Technical University of Applied Sciences Dr. R.

Davidson
Würzburg-Schweinfurt

Lecture Notes in Mathematics

Refresher Course
Based on the German language manuscript by Dr. Vera Latour

Numbers
Mathematics deals with various types of numbers, for example, the natural numbers, N,

0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Depending on where you are from, you may have learned that zero is not a member of the
natural numbers. Here in Germany, zero is now defined to be a member of the natural numbers,
but many still insist that it is not. An extension of the natural numbers is the integers or whole
numbers
Z = . . . − 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
That is, the natural numbers plus the negative numbers. Then we have the real numbers, R,
which consists of the integers, fractions that are
√ written as the ratio of two whole numbers, n/m
(m , 0) and transcendental numbers such as 2 and π which cannot be written as the ratio of
two whole numbers. Sometimes it is convienent to consider a subset of the real numbers such
as the positive real numbers (zero is excluded), which is denoted as R+ . If you want the set of
positive real numbers and zero, this is denoted as R+0 .
Last, but not least, are the complex numbers, C. We will not cover them here, leaving them for
the first semester math course.
Multiplication
I don’t want to insult your intelligence by starting with something you started learning in the
second or third grade, but there are a few points to be made. On your calculator the symbol for
multiplication is ×, but since this can be confused with the variable x, it is common to use a dot,
·, to denote multiplication. Multiplication of numbers is commutative

A · B = B · A = AB .

Apart from the definition of commutative, you should take note that when no mathematical
operation’s symbol appears, then multiplication is implied. Obviously one cannot use this short
hand notation when dealing explicitly with numbers: 777 , 7 · 7 · 7. Multiplication is also
associative
A · (B · C) = (A · B) · C = A · B · C = ABC .
Sometimes one needs to open up the brackets. This is done with the distributive law

A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C

or in short hand notation

A(B + C) = AB + AC .

Reading formulas

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Obviously, A±0 = A, and thus in an equation we normally don’t write "+0". Similarly, 1· A = A
so we don’t normally write one times something. Finally, for any finite number A, 0 · A = 0.
This brings us to the formulas. If you have a handbook of mathematics, you will find numerous
general equations involving, e.g., constants a, b, c, .... To use the general formula, you simply
need to read off the values of the constants in your particular case and stick them into the general
formula.
Take the specific example of a general parabola given by y = ax2 + bx + c. Here, a, b and c
can be anything (even complex) with the one exception a , 0 (in that case it is line and not a
parabola). In many cases, one wants to find the roots of this equation, that is the value(s) where
y = 0. We will look at parabolas in more detail later, but here note that when b2 − 4ac < 0 there
are no real roots, when b2 − 4ac = 0 there is one real root and when b2 − 4ac > 0 there are two
real roots. So determining the number of roots amounts to reading off a, b, c and sticking them
into this relatively simple equation.
We will do that later. At the moment I just want you to read off the values of a, b, c–you don’t
have to do anything with them. For example, y = 2x2 + 3x + 4 then obviously a = 2, b = 3
and c = 4. A more difficult, but still not hard, example is y = x2 − x. Since we don’t write one
times something, you need to recognize that a = 1. Similarly, we normally write −x instead of
+(−1) · x, so you need to see that b = −1. Finally, we don’t write "+0" so it has to seen that
c = 0.
Exercises
For the following parabolas, determine a, b and c.
Problem 1

a) y = −2x2 + 8x − 5
b) y = 3x2 + 10
c) y = −10 + 4x + x2
d) y = −x + 4 − 2x2
e) y = −x2 + x
f) y = −x − x2 + 2/3

