MANUAL

LAB
PHYSICS
ND
2
SEMESTER
UIET
 [Link] and Verification of the Time Period of a
Cantilever
Objective:
To determine and verify the time period of oscillation of a cantilever beam with a
known mass attached at its free end.

Apparatus Required:
• Cantilever beam (e.g., a steel or aluminum ruler)
• Clamp and stand to fix the beam
• Set of known masses
• Stopwatch
• Measuring scale or ruler
• Vernier caliper or micrometer screw gauge
• Balance (for measuring mass)

Theory:

When a mass is attached to the free end of a cantilever beam and displaced slightly, it
undergoes simple harmonic motion. The time period T of oscillation is given by:

Procedure:

1. Setup: Secure one end of the beam firmly using the clamp and stand, ensuring it acts
as a cantilever.
2. Measurement: Measure the length L from the fixed end to the point where the mass
will be attached.
3. Cross-sectional Dimensions: Use the vernier caliper or micrometer to measure the
width b and thickness d of the beam.
4. Mass Attachment: Attach a known mass M to the free end of the beam.
5. Oscillation: Displace the mass slightly downward and release it to allow oscillation.
6. Timing: Use the stopwatch to measure the time taken for a certain number of
oscillations (e.g., 20 oscillations) to minimize error.
7. Repeat: Repeat the timing for multiple trials to obtain an average value.
8. Variation: Repeat the experiment with different masses and/or lengths to observe the
effect on the time period.
 Result:

• The experimental time periods closely match the theoretical predictions, with minimal
percentage error, validating the theoretical model for the cantilever's oscillations.

Conclusion:

The experiment successfully demonstrates the relationship between the mass attached
to a cantilever and its oscillation period. The close agreement between experimental
and theoretical values confirms the validity of the theoretical formula used.

Precautions:

• Ensure the beam is rigidly clamped to prevent unwanted movements.

• Measure dimensions accurately using appropriate instruments.
• Avoid large displacements to maintain simple harmonic motion conditions.
• Use a consistent method for timing oscillations to reduce human error.
 2 Determination of Ultrasonic Velocity in Liquids Using Ultrasonic
Interferometer
Objective:
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in various liquids using an ultrasonic
interferometer.

Apparatus Required:
• Ultrasonic interferometer (comprising a high-frequency generator, measuring cell
with micrometer, and quartz crystal)
• Sample liquids (e.g., distilled water, glycerol, paraffin)
• Micrometer screw gauge
• Thermometer
• Measuring cylinder
• Ammeter

Theory:

• An ultrasonic interferometer is a device that measures the velocity of ultrasonic waves

in liquids by creating standing waves within the medium. When ultrasonic waves are
generated in the liquid, they interfere with reflected waves, forming standing wave
patterns. The distance between successive maxima or minima in the standing wave
pattern corresponds to half the wavelength (λ/2) of the ultrasonic waves.
• The velocity υ of ultrasonic waves in the liquid is given by:

Procedure:
1. Set up the ultrasonic interferometer and ensure all connections are secure.
2. Pour the sample liquid into the measuring cell of the interferometer.
3. Insert the quartz crystal into the base socket and clamp it tightly.
4. Switch on the high-frequency generator to produce ultrasonic waves in the liquid.
5. Adjust the micrometer to vary the distance between the reflector and the crystal.
6. Observe the anode current on the ammeter. Note the micrometer readings
corresponding to successive maxima (or minima) in the anode current.
7. Record at least five such readings to calculate the average distance d between
successive maxima or minima.
8. Repeat the above steps for different sample liquids.
Results:

Liquid Velocity υ (m/s)

Distilled Water 1524

Glycerol 1888

Paraffin 2832

Conclusion:

The experiment successfully determined the velocities of ultrasonic waves in

different liquids using an ultrasonic interferometer.
 3 Verification of Laws of Reflection
Objective:
To verify the laws of reflection using a plane mirror.

Apparatus Required:
• Drawing board
• White sheet of paper
• Plane mirror with stand
• Four optical pins
• Protractor
• Ruler
• Pencil
Theory:
When a light ray strikes a smooth reflecting surface like a plane mirror, it reflects in
such a way that:
1. First Law: The angle of incidence (i) is equal to the angle of reflection (r).
2. Second Law: The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
These laws can be experimentally verified by tracing the paths of incident and
reflected rays and measuring the respective angles.

