Unit 3
English Academic
Style and Language
This Unit
. will
. help you to master. important r1ngu1st1c
. . reatures
c
of En lish
academic
. . discourse
. .and to review some general Ianguage points
. essential
g
. for wnnng 1n English.
Formal Style
the style of English academic writing is f~,rmal. Its main characteristics
~tethe absence of conversational fe.atures and the use of an appropriate
academic vocabulary. Developing a command of formal style is ·
extremely- important for nonnative speakers wishing to master the
conventions of English academic discourse.
Compare four pairs of sentences. It will not be difficu_lt f~r
•ffllO you to decide which are written informal style and which m
informal: What features offormality or informality can you
find in the sentences?
1. Thank you very much f~r Y?lr
l. Thanks a lot for the invitation, kind invitation. I regret it w1
but I'm afraid I can't come. not be possible fo.r me to come.
I am not currently in a position
2· I really can't comment on the 2. 'de any comments on the
to provt
findings of this paper. findings of this paper.
I would greatly appreciate 1· t
3 3. . fi m you at your ear 1es
· Will you write me back as soon hearing ro
as possible? I am waiting for convenience. .d
Your reply. ld be pleased to prov1 e
4 4 I shou . you request.
· If You need any further details, · rther deta1 1s
any 1U Alex Brown.
pl~ase let me know. With best . erely yours,
Wishes , Al ex. .
Sinc 25
uNIT3
. h . normally avoid:
. Enghs w1 11
academic
forrn al
1 Concractions. . d The research will not be c .
. ~beconnnue ·1 . ont1n
untl appropriate funding is Ued
The research ~on funding is
until appropnate secured.
secured.
. . d hesitation fillers (i.e., um, well, you know, etc.)
2. Inceqecnons an .
Well, we will now consider the We will now consider the influence
influence of sex hormones on of sex hormones on stress response.
stress response.
3. Addressing the reader directly.
You can see the data in Table 3. The data can be seen in Table 3.
4. Phrasal verbs (although not always).
Researchers have found out that
J
Researchers have discovered that
many mental illnesses are based many mental illnesses are based on
on molecular defects. molecular defects.
5. Direct questions (although not always).
What can be done to improve the We now need to consider what can \
state of our economy? be done to improve the state of our '
economy. \
6. Adverbs in initial or fl al · · ·- ) \
n positions (the middle position is preferable ·
Then it will be shown how
teachers can utilize this method. It will then be shown how teachers
can utilize this method.
This work relies on .
research h ·t previous This work heavily relies on previous
. eavi ry.
research.
' j) 7. Inappr ·
/ opnate negative rorms.
r
not
The i • · · · any no
nvesugation did ' .
new results. n t y. ield any
Th ·· resulc5•
e investigation yielded no new
26
English A
cademic S
tyle and L
anguage
not ... many few
The book 1oesn't raise many
·rnportant issues.
I
The boo k raises
. few im
not porram issu
... little es.
The government won't do much
The governmem .ll
co support universities in the
support universit:1 . do little to
near future. future. es In the near
8. Short forms of the words or slang.
This booklet describes the
This_ booklet describes the
requirements and content of the
re~utre~ents and content of the
university graduation exams. umvemtygraduat1on• examinations.
9. Figures at the beginning·of the sentence.
Ninety-seven people visited the
97 people visited the museum museum last week.
~tw~k LaS t week 97 people visited the
museum.
1$lfI Reduce the informality of each sentence.
1. The investigation ~f the origin of the Universe will go on.
. . '
2. What are the effect~ or'pollution on the population of birds
in large urban areas? Several assumptions can be made.
3. You can clearly see the difference between these two sets of
data.
4. The experiment will ,be over in three months.
5• We can-'t tell whether electricity is some peculiar kind of
substance or motion of ordinary matter.
. h d\ ·se m·any innovations.
6· Th 1s approac, oes not prom1 .
'
7• Our new research assistant is a nice gQy. ··,
th th
8. 7 out of :is students had difficulty wi e task.
amming language is
9• Each statement in a high-level pro~ t ctions generally.
translated into many machine-code ms ru
27
UNIT3
. rains an objective and scholarly
. writing main . . tone. I .