Division
There are several different symbols used to denote division. On your calculator,
it is ÷. Sometimes it is written as a fraction ba or if the isn’t enough space simply
as a/b. In Germany the symbol for division is : ":", so a/b is written as a : b.
Any way you choose to write it, division is not commutative, 2/3 , 3/2, and is
not associative, (2/2)/2 = 1/2 , 2/(2/2) = 2.
Sometimes it is useful to cancel out a common factor the appears both in the
denominator and numerator
α·a a
= α,0
α·b b
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and sometimes it is useful to to multiply both numerator and denominator by 
the same nonzero factor. Also, instead of writing ab we can write this as a · 1b .
Compund fractions can be confusing because they are normally written without
brackets. The rule is to first calculate the shortest division lines and proceed to
the longer division lines:
 
a a a 1! a d ! a · d
b
c = c = · c = = .
b
·
d b d b c b · c
d

Fractions can be added together provided they have the same denominator:
a b a+b
+ = .
c c c
If they have different denominators, such as
a c
+
b d
then you need to find a common denominator, like b · d (this may not be the
least common denominator). Then multiply the first term by 1 = d/d and the
second by 1 = b/b:
a c d a b c ad + bc
+ = · + · = .
b d d b b d bd
Worked Examples

1 5 3 10 13
+ = + =
4 6 12 12 12
x x 5x + 3x 8x
+ = =
3 5 15 15
1 2 3 2x 3 + 2x
+ = + =
7x 21 21x 21x 21x
3x
2y 3x 4 6
x = · =
4 2y x y
Exercises
Problem 2
Simplify the following expressions.

a) !
1 a 1
(3a + 6) − 4 +
3 2 2
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b)
3 y 48x
· ·
8 9 y
c)
45x
−x
15
d)
4xz y
·
y 2z
e)
5x
2y
25y
x

f)
2 3
+
x + 2 (x + 2)(x + 1)
g)
2+ a
2b
a
2− 2b

h)
 3 3x 
 
 +  · 1
x x (x + 1)
i) !
x 2
− 2y − + xy
2 x
j)
3 1
x·
8 6
k)
24y 3x
/
x y
l)
x y
+
2 3
m)
x 5
+
18 12

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 n)
2a + a · a
4 + 2
a 1

Problem 3
Write the following sums as a single fraction.

a)
1 2 y 7
+ + +
3x xy 6 12
b)
2 5 1 1
√ + + +
a 2b 12a 4

Powers
xn is a short hand notation for writing x times itself n-times, for example, x3 =
x · x · x. For a power, x is the so-called base and n is the exponent.
For x , 0,
1 1
x−n = n −n
= xn
x x
Thus, you can move a power from the denominator to the numerator by chang-
ing the sign of the exponent and vica-versa. As an example
1 1
10−3 = 0.001 = = 3
1000 10
The following rules hold for powers (at least for x, y ≥ 0):

(xy)n = xn yn
xn xm = xn+m
(xn )m = xn·m
xn
m
= xn−m
x
For x , 0, xn /xn = 1, but from the last rule xn /xn = xn−n = x0 . Thus, for x , 0,
x0 = 1. Finally, for the sake of clarity, x1 = x.
These rules also hold for exponential funtions such at 10 x . Here, 10 is the base
and x is the exponent.

10 x · 10y = 10 x+y

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 10 x
y
= 10 x−y
10
(10 x )y = 10 x·y

Examples

32 · 35 = 32+5 = 37

(32 )5 = 32·5 = 310

3 3
42 = 4(2 ) = 48

(42 )3 = 42·3 = 46

x2+n
2
= x2+n−2 = xn
x

(x2 y)3 = (x2 )3 y3 = x6 y3

(100)2 (xy4 )3 (102 )2 x3 y12 104 x3 y12

= =
(1000)−5 (x2 y−3 ) (103 )−5 x2 y−3 10−15 x2 y−3

= 104 x3 y12 1015 x−2 y3 = 1019 xy15

Exercises
Problem 4
Simplfiy as much as possible.

a)
2
(−2)3

b)
100 · (102 )3 · 10−1

c)
5a3 + 11a3 − 10a3

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d)
6a2 y + 3n2 x2 + 2(nx)2

e)
23 + 24

f)
23 · 63

g)
!3
a
(ay)3
y
h)
21x3 n2 b
7xn0 b
i)
4
2−3
j)
6 · 10−4
18 · 1000−5
k)
6−1 a−3
6−3 a−1
l)
7 · 93
63 · 81−2
m)
27−1 · y−3
9−2 · (xy)−4
n)
( 14 )−1 y
y−3
o)
16x6 6x4 x8 x1+n
− −
4xn 2xn−2 x3+2n
p)
!−1
6a−2 b4
3c−2 b−4
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 q)
an+1 b3n+2 c2n+1 a2 b1−n c−n−1
a2n+1 bn−3 cn−3 a−n+2 bn−3 c−3
r)
!2
uy+1 v2y−1 w−y u2y vy
÷
u−2y−1 vy+1 w2y w2y

Binomial Formulas
The rule for opening up the product of two brackets is every thing in the first
bracket times every thing in the second bracket:
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd .

