CHAPTERS

CAIE IGCSE

Physics
0625
Motion, Forces and Energy
Quiz this chapter
Physical Quantities and Measurement Techniques
Theory Units and basic quantities

A standard or unit must be chosen before a measurement can be made.

Motion, Forces and
The size of the quantity to be measured is found using an instrument with a scale
Energy
marked in the unit
Thermal Physics
Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length, mass, and time.
Waves Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and time.

Electricity and The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of units used in many Theme
Magnetism countries

Nuclear Physics Length

Unit of length: metre (m)

Space Physics
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m

1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m

1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m

1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m

1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m

Multiples for large distances:

1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m

1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m

Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter rule

For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure

Note: Take ± readings for accuracy

Area

The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square centimetre (1 cm²).

Area formula: area = length × breadth.

SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a square with sides 1 m long.

Volume

Volume is the amount of space occupied.

Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).

Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).

Volume of a cylinder: V = πr2 h

A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid. Ensure the cylinder is upright

and the eye is at bottom level of the meniscus.

Time

Unit of time: second (s).

Time-measuring devices use oscillations.

Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a stopwatch for the pendulum

period or a millisecond timer for measuring the speed of sound).

Scalars and Vectors

Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.

Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy, temperature.

Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and direction.

Examples: force, gravitational %eld strength, electric %eld strength, weight, velocity,

acceleration, momentum.

Representing Vectors: a straight line with length indicating the magnitude and an

arrow showing direction.

Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.

Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both magnitude and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles:

The magnitude of the resultant

F = FX2 + FY2

Angle θ between FX and F

FY
tan θ =
FX

Motion
Distance and displacement

Distance is a length a body travels between two points. It is a scalar quantity.

Displacement is similar to distance but as it is a vector quantity, direction is also

considered.

Distance-Time Graph Examples

At rest ( BC).

Constant speed (AB and CD)

Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For example, the speed of the train at CD

is 2m/s, but that at AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD being steeper.

Non-Constant Speed

When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time graph varies.

Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.

The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.

Example:

Gradient of the tangent at T:

AB 40m
= = 20m/s
BC 2s

Speed

Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time.

When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time period (t), the speed (v) is given by:

s
v=
t

Key de%nition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.

General formula:

Total distance travelled

Average speed =
Total time taken

Example: If a car travels 300 km in %ve hours, its average speed is: Average speed =
300 km
5h = 60 km/h
Velocity

Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed

given in a speci%c direction.

Speed is the distance travelled in unit time.

Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they have the same speed and velocity

due north. If one travels north and the other south, their speeds are the same, but not

their velocities.

Key de!nition: Velocity is the change in displacement per unit of time.

Velocity formula:
Distance moved in a given direction
Velocity = Time taken = Displacement
T ime

Velocity is the speed in a given direction.

A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a steady speed in a straight line.

Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved path.

Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s.

Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity. Displacement is a vector,

unlike distance which is a scalar

Acceleration

When the velocity of an object changes, the object accelerates.

Acceleration is de%ned as the change of velocity in unit time:

Δv
Acceleration =
Δt

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

0 0

1 5

2 10

3 15

4 20

5 25

6 30

Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 2 m/s after 1 second, its
2
acceleration is 2m/s , due north
Key de%nition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.

Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to 50 m/s in 5 seconds:

Acceleration = (50−20),m/s
5s
= 6m/s2
Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction should be stated.

For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the velocity equals the speed, and the

magnitude of the acceleration equals the speed change in unit time.

Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the following speeds:

The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².

Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.

Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also called deceleration or

retardation).

Speed-Time Graphs

Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against time.

Used to solve motion problems.

Constant Speed

Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving with a constant speed of 25

m/s.

A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates constant speed.

Constant Acceleration

The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant acceleration.

The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating constant acceleration.

Variable Acceleration

Example 1: The !gure shows acceleration from rest, constant speed, and

deceleration.

Example 2: The !gure shows changing acceleration with a curved shape.

Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each second, indicating decreasing

acceleration.

Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration

The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the acceleration.

For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero acceleration.

For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by:

Δy Y2 − Y1
Gradient = =
Δx X2 − X1

For changing acceleration, the gradient changes, indicating changing acceleration.

An object accelerates if the speed increases and decelerates if the speed decreases with

time.

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

Measures the distance travelled.

The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant.

The distance equals the shaded area under the graph.

Equations for constant acceleration

First Equation

If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a ) in a straight line and its speed

increases from ( u ) to ( v ) in time ( t ):

Acceleration is given by:

v−u
a=
t

Rearranging gives:

v = u + at (Equation 1)

Second Equation

For an object moving with constant acceleration, its average speed equals half the

sum of its initial and %nal speeds:

u+v
Average speed =
2

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

s
Average speed =
t

Combining these, we get

s u+v
=
t 2

Rearranging gives:

(u + v)
s= ⋅ t (Equation 2)
2
Air Resistance and Free Fall

In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due to air resistance.

In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.

Air resistance has a greater e'ect on light bodies compared to heavy bodies.

Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low speeds.

Acceleration of Free Fall

All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate uniformly if air resistance is negligible.

This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of free fall, denoted by ( g ).

The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on average.

The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about 9.8m/s every second.

A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by about 9.8 m/s every

second, reaching its highest point after 3 seconds.

As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its acceleration.

When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a terminal velocity.

Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and weight.

A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and accelerates for a longer distance.

A light object or one with a large surface area, like a raindrop or parachute, has a low

terminal velocity and accelerates over a shorter distance.

Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling parachutist:

Explanation:

Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, they experience free fall.

During this phase, their velocity increases steadily due to the acceleration of gravity
2
(approximately 9.8m/s acting downwards. The graph slopes upwards steeply.

Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases signi%cantly when the parachutist

deploys their parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration, leading to a less steep

slope on the graph. The parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a slower rate

compared to free fall.

Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall, their velocity eventually reaches

a maximum constant value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the forces of

gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out, resulting in zero net acceleration. On the

velocity-time graph, this appears as a horizontal line where the velocity remains

constant.

Mass and Weight

Mass

The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it. It is a measure of the

quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to an observer.

The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the gram (g) being one-thousandth

of a kilogram: 1g = 10−3 kg = 0.001kg

Mass is di'erent from weight, which is a gravitational force on an object with mass.

Weight

Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that has mass.

The weight of an object can vary with location due to di'erences in gravitational %eld

strength.

The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in newtons and can be

determined using a spring balance.

Aspect Mass Weight

De%nition Measure of the amount of Gravitational force acting on an

matter in an object object with mass

Units Kilogram (kg), gram (g) Newton (N)

Measurement This can be measured using a Measured using a spring balance or

balance scale

Dependency Independent of location and Depends on location and

gravitational %eld gravitational %eld strength

Symbol in m (W ), or, (Fg )

Equations

Gravitational Field

Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact with the Earth to fall towards

it.

Gravitational %eld strength (g) is the force per unit mass and is a vector quantity with

magnitude and direction.

On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2, representing both the acceleration due to

gravity and the gravitational %eld strength.

Density
De!nition

Density (ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume

ρ= m
V

Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic

centimeter (g/cm³).

Calculation Methods

Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and measure volume (V ) by direct

measurement of dimensions.

Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance. Measure volume (V ) using

displacement methods:

Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder %lled with water, record the initial

and %nal water levels to %nd volume.

Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout. Immerse the object in the

water and !nd the volume of water displaced. That volume of water is the volume of

the object.

Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add liquid, measure total mass,

and subtract to %nd the mass of the liquid. Divide by the known volume to %nd density.

Air: Measure the mass of a (ask %lled with air, then remove the air with a vacuum

pump. Calculate air density by dividing the mass di'erence by volume measured using

water displacement.

