zones namely high, medium and low seismic zones
Causes:
 The causes that lead to origin and propagation of shock waves through the ground during an
earthquake may be non tectonic or tectonic in character,.
 Earthquake due to volcanic eruptions atomic exploration and collapse of ground come under non-
tectonic causes
Tectonic causes
 tectonic cause are more common and often the most destructive events .
 Their exact cause of origin not yet established .
 But they often occur due to displacement of blocks along the fractures called faults
 Reservoir associated earthquakes new class of earthquakes associated with impounding of water in
artificially reservoirs cause these types of earthquakes
 These type of earthquakes mainly occur due to
 Sagging effect of load
 Increased pore pressure
Effects
the character of the effect varies with the severity of the earthquake as well as the distance of the place
under consideration form the epicenter of the particular earthquake. Richter classifies effects of
earthquake into two categories, Primary effect and secondary effect
1. Primary effect
 all effects that are directly related to the cause of origin of an earthquake is included in this type of
effects
• Tectonic earthquakes cause many changes in the
 Geological structure of area
 Creation of slopes or scraps fissures wrapping of strata
 Changes in course of stream origin of new springs creation of sand dykes in which sand layer may
be forced to cracks and crevices
Secondary effects
 Effects which are related to passage of seismic waves and associated shaking motion of the ground
during an earthquake are grouped as secondary effects
 Secondary effects are observed on construction of all types
 Due to these vibrations buildings bridges dams etc may be slightly or heavily damaged
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  Loose objects may be overturned or thrown away
 Telegraphic and electric cables and water pipes may be broken
 Trees may be uprooted and their trunk and branches get twisted and broken
 Animals of all type react differently and abnormally during earthquakes
 Loss of life and damage to property are two standard measures for describing the effects of an
earthquake
Mid ocean Ridge:
1.A general term for an underwater mountain system -consists of various mountain ranges (chains), typically
having a valley known as a rift
2. seafloor spreading
-Results from convection currents which rise in the mantle as magma at a linear weakness in the oceanic
crust, and emerge as lava, creating new crust upon cooling. A mid-ocean ridge demarcates the boundary
between two tectonic plates, and consequently is termed a divergent plate boundary.

2 process

1. Ridge push: -occurs when the growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of the tectonic plate away from
the ridge, often towards a subduction zone. At the subduction zone
2. slab-pull:-process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is
the "mantle conveyor"
 upper mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough friction to pull the
tectonic plate along.
 The rate at which the mid-ocean ridge creates new material is known as the spreading rate, and is
generally measured in mm/yr. The common subdivisions of spreading rate are fast, medium, and
slow with values generally being >100 mm/yr, 100–55 mm/yr, and 55–20 mm/yr, respectively
The mid-ocean ridge systems form new oceanic crust. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools
below Curie points of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's
magnetic field are recorded in those oxides.
Continental shelf:
• It is the gently sloping land part that remains partly submerged under seawater.
• It may be only a narrow strip or quite an extensive area stretching for hundreds of kilometers.
• The slope in a continental shelf is generally of the order of 1 in 1000 or less.
• The actual boundary of a continent is not its coastline, but the edge of the continental shelf.

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 • Most continental shelves are broad, gently sloping plains covered by relatively shallow water.
Water depth over the continental shelves averages about 60 meters (200 feet).
• Sunlight penetrates the shallow waters, and many kinds of organisms flourish
from microscopic shrimp to giant seaweed called kelp. Ocean currents and runoff from rivers bring
nutrients to organisms that live on continental shelves.
• Plants and algae make continental shelves rich feeding grounds for sea creatures. The shelves make
up less than 10 percent of the total area of the oceans. Yet all of the oceans plants and many types
of algae live in the sunny waters.

Formation of a Continental Shelf

• Inorganic material built up as rivers carried sediment bits of rock, soil, and gravel to the edges of
the continents and into the ocean.
• These sediments gradually accumulated in layers at the edges of continents.
• Over many millions of years, organic and inorganic materials formed continental shelves.
• Organic material, such as the remains of plants and animals, also accumulated.
• The continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments; that is, those derived from erosion of
the continents. However, little of the sediment is from current rivers; some 60-70% of the sediment
on the world's shelves is relict sediment, deposited during the last ice age, when sea level was 100–
120 m lower than it is now.
• Most commercial exploitation from the sea, such as metallic-ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbon
extraction, takes place on the continental shelf.
Abyssal plain:
Abyssal plains - extremely flat regions beyond the base of the continental rise .
• Oceanic crust forms the bed rock of abyssal plains. Is continuosly created at mid oceanic ridge by a
process known as decompression melting .
• It an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor , usually found at depths of 3000 and 6000 metres.
It is the least explored region in the world as . They are key geological elements of oceanic basin .
It makes up 50% of the earth surface . It is covered in muds and remains of tiny organisms .