The three binomial formulas are:

(x + y)2 = (x + y)(x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y2 ,

(x − y)2 = (x − y)(x − y) = x2 − 2xy + y2
and
(x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y2 .
The first follows from the general formula with a = c = x and b = d = y. The
second is obtained with a = c = x and b = d = −y. The third is with a = c = x,
b = y and d = −y.
These can be used to simplify certain expressions, for example,
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2 x−1
= = .
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x + 1
They can also be useful when adding certain fractions:

1 1 1 1
+ = +
x2 − 2x + 1 x2 − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)(x + 1)
x+1+x−1
!
1 1 1
= + =
x−1 x−1 x+1 (x − 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)
2x 2x
= = .
(x − 1)(x2 − 1) (x − 1)2 (x + 1)
Exercises
Problem 5
Write the following expressions as a single fraction and simplfiy as much as
possible.

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 a)
2 4 4
− +
x − 1 x + 1 1 − x2
b)
x2 − y2
−1
2x(x + y)
c)
x 2 + y2
!
1 x y
− 2 +
2 x − y x − y2 x + y
d)
1 4x + 4
−
x + 2 (x + 2)3
e)
x x2
− 2
x + 1 x + 2x + 1

Lines
The equation for a line is y = mx + b. Here, m is the (constant) slope of the line
and b is the intercept of the line with the y-axis. For any two points, (x1 , y1 ) and
(x2 , y2 ), lying on the line, the slope is given by
y2 − y1 y1 − y2
m= = .
x2 − x1 x1 − x2
If one is given two points and wants to find the equation for the line that passes
through these points, first calculte the slope from the above equation and then
use either point to calculate the intercept, b. For example, to determine the
line passing through the points (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 2) and (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 6), we first
calculate the slope
6−2 4
m= = =1.
3 − (−1) 4
As the slope is now known, for all points on this line we have y = 1 · x + b.
In particular, y1 = x1 + b or 2=-1+b giving b = 3. Choosing the second point
instead gives y2 = x2 + b or 6=3+b again resulting in b=3.
Now it’s time for a few definitions. The domain of a function is the set of
x values for which the function is defined. For most lines, x can be any real
number so the domain is x ∈ R. The range of a function is the resulting y values
and again for most lines y can be any real number so the range is y ∈ R. There
are two exceptions to this, one being the case of a horizontal line and the other
the case of a vertical line. For a horizontal line, the slope m is zero and y = b

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independent of what x is. In this case the domain is x ∈ R and the range is
y = b. A vertical line, although at times useful, is not a function of x (since
the resulting y value is not unique) and cannot be written in the general form
given above. A more flexible form for a line is αx + βy = γ. For β , 0, we can
easily recast it into the form given above for a line and this form also includes
the possibility x = c, that is, a vertical line.
Exercises
Problem 6
In each case, determine the equation of the line passing through the given pair
of points.

a) (3,2); (-3,-2)
b) (0,3); (3,0)
c) (-2,3); (2,3)
d) (1,15); (3,35)

Parabolas
The general equation for a parabola is y = ax2 + bx + c with the condition a , 0.
The domain is x ∈ R. A parabola has a vertex located at
b
xv = −
2a
and the y value of the vertex is yv = axv2 + bxv + c. If a > 0, then the vertex is
a (global) minimum and the range is y ≥ yv . On the other hand, if a < 0, the
vertex is a (global) maximum and the range is y ≤ yv .
Apart from the location of the vertex, one is often interested in the roots of the
equation, that is, for what value(s) of x is y = ax2 + bx + c = 0? The roots
may be found by completing the square and extracting the roots. The general
formula for the roots is
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 = .
2a
This formula can slways be used even if a, b, c are complex numbers (recall that
a , 0). Let us at the moment stick to real numbers. In this case, we see there is
a problem when b2 − 4ac < 0, namely, we have to extract the root of a negative
number. In this case, there are no real roots. If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is one
real root gvien by x1 = −b/(2a) = xv , that is, the vertex lies on the x-axis. If
b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two real roots located symmetrically about the vertex.