Example Calculations

Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass of 63 g and a volume of 7 cm³
 63 g
ρ= m
V = 7 cm³ = 9 g/cm³

Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet with a volume of 73 cm³ and a

density of 2.7 g/cm³

m = ρ × V = 2.7 g/cm³ × 73 cm³ = 197.1 g

Floating and Sinking:

Objects (oat or sink in liquids based on their density relative to the liquid's density. A

higher-density object sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa.

Forces
Force

A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion, speed, or shape of an object.

It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction of moving objects.

Extension in Springs

Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is proportional to the stretching force up

to the limit of proportionality.

Symbolically, extension ∝ stretching force

Spring Constant

The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to cause a unit extension in a spring.

k= F
x , where (F ) is the force applied and (x) is the resulting extension.
Load-Extension Graphs

Used to graphically represent the relationship between applied force (load) and resulting

extension in materials like springs.

Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality indicate permanent deformation.

Forces and Resultants

Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by arrows in diagrams.

Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g. weight and support force) or

have a resultant force.

The resultant force is the single force that has the same e'ect as all forces acting

together.

A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by altering its speed or direction of

motion.

Newton’s First Law

An object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant speed in a straight line

unless acted upon by a resultant force.

This means that no force is required to maintain constant velocity if no external forces

act on the object.

Friction and Air Resistance

Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to slow down and eventually come to

rest.

In their absence, objects would continue moving inde%nitely with constant speed.

Newton’s Second Law

States that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting on it

and inversely proportional to its mass.

Mathematically expressed as:

F = ma
where (F ) is the resultant force in newtons (N ), (m) is the mass in kilograms (kg ), and (a

) is the acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2 ).

Proportional Relationships

Acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the force (F ) when mass (m) is constant

a∝F

Acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to mass (m) when force (F ) is constant

1
a∝ m

Units and Constant (k )

The unit of force, the newton (N ), is de%ned as the force that gives a 1 kg mass an

acceleration of 1m/s2

k in F = kma equals 1 when m = 1kg and a = 1 m/s2

Resultant Force and Motion

Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the direction of the force.

When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but changes in shape may occur due

to internal forces within the object.

Friction

Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one surface over another.

It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can prevent proper movement on

surfaces like ice.

Types of Friction

Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting of motion between surfaces

in contact.

Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the motion of surfaces sliding past each

other.

Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object moving through a (uid (air or

liquid), increasing with speed and reducing acceleration.

E"ect of Force and Mass on Friction

Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases friction initially.

Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, causing a rise in temperature when

contacting surfaces.

Centripetal Force

In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due to a force directed towards

the centre of the circle.

Acceleration in Circular Motion

Despite constant speed, circular motion involves acceleration because velocity direction

changes continuously.

Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary to maintain circular motion.

Factors A"ecting Centripetal Force

Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:

Speed (v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.

Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force.

Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.

Role of Centripetal Force

It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from the centre of the circle.

Moment of a Force

The turning e'ect of a force around a pivot point is called the moment of the force.

It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the

pivot to the line of action of the force.

Mathematically, the moment is given by:

M =F ×d
where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

The unit of moment is the Newton metre (N m).

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of moments (or law of moments)

is used.

The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any

point equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.

This principle is essential for designing and understanding the equilibrium of lever

systems and other balanced structures.

Conditions for Equilibrium

An object is in equilibrium if:

The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static equilibrium).

The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) around any point is zero

(rotational equilibrium).

Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is the point through which the

entire weight of the object acts.

It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this single point.

For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity is at its geometric centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina involves suspending the

object from di'erent points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line through

which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where these lines intersect.

Stability and Toppling

The stability of an object depends on the position of its centre of gravity relative to its

base.

An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its base of support.

Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls outside the

base of support.

Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of gravity improves stability.

Types of Equilibrium

Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original position when displaced slightly

(e.g., a ball in a bowl).

Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from its original position when

displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler balanced on its edge).

Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position when displaced (e.g., a ball

sitting on a (at surface).

Momentum

Momentum (p) is the product of an object's mass (m) and its velocity (v ).