•
Formation:
• The abyssal plain is formed when the lower crust melts and pushed up by up welling mantle forms
new oceanic crust . This eventually becomes overlain with sediments mainly clay and silt producing
a flat appearance .
• The continents lie on the continental plates. The edges of these plates are under water, and they
form the continental shelves. These shelves slope outward very gently towards the ocean depths. In
some places these shelves go out a long way, up to 900 miles: In other places the shelves are much
narrower. These shelves are fairly smooth because debris from the land is falling onto them from
the water. This debris contains nutrients washed down from the land, and these nutrients, plus the
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 shallow water, contribute to the abundance of life forms near the continents.Where the
continental shelves end, there is a steep drop downwards. This is called the continental slope. It
plunges down into the dark, cold waters of the ocean. At the bottom of the continental slope there
is a an area that slopes gradually downward to blend into the abyssal plain. This is the bottom of
the ocean as we think of it. Owing in part to their vast size , abyssal planes are currently belived to a
major reservoir for bio diversity . The abyss also exerts significant influence upon ocean carbon
cycling . , dissolution of calcium carbonate and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over
timescale of 100-1000years .

LANDSLIDE:
Due to instability, superficial mass of soil and rock leave their original positions abruptly or
extremely slowly and start either a downward movement or vertically downward sinking
movement. Such movements of the superficial masses is termed in the common language as
landslides. In technical language they are grouped as Mass Movements
Classification :
Sharpe classified mass movements into three groups on basis of type of failure :
• Flowage
• Subsidence
• Sliding
A. Flowage
• Downgrade movement of mass along no definite surface of failure. Mass involved in this type of
failure is primarily unconsolidated or loosely packed. The movement is in a highly irregular manner
and not along a definite surface.
• Flowage is further distinguished into slow and rapid flowage.
B. Subsidence
• Defined as sinking or settling of the ground in almost vertically downward direction. It occurs
because of removal of natural support from the underground or due to compaction of the weaker
rocks underneath.
• C. Sliding
Type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails by moving as a whole along a definite surface of
failure. Mass above the failure surface is unstable whereas the material lying below this surface is
generally stable.
They can be further distinguished into:
 Translational Slides
 Rotational Slides
 Rock Toppling and Falls

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Causes of mass movements:
Internal Factors
1. Nature of Slope:
By nature of slope is meant here the type of material of which the land mass is made up ( soil or rock)
and the angle at which this particular mass is inclined with the horizontal ( the slope angle). Any forming a
slope is subject :
 Those by virtue of which it can retain its position in space, and
 Those which tend to induce failure into it
2. Role of Water
 Water that penetrates the soil and rocks through seepage and moves into the pores of the mass
reduces the shearing strength of the mass.
 The process of frost action weakens the soil or rock mass.
 When groundwater moves along a joint set, a fault plane, shear zone etc it lubricates the plane
along which it moves and reduces the frictional forces.
 Transportation action of streams, rivers carries away waste materials accumulated at the base of
the slopes. The waste materials create a natural barrier for future failures. The absence of such
materials accelerates slope failure.
 In rocks like gypsum or limestone or in those rocks having soluble minerals, water may remove
soluble components reducing the shear strength of the mass.
 3. Composition of the Mass
 Composition is responsible for stability of the mass. Crystalline igneous rocks like granites and
gabbros and massive metamorphic rocks like marbles, quartzite and gneisses may be stable even
with vertical slopes whereas chalk – a soft variety of limestone or shale or claystone or soils is not.
 External Factors
 Vibrations from heavy blasting and heavy traffic on hill roads may disturb masses perched on steep
slopes. Vibrations due to natural causes such as earthquakes also cause mass failures on a large
scale. Removal of support at the foot of slope during excavation for road widening is hazardous.
Removal of vegetative cover is also a contributive factor in causing slope failures.
 Soil Creep
 It is a type of flowage and consists of gradual down slope transit of soil and may sometimes take
place even under the cover of vegetation. Frost action favors soil creep.
 Earth and Mudflows
 Rapid type of mass movements confined mostly to open-textured soils or unconsolidated rocks
which take place usually after heavy melting of snow and ice. Materials most likely to fail by this
method are clays and silts.
 Slides
 Type of mass failure in which body of superficial masses fails along a definite surface of shear. Slides
are differentiated based on material involved and nature of soil into rock slides, rock falls , rock
avalanches and slumps.
Control of mass movements:
Drainage
For diverting surface flow of water a series of drainage ditches are necessary. These ditches maybe
lined to prevent erosion of their sides by water. Deep interception drains are dug to remove
groundwater and provide support to the mass
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Restraining Structures
Retaining structures such as retaining walls or buttresses are built to prevent many minor potential
slides
Slope Reinforcement by Rock Bolting
Rock bolt and anchors have been used extensively for stabilizing rock slopes prone to failure. Rock bolts
are used to tie up different blocks together thereby improving its general stability.
Afforestation
Vegetative cover especially of deciduous trees and plants reduces the quantity of infiltration. It also
contributes to the loss of moisture by evapo-transpiration thereby reducing the volume of water for
causing failure.

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