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Examples
x2 + 3x + 3 = 0. Here, a = 1, b = 3 and c = 3 giving b2 − 4ac = 32 − 4 · 1 · 3 =
−3 < 0. Thus, there are no real roots and we’re done with the problem.
Next consider 4x2 − 32x + 28 = 0. Since all terms are divisible by 4, it makes
the problem a bit easier if we first divide every thing by 4, but we don’t have to.
Here, a = 4, b = −32 and c = 28 giving
b2 − 4ac = (−32)2 − 4 · 4 · 28 = 1024 − 448 = 576 .
Since this is positive, there are two real roots given by
√
−(−32) ± 576 32 ± 24
x1,2 = = .
2·4 8
Thus, x1 = (32 + 24)/8 = 7 and x2 = (32 − 24)/8 = 1.
If we had divided in the beginning by 4, then we are looking for the roots of
x2 − 8x + 7 = 0 .
In this case, b2 − 4ac = 36 and the roots are
8±6
x1,2 =
2
again resulting in x1 = 7 and x2 = 1.
Although one may always use the above formula to calculate the roots, it is not
always the best thing to do. For example, x2 − 4 = 0. One could use the general
formula,
√ but here it is easier to2 move 4 to the other side and extract the roots;
x = ± 4 = ±2. Or consider x + 3x = 0. Here a = 1, b = 0 and c = 0 giving
b2 − 4ac = 9 − 0 = 9 resulting in x1 = 0 and x2 = −3. If a · b = 0, then either
a = 0, or b = 0 or a = b = 0. Factoring out an x, x2 + 3x = x(x + 3) = 0, we
that either x = 0 or x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = −3.
Exercises
Problem 7
Solve the following quadratic equations.

a)
x2 + 12x = 0
b)
3x2 + 9x = 12
c)
5x2 + 7 = 4x2 + 6 + 2x

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 d)
x2 + 2x − 15 = 0
e)
4x2 + 2x = 2
f)
4x2 + 10x − 8 = 6x
g) A rectanular plot of land has an area of 450 m2 . If it is twice as long as it
is wide, what are its length and width?
h) A square whole with sides of length b is cut out from the middle of a square
piece of wood with sides of length 10 cm. If the remaining wood has and
area of 30 cm2 , what is b?

Equations with fractions

Consider the equation
1
−2=0.
x−1
This function is defined for all values of x except x = 1 and thus the domain is
x ∈ R\{1}. The point being that if after manipulating the equation we end up
with x = 1, then actually there is no solution because the function is not defined
there.
To find a solution, we need to get x − 1 out of the denominator which can be
done by multiplying everything by x − 1 resluting in
1
x−1=
2
giving x = 3/2 , 1, so this is the solution. In more complicated problem,
first multiply everything by the commom denominator resulting in polynomial
eqaution. Use standard methods to find the roots of the polynomial and then
check that the solution lies in the domain of the function.
For example, the equation
x+2 x−4
= .
x−3 x−1
The domain is x ∈ R\{1, 3} and the common denominator is (x − 3)(x − 1).
Multilying by this results in
(x + 2)(x − 1) = (x − 4)(x − 3)
or
x2 + x − 2 = x2 − 7x + 12 .

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Here, the x2 terms cancel out leaving a simple linear equation with the solution
x = 7/4. Since this is not equal to 1 or 3, this is the unique solution.
Some care may be needed depending on how you solve the problem, as the next
example shows.
4x 2
+ =0
x2 − 1 x + 1
The domain is x ∈ R\{1, −1} and the common denominator is x2 − 1 = (x +
1)(x − 1). Multiplying by this results in the linear equation 4x + 2(x − 1) = 0
with solution x = 1/3. Since this is not 1,-1, this is the unique solution. On the
other hand, I could rewrite the original equation in the form

4x(x + 1) = −2(x2 − 1) ⇒ 6x2 + 4x − 2 = 0 .