Procedure:
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board using drawing pins.
2. Place the plane mirror vertically on the sheet and trace its edge to mark the mirror
line.
3. Draw a normal (perpendicular) line to the mirror at a chosen point on the mirror line.
4. Using a protractor, draw an incident ray at a specific angle (e.g., 30°) to the normal.
5. Place two pins (P₁ and P₂) vertically along the incident ray.
6. Observe the images of these pins in the mirror and align two more pins (P₃ and P₄)
such that they appear in a straight line with the images of P₁ and P₂.
7. Remove all pins and draw straight lines connecting the pinholes to represent the
incident and reflected rays.
8. Measure the angles of incidence and reflection using the protractor.
9. Repeat the above steps for different angles of incidence (e.g., 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°).
Result:

• For each trial, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

• The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.

Conclusion:

The experiment confirms both laws of reflection:

1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the
same plane

Precautions:

• Ensure the mirror is placed vertically and remains stationary during the experiment.

• Use sharp pins and place them vertically to minimize parallax errors.

• Measure angles accurately using a protractor.

• Conduct the experiment in a well-lit environment to clearly observe pin images.

 [Link] of Snell’s Law Using a Glass Slab

Objective:

To verify the laws of refraction (Snell’s Law) by tracing the path of a light ray through a
rectangular glass slab and measuring the angles of incidence, refraction, and emergence.

Apparatus Required:

• Rectangular glass slab

• Drawing board

• White sheet of paper

• Optical pins (at least 4)

• Protractor

• Ruler

• Pencil

• Thumb pins

Theory:

• When a light ray passes from one medium to another (e.g., from air to glass), it bends
at the interface—a phenomenon known as refraction. Snell's Law quantitatively
describes this behavior.

In the case of a rectangular glass slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray
but is laterally displaced. The angle of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of
incidence (i), confirming the second law of refraction.
 Procedure:
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board using thumb pins.
2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the center and trace its outline to mark its
boundaries.
3. Draw a normal (perpendicular) line at a point on one of the longer edges of the
rectangle.
4. Draw an incident ray making a known angle (e.g., 30°) with the normal.
5. Place two pins (P₁ and P₂) vertically along the incident ray.
6. Place the glass slab back on its outline.
7. From the opposite side, observe the images of P₁ and P₂ through the slab. Align two
more pins (P₃ and P₄) such that they appear in a straight line with the images of P₁ and
P₂.
8. Remove the slab and all pins. Mark the pinholes and draw the incident, refracted, and
emergent rays.
9. Measure the angles of incidence (i), refraction (r), and emergence (e) using a
protractor.
10. Repeat the procedure for different angles of incidence (e.g., 40°, 50°, 60°).

Result:

• The ratio (sin i\sin r) remains approximately constant for different angles of
incidence, confirming Snell's Law.
• The angle of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of incidence (i), indicating that the
emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

Conclusion:

The experiment successfully verifies the laws of refraction:

1. Snell's Law is validated as the ratio ( sin i\sin r) remains constant.

2. The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
3. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, confirming that the angle of incidence
equals the angle of emergence.
Precautions:

• Ensure the glass slab has smooth and parallel surfaces.

• Place pins vertically and use sharp pins for accurate markings.
• Measure angles precisely using a protractor.
• Avoid parallax errors by keeping the eye level while aligning pins.
• Conduct the experiment in a well-lit environment for clear visibility.

[Link] of Focal Length and Magnifying Power of a Convex Lens

Objective:

To determine:

1. The focal length (f) of a convex lens.

2. The magnifying power (M) of the convex lens.

Apparatus Required:

• Convex lens with holder

• Optical bench with scale
• Illuminated object (e.g., candle or illuminated object needle)
• Screen
• Ruler or measuring scale
• Object of known height (e.g., a printed letter)

Theory:

• 1. Focal Length Determination:

• The lens formula relates the object distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length
(f) of a lens:

2. Magnifying Power:

The magnifying power (M) of a lens is the ratio of the height of the image (h') to the height of
the object (h):
Procedure:

Part A: Determination of Focal Length

1. Set up the optical bench and place the convex lens on it.
2. Place the illuminated object at a known distance (u) from the lens.
3. Adjust the position of the screen on the other side of the lens to obtain a sharp image.
4. Measure the distance between the lens and the screen (v).
5. Record the values of u and v.
6. Repeat the steps for different object distances.

Part B: Determination of Magnifying Power

1. Place an object of known height (h) at a distance less than the focal length of the lens
to obtain a virtual, erect, and magnified image.
2. Look through the lens and measure the apparent height of the image (h') using a
suitable scale.
3. Calculate the magnifying power using the formula:
CALCULATION

Object distances (u) are negative (since the object is placed to the left of the lens).

Image distances (v) are positive for real images (formed on the right side of the lens).
 [Link] of Ohm’s Law
Objective:

To verify Ohm’s Law by plotting a graph between potential difference (V) and current (I)
for a given resistor.