Academic dopt an appropriate point of view h t 1s:
. orcant to a , t at .
therefore, imp h ) personal pronouns (I or we) for fi ls to
(or not co c oose . .. ralllin
choose . . rr. dicionally, academic writing tends to avoid g4
. ce of wnnng. ~ra . Personzj
pie . d so~ h preference
. toward imp~rsonal
-. . style. At th .
ronouns an / ~11e
P .- d. cynow to use an -perspective 1n English a d
rime, there is a ten en . . . ca ernic
. . mostly in· humanitie$i
wntmg, . · -·,-
. 1, however
Using _ ' may seem. somewhat unusual or awkwa rd to
Uhainian writers. It may thus be recommended, at least for beginners)
tomaintain impersonal style and to avoid the first person pronoun I,
This does not mean, however, that I should never be used.
Cautious Writing
An important feature of English academic written.discourse is a cautious
manner of writing?. that is the avoidance of to~ definite state~ents or
conclusions. The purpose of such a strategy is to be accurate and to
protect the author from being criticized for possible errors or invalid
claims. Cautious writing also allows for other opinions or points of
· 1·inguistic
vie~· The main · · ways of doing this are as follows.
I. By using modal verbs.
. f
Continuum thermodynamics O fi
solids fluids and mixtures may odrill
~fi~:i~u_md thermo~ynamics of ' ' Ive ·
a powerful tool for many unso
, u1 s, and mixtures fo
£
a powerful tool for many rms problems.
unsolved problems. . Continuum thermodynamics 0
solids, fluids, and mixtures cou
form a powerful tool for many
unsolved problems.
28
English Academ·
IC Style and La
nguage
By using adj~ctives th_at_express b ..
2, . - pro abilny ('1
rhe statements gradually weaken . n all examples b 1
1n strength). e ow
It is certain
Dinosaurs died out due to
It is likely
that dinosaurs died out
sudden climatic changes. It is probable
due to sudden climatic
It is possible changes.
It is unlikely
3, By using a there is construction with the word possi'b zlzty.
..
a strong possibility
There is a definite possibility that dinosaurs died out due to sudd
. . h en
c11mat1c c anges.
a slight possibility
4. By using adverbs that express certainty and probability.
Definitely,
Undoubtedly,
Probably, dinosaurs died out due to sudden climatic changes.
Possibly, \
Presumably,
5. By using verb phrases that distance the writer from the statements
or conclusions he/she makes.
that social scientists
.It seems often serve contradictory
It appears political and scientific
It would seem/appear values.
Social scientists often . . to often serve
serve contradictory Social scientists seem d . 'fi values
. ry political an scienn ic ·
political and scientific contrad 1cto
• • ,11 ar to often serve
values. Social scientists ali/!r. eal d scientific values.
contradictory P0 ItIC an
. . d to often serve
Social scientists t,l~n. 1 d scientific values.
contradictory po inca an
29
UNIT3
·cy words.
6. By using quann .
. l ientists often serve contradictory politic I
A maiority
:1
of socia sc a and scienfrli1c
values. · often serve con t rad'1ctory polit' I
cial scientists
f
A large num ber o so lea and
scientific values. . .
. . fmanv countries often serve contradictory politi I
Social sciennsts o :., ca and
scientific values. . ..
. l • rises often serve contradictory polmcal and sciemifi
Some soc1a scien . .. 1c Yalu~
. l • ci·scs often serve contradictory polmcal and scienti'f'. ·
Afew soc1a scien uc Yalu~.
using statements of shared knowledge, assumptions, and beliefS,
7. By
It is generally agreed chat dinosaurs died out due to sudden
It is widely accepted climatic changes.
It is now generally recognized
1ffll@I Underline the instances of a cautious style of writing that
you will be able to find in the text below (some of them will
slightly differ from those listed above).
Native American Cultures
The America that greeted the first Europeans was far from an empty wilderness.
It is now thought that as many people lived in the Western Hemisphere as in
Western Europe at that time-about 40 million. Estimates of the number of
Native Americans living in what is now the United States at the onset of
t
European colonization range from two to 18 million with most hiS Orians
. ' that
ten dmg toward the lower figure. What is certain is the devastating effect11.
th
Europ~an dise.ase had on the indigenous population practically from e :;
0 ~ mitial contact. Smallpox, in particular is thought to have be~n a much rn
direct cause
. of th e dec 1·me m
. Indian. population
' in the 1600s than then urnerous
wars with European settlers
Indian customs d · . as could
b an cu1ture at the time were extraordinarily diverse, 0ts
e expected given th ·ronrne
to which th' h e expanse of the land and the many different env1. I
ey ad adapted s . . possib e.