Using the quadratic formula, the roots are 1/3 and -1, but -1 is not a solution of
the original equation because the function is not defined there.
Exercises
Problem 8
Solve the following equations.

a)
1
=7
x+3
b)
6
=1
4 − 2x
c)
1 2
=
x−1 x+2
d)
1 1
=
x+2 x−4
e)
1 1 2
+ =
x x+2 x+1
f)
x+1 x+2
=
x−2 x+1
g)
x+2 x−4 10
+ = 2
x−1 x+1 x −1
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 h)
2x + 4
= 10
x−3
i)
2 4x
− = −4
x−3 x+2
j)
x+1 x+4
− =1
x−3 x−1
k)
x+2 x−3 6
− = 2
x−1 x+1 x −1

Equations with square roots

There are basically four steps involved in solving anpeqaution containing roots.
First, determine the domain of the function. If y = f (x), then the domain of y
is those values of x such that f (x) ≥ 0. Next, square both sides of the equation
until all radicals are eliminated. At this pont, one obtains a polynomial equation
which can be solved using standard methods. Finally, check that the solution is
a solution of the original equation.
√
As an example, we want to solve x − 1 = 7. The domain is x ≥ 1 and
squaring both
√ √ sides gives x − 1 = 49 or x = 50. Checking the original equation,
50 − 1 = 49 = 7, shows that x = 50 is the unique solution.
A slightly more complicated equation to solve is

√ √
x+ x+7=7.
√ √
The domain of x + 7 is x ≥ −7 and that of x is x ≥ 0. We need both
conditions to be true so we need the intersection of these two sets, namely x ≥ 0.
Since there are two radicals in this equation, we will probably need to square at
least twice to get rid of all the radicals. First rewrite the equation as

√ √
x+7=7− x,
and then square both sides to obtain

√
x + 7 = 49 − 14 x + x .

On the right-hand-side I have used the second binomial formula (a − b)2 =

a2 − 2ab + b2 . A common mistake is to omit the −2ab term. Rearranging the

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 √ √
above equation then gives 14 x = 42 or x√= 3. √ Squaring one last time gives
x = 9. Finally, check the original equation: 9 + 9 + 7 = 3 + 4 = 7.
At this point it may seem that checking the original equation is a waste of time,
but the next example will prove otherwise. Consider

√
1+ 3x + 1 = x .
√
Rearrange into 3x + 1 = x − 1, square both sides, 3x + 1 = x2 − 2x + 1,
rearrange into x2 − 5x = 0 = x(x − 5). √ Thus, the solutions are x1 = 5 and x2 = 0.
Now the check first with x1 = 5: 1 + 3 · 5 + 1 = 1 + 4 = 5, so x1 √ is a solution
of the original equation. However, with x2 = 0, one sees that 1 + 1 = 2 , 0,
so x2 is not a solution of the original equation.
Exercises
Problem 9
Determine the domain and soultion(s) of the following equations.

a) √
x=7

b) √
x − 12 = 3

c) √
2 x−1=3

d) √
1+ 2x + 1 = 3x

e) √ √
x+ 2x = 4

f) √ √
x− 4−x=0

g)
1 1
√ = √
x+1 8 x+7
h) √
3x = 9

Page 15 from 43
Functions and inverse functions
A function, f (x), is a unique mapping of the domain into the range, in other
words, for every x there is one and only one y value. For example, most lines
are functions of x, but a vertical line is not a function of x since the y value is not
unique. So a function takes you from some x to some y value, and the inverse
function, written as f −1 (x) , 1/ f (x), takes you back from this y value to the
original x value. The inverse function has the properties

f −1 [ f (x)] = f [ f −1 (x)] = x .

Thus, when one wants to solve y = f (x) for x, one is actually using the inverse
function;
f −1 [y] = f −1 [ f (x)] = x .
To find the inverse function, one first solves for x as a function of y to obtain
f −1 [y] and then replaces y by x. Thus, if f (x) = y = 4x + 1, then
y−1
x= = f −1 [y]
4
and replacing y by x gives
x−1
f −1 (x) = .
4
To test the above properties, one needs to know exactly f [g(x)] means–the rule
is that x is everywhere replaced with g(x). Thus, if f (x) = x2 , then f [cos(x)] =
[cos(x)]2 = cos2 (x). From our example above we then have
f (x) − 1 4x + 1 − 1
f −1 [ f (x)] = = =x
4 4
and
x−1
f [ f −1 (x)] = 4 f −1 (x) + 1 = 4 · +1= x.
4
Not every function is invertible over the entire domain. For example, if y =
√
x2 , then there are two possbile values for x, namely, ± y. To over come this
problem, one restricts the domain to x ≥ 0 resulting in a unique value of x in
this smaller domain. One could instead restrict the domain to x ≤ 0, but no one
does this.
Exercises
Problem 10
Determine the inverse function of the following functions. In all cases you may
assume that the domain is R+ .