Mathematically, p = mv
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.

The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (kgm/s) or newton second

(N s).
Conservation of Momentum

The total momentum of a closed system of objects remains constant if no external

forces act on it (such as friction or air resistance).

This principle is known as the conservation of momentum.

Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and inelastic) and explosions. For

example, in a collision, the total momentum before and after the collision remains the

same.

pinitial = p%nal

Example:

A trolley of mass m1 = 3 kg moving with velocity u1 = 5 m/s collides and couples with a
stationary trolley of mass m2 = 2 kg. They move o' together with the same velocity (v).
We need to %nd (v).

1. Calculate initial momentum (pinitial ):

pinitial = m1 ⋅ u1 = 3 kg ⋅ 5 m/s = 15 kgm/s

2. Calculate !nal momentum (p%nal ):

Since they move o' together with velocity (v):

p%nal = (m1 + m2 ) ⋅ v = (3 kg + 2 kg) ⋅ v = 5 kg ⋅ v

3. Apply conservation of momentum (pinitial = p%nal ):

15 kgm/s = 5 kg ⋅ v

4. Solve for (v):

15 kgm/s
v= 5 kg = 3 m/s
So, the velocity (v ) of the two trolleys moving together after the collision is 3 m/s
Impulse

Impulse (J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an object when a force acts on it over a

period of time (Δt).

Mathematically, J = F Δt = Δp
Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same direction as the force causing it.

Force and Momentum:

Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum:

(F = Δt ), which is an alternative form of Newton's second law.

Δp

Energy, work and power

Types of energy stores

Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of substances like food, fuels (oil, gas,

coal, wood).

Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses due to its position relative

to a reference point (usually the Earth's surface).

Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it is compressed, stretched, or

deformed.

Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.

Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects due to their separation in an

electric %eld.

Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom..

Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the microscopic motions and

interactions of particles within a substance.

Energy Transfers

Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action of a force, like lifting a weight.

Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric current, such as in batteries or

electric motors.

Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of energy through waves, like light or

sound waves.

Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes, like heating water in a boiler.

Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

Thus the total amount of energy is constant.

Energy Forms

Kinetic Energy (Ek ): Energy possessed by an object due to its motion.

Ek = 12 mv 2 , where (m) is mass and (v) is velocity.

Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg moving at 20 m/s:
1
Ek = 2 × 0.4 × (20)2 = 80 J
Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its position or condition or

con%guration.

Ep = mgh , where (m) is mass, (g ) is acceleration due to gravity, and (h) is height.
Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically by 1 m:

Ep = 0.1 × 9.8 × 1 = 0.98 J

Work

Work (W ) is done when a force (F ) displaces a body through a distance (d) in the

direction of the force.

Formula: W =F ⋅d
Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where 1 J=1N⋅m

Example Calculation

If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m horizontally:

W = 50 N × 3 m = 150 J

If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g ≈ 10 m/s2 ):

W = 30 N × 2 m = 60 J
Energy resources

Energy Type Renewable Advantages Disadvantages

or Non-

renewable

Fossil Fuels Non- High energy density, Limited supply, environmental

renewable readily available pollution (CO2, SO2), %nite

during peak demand. resource.

Nuclear Non- High energy output, Radioactive waste disposal issues,

Fuels renewable low CO2 emissions. potential for accidents (e.g.,

Chernobyl, Fukushima).

Solar Energy Renewable Abundant, no Intermittent availability, high

emissions during initial costs for large-scale

operation, diverse installations.

applications.

Wind Energy Renewable Clean energy source, Visual and noise impacts,

abundant in suitable intermittent nature of wind.

locations.

Wave Energy Renewable Renewable, Technologically challenging,

predictable in coastal potential environmental impacts.

areas with consistent

waves.

Tidal Energy Renewable Predictable and High infrastructure costs,

consistent, minimal environmental impacts on marine

greenhouse gas ecosystems.

emissions.