Most tribe . · ome generahzat1ons, however, are ._,fidwest,
· - s, particularly in th . d the 1vl 0 r
combined aspect f h . e wooded eastern reg10n an . nd the
so untmg th • . . f maize a 011 . je
products for th • £ ' ga ermg and the cult1vat10n o sib
e1r ood supplies. In many cases the women were resP
30 '
English Academic Style and Language
1t'.f:arming and the distribution of food while the men h t d d · · d
or
in war. . . ' un e an part1c1pate
By all accounts, Indian society in North America was closely tied to the
land. Indian life was essentially clan-oriented and communal, with children
allowed more freedom and tolerance than was the European custom of the
day. . .
. Although some North American tribes developed a type of hieroglyphics to
reserve certain texts, Indian culture was primarily oral. Clearly, there was a
pood deal of trade among various groups and strong evidence exists that
~eighboring tribes maintained extensive and formal relations-both friendly
and hostile.
1m1t1 "Soften" the following statements by using strategies listed
above. Be careful to use appropriate choices for each
situation.
I. Supervision is a critical link between top managers and
workers.
2 _ The expansion of the Universe continues.
3 . Monetary policy is not effective.
4. Diseases are the results of the interaction of genetic and
environmental factors.
5. The most influential component of a computer is a central
processing unit.
6. Genetic differences in alcohol metaboli~~h~e::;n of a
.
A mencan Ind1·ans and other races cause
I Navajo teenager. . .
. . f the learners' stages m their
7. Errors are the md1catorls o ent
foreign language deve opm .
. t statistical methods have a profo~nd
8. Economists thmk t~a 1 ement production costs, quahty,
impact on process i~v_o v '
and competitive position.
9 A dro of nicotine kills the horse. - . .
· p d f the relations of hvmg
10. Ecology is defined a~ a stu y o
.
thmgs w1'th -their environment.
.
31
UNIT3
Academic Vocabulary
. t feature of English academic writing is
Another unportan . .. a tenden
formal alternanves when selecting words of d'f °I
co choose more l ferent
parts of speech.
Verbs
English academic style makes use of formal verbs, often of Latin origin
In Ukrainian textbooks, such verbs are usually referred to as "gener~
scientific verbs" (Ukr. 3a2aJZbHOHayK08a J1,eKCUKa).
•ttil~J Below are the most frequently used "scientific verbs,, (in the
left column) and the descriptions of their meanings (in the
right column) arranged in groups often, alphabetically. Ched
your knowledge of the verbs by matching them with the
descriptions of their meanings. Memorize the words you do
not know actively.
A)
1. accept I. put in order
2. accomplish 2. reach by effort
3. account for 3. decide the importance and give reasons
4. achieve 4. have an influence on, act on
5. adjust 5. agree or recognize with approval
6. affect 6. make practical use of
7. apply 7... regulate
8. arrange 8. take as true before there is proof
9. assess
9. perform successfully
10. assume 1O. explain the cause of
32
English Academic Style and Languag
B)
1-. avoid
1. describe similarities or differences
2. clarify
2. arrive at an opinion
3: coincide 3· be similar in area and outline
4. compare 4. keep away from
5. ~omplete 5· arrive at (knowledge, a theory) by reasoning
6. concern 6. have relation to
7. conclude 7. finish
8. consider 8. make clear
9. correspond
I
9. be in harmony
10.deduce 19. think about, regard
C)
1. define 1. appear
2. derive from 2. lay stress on
3. determine 3. found, set up
4. emerge 4. state precisely the meaning of
5. emphasize 5. form a judgment about, calculate the value of
6. ensure 6. find out precisely
7. establish 7. guarantee
8. estimate 8. take as a starting point, source or origin
9. evaluate 9. concentrate on
10. focus on 10. find out the value of
D)
1. identify 1. keep up
2. imply 2. become concerned with something
3. include 3. point
4. increase 4. pay no attention to
5. indicate 5. make a careful study of
6. infer 6. make a suggestion
7. investigate 7. become greater in size
8. involve 8. conclude
9. ' maintain 9. bring in
10.1 neglect 1o. establish the identity of
33
UNIT3
E)
1. make
1. observe go before
2.
2. obtain
' 3. make smaller
3. occur
4. give, supply
4. omit
perform 5. get
5.
precede 6. watch carefu 1ly
6.
7. proceed 7. go forward
8. produce 8. do
9. provide 9. leave out
10. reduce 10. happen
F)
1. refer to 1. depend upon
2. regard 2. give a result
3. rely on 3. be enough for
4. require 4. turn-to for information, etc.