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 a)
f (x) = 4x − 1
b)
1
f (x) = 7 +
x
c) √
f (x) = 2x + 6
d)
1
f (x) = 2 −
x2
When a function has the property that f (−x) = f (x) for all x, then the function
is said to be even and when f (−x) = − f (x) then it is said the be an odd function.
For example, if f (x) = x2 , then
f (−x) = (−x)2 = (−1)2 x2 = x2 = f (x)
and is thus an even function of x. On the other hand, if f (x) = x3 , then
f (x) = (−x)3 = (−1)3 x3 = −x3 = − f (x)
and is thus an odd function of x. In general xn is an even function when n is
even and an odd function when n is odd.
In addition or subtraction, even ± even is even and odd ± odd is odd. On the
other hand, even ± odd, such as f (x) = x2 + x, is neither even nor odd. Under
multiplication or division, even × even is even, odd × odd is even and even ×
odd is odd.
Exercises
Problem 11
Of the following functions, which are even and which are odd?

a)
f (x) = x4
b)
f (x) = x2 + x4
c)
f (x) = x3 + 2x2
d)
f (x) = 3x6 + 2x2

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 e)
f (x) = 2x3 + 3x7

f)
f (x) = x3 + x

General roots
√n
The inverse of a power is the nth root. Thus, if y = xn then x = y = y1/n .
√
Conversely, if y = n x, then x = yn . Thus,
√n √
xn = x = ( n x)n .

For n even, this is valid only for x ≥ 0 while for n odd it is valid for all x. The
following rules also hold, at least for x ≥ 0.

√n √n √n
x· y= xy

√n r
x x
√n = n
y y
√n √ √
x=x =x =x =
m 1/n 1/m 1/n+1/m (m+n)/nm nm
x· ·x xm+n

√ √
q
n m
x = (x1/m )1/n = x1/[mn) = mn
x

Example
p4
16x8 y12 (16x8 y12 )1/4
p5 = 15 20 1/5
32x15 y20 (32x y )

161/4 x8/4 y12/4 2x2 y3 1

= = =
321/5 x15/5 y20/5 2x3 y4 xy
Exercises
Problem 12
Simplify the following expressions.

a) q
x4 y

Page 18 from 43
 b)
√ q 3 8
x xy

c) p
x5 y
√
x
d)
(x2 + y4 )3
p

x2 + y4
p

e) r
x2
3
9
f) p
(3 + x2 )2 − 6x2

g)
2
√ √3
2 8
h)
√6 √7
y y

i) p √
y2 3 y
p4
y3
j) p3
8x6 y12
p5
32x10 y10
k) r q
4 4
√
x y (− 2)4
6

l)
√3 3 3 2
q
y xy

Rationalizing fractions

Page 19 from 43
 √
write sin(450 ) as 1/ 2 whereas your calclulator probably gives the
I usually √
result as 2/2. These are of course the same since
√ √
1 1 2 2
√ = √ · √ = .
2 2 2 2
This is an example of rationalizing a fraction, that is, getting all radicals out of
the denominator. In pre-calculator days, this probably had some computational
advantages. These days, as far as calculating a number is concerned it doesn’t
really matter, but you will need to do this when you learn about complex num-
bers. Thus, it is useful to go through this.
A general radical you can get rid of as follows:

a a a x1−1/n ax1−1/n
√n = 1/n = 1/n · 1−1/n = .
x x x x x
More complicated fractions may be rationalized by making use of the third
binomial formula:
√ √ √ √ √ √
( x + y)( x − y) = ( x)2 − ( y)2 = x − y .
Thus, √ √ √ √
a a ( x − y) a( x − y)
√ √ = √ √ · √ √ = .
( x + y) ( x + y) ( x − y) (x − y)
A few examples:
√ √
3 3 (2 + 6+3 5
5) √
√ = √ · √ = = −6 − 3 5
2− 5 (2 − 5) (2 + 5) 4−5
√ √
2 1 (1 − 2) 2 − 2 2 √
√ = √ · √ = = −2 + 2 2
1 + 2 (1 + 2) (1 − 2) 1−2
Exercises
Problem 13
Rationalize the following fractions.