Hydroelectric Renewable Reliable, long Disruption of aquatic ecosystems,

Energy operational life, potential displacement of

minimal greenhouse communities, limited suitable

gas emissions. sites.

Geothermal Renewable Reliable, low Limited to geologically active

Energy emissions, constant areas, high upfront costs for

energy source. exploration and drilling.

Biofuels Renewable Renewable, lower Competition with food

emissions compared production, land use issues,

to fossil fuels. varying energy content.

How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations

Coal: In coal-%red power stations, coal is burned in a boiler to produce heat.

Natural Gas: In gas-%red power stations, natural gas is burned directly in a gas turbine.

The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to boil water, creating high-

pressure steam.

The steam drives turbines connected to electrical generators.

Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted on a shaft, which rotates

when steam is directed onto them.

As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is transferred to the rotor, causing it

to spin.

The spinning rotor generates electricity through electromagnetic induction in the

generator.

How hydroelectric power stations work

They run using the kinetic energy generated from the (ow of water moving

downstream.

This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to generators.

These generators then produce electricity that can be used by households.

How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations

Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear %ssion reactions with uranium to

generate heat.

This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a heat exchanger.

The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines connected to generators to

produce electricity.

The operation involves the steam passing through a turbine's %xed blades (stator) onto

the rotating blades (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is converted into

rotational motion.

The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the electrical generator, producing

electricity for consumption.

Power

The power of a device is the work it does per second, or the rate at which it does work.

Power also represents the rate at which energy is transferred from one store to another.

Formula:
work done
power = time taken

P = W
t where W is the work done in time t
P = ΔE
t where ΔE is the energy transferred in time t
Key de!nition: Power is the work done per unit time and the energy transferred per

unit time.

Unit of power: watt (W ), where 1 W = 1 J/s

Larger units:

1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W
1 M W = 1,000,000 W = 106 W
Example: If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its power is:
500J
10s = 50W
E#ciency

% E*ciency formula for energy

E*ciency (%) = ( Useful Energy Output

Total Energy Input
) × 100%

% E*ciency formula for power

E*ciency (%) = ( Useful

Total Power Input ) ×
Power Output
100%

Example a: Electric Motor

Given:

Energy input = 400 J

Work done on load = 300 J

Calculate E#ciency:

E*ciency = ( 300 J
400 J ) × 100 = 75%

Example b: Electric Drill

Given:

Power input to drill = 300 J/s

Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s

Calculate E#ciency:

E*ciency = ( 200
300 J/s ) ×
J/s
100 = 66.67%

Sankey Diagrams

Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers and e*ciencies visually.

They show how input energy is divided into useful output energy and wasted energy.

The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is proportional to the amount of energy

they represent.

A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while a narrow arrow represents a

small amount.

Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area.

Formula:
force
pressure = area

Key de!nition: Pressure is the force per unit area.

Unit of pressure: pascal (P a), where 1 P a = 1 N /m²

Greater area over which a force acts results in less pressure.

Liquid Pressure

Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the further down you go, the greater

the weight of liquid above.

Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.

Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the denser the liquid, the greater the

pressure at any given depth.

The change in pressure Δp at a depth Δh below the surface of a liquid with density ρ is

determined by considering a horizontal area A.

Force acting vertically downwards on area A equals the weight of the liquid column of

height Δh and cross-sectional area A above it.

Volume of the liquid column: ΔhA

Mass of the liquid column: m = ρΔhA (mass = density × volume)

Weight of the liquid column: mg = ρΔhAg

Force on area A: ρΔhAg

Pressure due to the liquid column:

 force
pressure = area
ρΔhAg
A = ρgΔh

Formula: Δp = ρgΔh

Δp is the change in pressure beneath the surface of the liquid at depth Δh due to the
weight of a liquid of density ρ

g is the gravitational %eld strength

This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth Δh and depends only on Δh and

ρ.
Value will be in pascals (P a) if Δh = is in meters (m) and (ρ) is in kilograms per cubic

meter (kg/m³).

Thermal Physics

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