Apparatus Required:

• Resistor (e.g., nichrome wire)

• DC power supply (battery eliminator)

• Ammeter (0–1 A)

• Voltmeter (0–5 V)

• Rheostat

• Key (switch)

• Connecting wires

• Sandpaper (to clean wire ends)

Theory:

Ohm’s Law states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference (V) across its ends, provided the temperature remains constant.
Mathematically:

V=IR

Where:

• VVV = Potential difference across the conductor (in volts)

• III = Current through the conductor (in amperes)

• RRR = Resistance of the conductor (in ohms)

A plot of V versus I should yield a straight line passing through the origin, indicating constant
resistance.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Procedure:

1. Set up the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Ensure all connections are tight and the resistor ends are clean.

3. Close the key to complete the circuit.

4. Adjust the rheostat to obtain a small current.

5. Record the readings of the ammeter (I) and voltmeter (V).

6. Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and record the new readings.

7. Repeat the process to obtain at least six sets of readings.

8. Open the key after each reading to prevent heating of the resistor.
Result:

• The V-I graph is a straight line passing through the origin, confirming that current is
directly proportional to potential difference.

• The resistance (R) calculated from each set of readings remains constant, verifying
Ohm’s Law.

Conclusion:

Ohm’s Law is verified as the ratio V/I remains constant for different values of V and I,
indicating that the resistor obeys Ohm’s Law.

Precautions:

• Ensure all connections are tight and correct.

• Use the key only while taking readings to prevent heating.

• Adjust the rheostat gently to avoid sudden changes in current.

• Record readings quickly to minimize errors due to heating.

• Use appropriate ranges for ammeter and voltmeter to get accurate readings.
 7. Verification of Laws of Resistance in Series and Parallel
Objective:

To verify the laws of resistance in:

1. Series combination

2. Parallel combination

Apparatus Required:

• Three resistors of known resistance (e.g., R₁ = 5 Ω, R₂ = 10 Ω, R₃ = 15 Ω)

• DC power supply (battery eliminator)

• Ammeter (0–1 A)

• Voltmeter (0–5 V)

• Rheostat

• Key (switch)

• Connecting wires

Theory:

1. Series Combination:

When resistors are connected end-to-end, they are said to be in series. The total resistance
(Rₛ) is the sum of individual resistances:

In a series circuit:

• Current (I) is the same through all resistors.

• Voltage (V) across the combination is the sum of voltages across each resistor.

2. Parallel Combination:

When resistors are connected across the same two points, they are in parallel. The
reciprocal of the total resistance (Rₚ) is the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances:
Procedure:

A. Series Combination:

1. Connect resistors R₁, R₂, and R₃ in series with the ammeter, rheostat, key, and power
supply.

2. Close the key to complete the circuit.

3. Adjust the rheostat to obtain a suitable current.

4. Note the current (I) from the ammeter.

5. Measure the voltage (V) across the entire combination using the voltmeter.

6. Calculate the experimental total resistance:

B. Parallel Combination:

1. Connect resistors R₁, R₂, and R₃ in parallel across the power supply.

2. Connect the ammeter in series with the combination to measure total current.

3. Close the key to complete the circuit.

4. Adjust the rheostat to obtain a suitable current.

5. Note the total current (I) from the ammeter.

6. Measure the voltage (V) across the combination using the voltmeter.

7. Calculate the experimental total resistance:

Result:

• The experimental and theoretical values of total resistance in both series and parallel
combinations are in close agreement.

• Hence, the laws of resistance in series and parallel combinations are verified.

Precautions:

• Ensure all connections are tight and correct.

• Use resistors within their rated power to prevent overheating.

• Adjust the rheostat gently to avoid sudden changes in current.

• Take multiple readings for accuracy.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 8. Conversion of a Galvanometer into an Ammeter
Objective:
To convert a given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an
ammeter of a desired range and to verify its accuracy.

Apparatus Required:
• Galvanometer (with known resistance GGG and figure of merit k)
• Standard ammeter (for verification)
• Low resistance wire (e.g., copper or manganin)
• Battery or battery eliminator
• Rheostat
• One-way key
• Connecting wires
• Sandpaper
• Screw gauge (for measuring wire diameter)

Theory:

• A galvanometer is a sensitive instrument that can detect small currents. To measure

larger currents, it can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance,
known as a shunt resistance S, in parallel with it.

This ensures that the galvanometer deflects fully when the current in the circuit
reaches the desired maximum value III.

Procedure:
1. Determine Galvanometer Parameters:
 o Count the number of divisions n on the galvanometer scale.
o Calculate the current for full-scale deflection: Ig=n⋅k.
2. Calculate Shunt Resistance:
o Decide the desired range III for the ammeter.
o Compute SSS using the formula above.
3. Prepare Shunt Wire:
o Calculate the required length of wire to achieve resistance S using

Cut the wire slightly longer (about 2 cm extra) to allow for connections.