5. satisfy 5. change position
6. specify 6. make use of
7. suppose 7., consider
8. transfer 8. · state or name definitely
9. utilize 9. demand
10. yield 10. guess, take as a fact
·
Special advice: wnte d keep i[
out the verbs on a separate sheet an .(
. ·11 find chi.
at hand while writing in English: you Wl .
" enerJ
helpful. You may also add to this list orber gWhel·
scientific verbs,, that you will come across
reading literature in your field.
34
English Academic Style and Language
Collocations
Collocations .are relatively stable w or d -com 61nat1ons
. . chat occur
regularly. Their knowledge
. . and appropriate use 1s· very important
• c
1or
successful academic wnting in English.
A)
The following
. · sente nces contazn • widespread
. academic
col~oc_ations. However, one component-a noun (in the
~-za1on~ of cases )-has been omitted. Find the missing words
in the list above the sentences and fill in the blanks. ·
status quo scope clues light
implications conclusions nse insights
issues account granted emphasis
I
· 1. Social and ideological crises usually give _~ _· to non-traditional
religions and beliefs.
2. Ecologists lay ·_ on the consequences of human utilization of
natural ·resources. ·
3. The data he has found will shed ___ on theoretical assumptions.
4. Advances in molecular bjology may have _ for therapy.
5. Recent research into 1mental illnesses has provided_
. _ to the
causes of schizophrenia.
6. The recent elections have shown that political forces managed to
maintain the _.' _· ·., ·· · '
7. The participants of the conference have raised many burning _ .
8. The paper offers _ into the history of the Ukrainian emigration
to Canada.
9. For the purposes of this research, this theorem will be taken for_ .
10. The tests of gene therapy have allowed medical scientists to draw
_ about \.its possible risks and benefits.
11. Practical consequences of the research lie outside the _· _ of this
paper.
12. When inve~tigating the origin of different disease, researchers take
into _· _ both hereditary and environmental factors.
35
,.. UNIT3
B)
Now choose a missing verb and fill in th
e blankS,
extended elaborates laid
corroborate fall draw on
provides places
submit heightened· contributed
faces
l. Traditionally, Ukrainian higher-education _ importan
on the development of wide erudition of students. ce
2. The authors of the article __ recent research to show how
the goal of learning English vocabulary can be integrated
into speaking activities.
3. N. Bohr, the outstanding Danish physicist,_
the foundations of a "liquid droplet" theory of nuclear
phenomena.
4. Few facts _ the theory of the virus nature of cancer.
5. In the history of science, some researchers_ the theories
that already existed to include the new phenomena.
6. He _ research into the use of optics.
7· Many scholars think that humankind _ the problem of
overpopulation.
8· If you try to be as accurate as possible when learning .
a f'.oreign
. language, you _ into a category of the analytIC
learner.
9. Cioni Of • b10
· logical
ng ammals _ further opportunities for
research.
10. Intensive f the zoth
space exploratioq in the second half 0
cUe~tury has essentially to our understanding of the
n1verse. -
11. You may try t . . . urnal.
12 °- the paper to an intemat10nal JO d
. Political and ec . . the nee
of society anomic changes in Ukraine have - -
ior econom· t
is s and lawyers.
36
English Academic Style and Language
C)
The collocations in this se t. .
adjective or two noun . .c ldon consist of a noun and an
s Jome by a p .. C
missing component andfi/l . h reposztzon. hoose a
. . · m t e blanks again.
mqmry theoretical
considerations background causal
integral
reliable debated site
lack
finding preliminary
1. There is a relatio h1· b ·
an d sea t1. d
es.- ns P etween the attraction of the moon
2
· 7- h
of t e study suggests that high cortisol level in an
m 1v1 ual may cause the symptoms of depression.
3 th
· I~ is ~aper, we show the_ results of computational
st
mulation for a case of the thermal resistance function that will
be further verified.
4. Nowadays, ecological interpretation is becoming an part
of social sciences. -
5. The right of women to have abortions is a hotly issue in
many countries. · -
6. _ of consistency in obtained data has led to their wrong
interpretation.
7. Discourse analysis is a relatively new area {field) of_.
8. The laboratory is a research_
- _ of biologists and chemists.
9. The theory of shells has been chosen as a _ framework of
this investigation.
10. Philological research requires wide_ knowledge in such
related fields as history and philosophy.
11. The study has been undertaken with theoretical_ .
12. To arrive at valid conclusions, sociologists must use only_
sources and data .
.Special advice: write out the collocations on a separate sheet and keep'
it at hand when writing in English: you will find this
extremely helpful! While reading the literature in your
field, try t~ write out more collocations typical for
your discipline and add them to the list.
37