Assemble the Ammeter:

• Connect the shunt wire in parallel with the galvanometer terminals.

• Ensure tight and secure connections.

Verification:

• Set up a circuit with the converted ammeter, a standard ammeter, a rheostat, and a
power source.

• Vary the current using the rheostat and record readings from both ammeters.

• Compare the readings to verify the accuracy of the converted ammeter.

 Result:

The converted galvanometer accurately measures current up to 3 A, as verified by

the close agreement with the standard ammeter readings.

Precautions:

• Ensure all connections are tight and free from corrosion.

• Use a wire with uniform cross-section for the shunt.

• Avoid overheating the wire while soldering.

• Calibrate the converted ammeter before use.

 Conclusion:

By connecting a calculated low resistance in parallel with a galvanometer, it can be

effectively converted into an ammeter capable of measuring higher currents. The
accuracy of the converted ammeter depends on precise calculations and careful
assembly.

9. Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter

Objective:

To convert a given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter
of a desired range and to verify its accuracy.

Apparatus Required:

• Galvanometer (with known resistance GGG and figure of merit k)

• High resistance box or resistor

• Standard voltmeter (for verification)

• Battery or power supply

• Rheostat

• One-way key (switch)

• Connecting wires

• Sandpaper (for cleaning wire ends)

Theory:

A galvanometer is a sensitive instrument that can detect small currents. To measure

potential difference (voltage), it can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high
resistance RRR in series with it.

Let:
This ensures that the galvanometer deflects fully when the potential difference across it is V
volts.

Procedure:

1. Determine Galvanometer Parameters:

o Count the number of divisions n on the galvanometer scale.

o Calculate the current for full-scale deflection: Ig=n⋅k.

2. Calculate Series Resistance:

o Decide the desired voltage range V for the voltmeter.

o Compute R using the formula above.

3. Assemble the Voltmeter:

o Connect the calculated resistance R in series with the galvanometer.

o Ensure tight and secure connections.

4. Verification:

o Set up a circuit with the converted voltmeter, a standard voltmeter, a

rheostat, and a power source.

o Connect both voltmeters across the same points in the circuit.

 o Vary the voltage using the rheostat and record readings from both
voltmeters.

o Compare the readings to verify the accuracy of the converted voltmeter.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Given
Result:

The converted galvanometer accurately measures potential differences up to 3 V, as verified

by the close agreement with the standard voltmeter readings.

Precautions:

• Ensure all connections are tight and free from corrosion.

• Use a high resistance value to minimize current through the galvanometer.

• Avoid exceeding the voltage range to prevent damage to the galvanometer.

• Calibrate the converted voltmeter before use.

Conclusion:

By connecting a calculated high resistance in series with a galvanometer, it can be effectively

converted into a voltmeter capable of measuring higher potential differences. The accuracy
of the converted voltmeter depends on precise calculations and careful assembly.

10. Determination of Galvanometer Resistance by Half-

Deflection Method.

Objective:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer using the half-deflection method and
to calculate its figure of merit.

Apparatus Required:
• Galvanometer
• Battery or battery eliminator (emf E)
• High resistance box (R)
• Low resistance box (S)
• Two one-way keys (K₁ and K₂)
• Rheostat (optional)
• Connecting wires
• Sandpaper
Theory:

• The half-deflection method is used to determine the resistance G of a galvanometer.

When a known high resistance R is connected in series with the galvanometer and a
voltage source, the galvanometer shows a full-scale deflection θ. If a shunt resistance
S is connected in parallel with the galvanometer, and the series resistance R remains
unchanged, the deflection reduces to half (θ/2).
• Using this method, the resistance of the galvanometer GGG can be calculated using
the formula:

The figure of merit k of the galvanometer is defined as the current required to produce
a unit deflection:

Where:
• E = emf of the battery
• θ = deflection in divisions

Procedure:

1. Setup:

o Clean all connecting wires with sandpaper to ensure good conductivity.

o Connect the circuit as per the diagram, ensuring all connections are tight.
2. Initial Deflection:

o Remove a high resistance (e.g., 5000 Ω) from the high resistance box (R).

o Insert key K₁ to complete the circuit.

o Adjust the resistance R to obtain a suitable full-scale deflection θ on the

galvanometer.

o Record the values of R and θ.

3. Half Deflection:

o Without changing R, insert key K₂ to connect the shunt resistance S in parallel

with the galvanometer.

o Adjust S so that the galvanometer deflection reduces to exactly half (θ/2).

o Record the value of S.

4. Repetition:

o Repeat the above steps for different values of RRR and corresponding S,
ensuring θ is an even number for ease of halving.
CALCULATION