a)
2
√
1− 3
b)
1
√ √
3− 2
Page 20 from 43
 c)
4
√
5+1
d)
3
√
2− 7
e)
4
√
3+ 3
f)
5
√
4− 2
g) √
3− 3
√
1− 3
h) √
x
√ √
3− xy
i) s √
12 − 2 2
√
12 + 2 2
j)
1
q
√ √
x− x−2

k) q q
x2
3y + 3x2
y
q q
9x2
12y + 27x2
4y

Exponentials and logarithms

An expontial function is defined by y = f (x) = a x . Here, a > 0 is the base and x
is the exponent. The domain is x ∈ R and the range is y ∈ R+ . Typically choices
for the base are 10, 2 and e=2.718. . . defined by
!n
1
e = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n

Page 21 from 43
The base a = 1 is not interesting because 1 x = 1 for all x.
As mentioned earlier, the rules for powers also hold for exponentials. For ex-
ample
3 x · 3 x = 3 x+x = 32x
and 2 2
(e x−1 ) x+1 e(x−1)(x+1) e x −1 e x e−1 1
= = = = e −1
=
e x2 e x2 e x2 e x2 e
The inverse functions of a x is denoted by loga (x) with the properties

loga (a x ) = x ,

or more generally,
loga (a f (x) ) = f (x) ,
and
aloga (x) = x .

If the base is 10, then the subcript is left away, i.e., log10 (x) = log(x). Some
authors shorten this to lg(x). The logarithm base e is written as loge (x) = ln(x)
and the logarithm base 2 is written as log2 (x) = lb(x). Some special values are

loga (1) = loga (a0 ) = 0

and
loga (a) = loga (a1 ) = 1 .
The domain is x ∈ R+ and the range is y ∈ R.
Some examples:

√ √
2 = 10 x ⇒ x = log( 2) = 0.1505
1
−1.7 = log(x) ⇒ x = 10−1.7 = 1.7 = 0.020
10
π = e ⇒ x = ln(π) = 1.145
x

2.2 = ln(x) ⇒ x = e2.2 = 9.025

Exercises
Problem 14
Solve for x.

a)
100 = 10 x

Page 22 from 43
 b)
2 = 10 x

c)
log(x) = 3

d)
log(x) = 1.7

e)
10 = e x

f)
1
= ex
2
g)
ln(x) = 3

h)
ln(x) = 0.2

The basics rules for the logarithm are

loga (bc) = loga (b) + loga (c)

and
loga (bc ) = c loga (b) .
Form these two rules it follow, e.g.,

loga (xn ym ) = loga (xn ) + loga (ym ) = n loga (x) + m loga (y)

and
loga (xn /ym ) = loga (xn ) + loga (y−m ) = n loga (x) − m loga (y) .

Of course the equations are valid in both directions. Sometimes one wants to
bring the exponent down in front of the log and in other cases one wants to
move the consant in front of the log into the exponent. For example if we want
to simplify
ac loga (b)
we first need to write c loga (b) as loga (bc ) to obtain
c
ac loga (b) = aloga (b ) = bc .

Page 23 from 43
On most modern calculators you can choose the base for the logarithm, but even
you can’t choose the base, you can anyway sometimes solve the problem, as the
following examples show.

log3 (27) = log3 (33 ) = 3

log4 (0.25) = log4 (1/4) = log4 (4−1 ) = −1

log1/2 (4) = log1/2 (22 ) = log1/2 [(2−1 )−2 ] = log1/2 (1/2)−2 = −2

Now if you can’t choose the base and the numbers aren’t nice, you need to make
a change of base to a base you have. The general rule is
logb (x)
loga (x) = .
logb (a)
Most calculators have base 10 and base e, so the useful conversions are

log(x) ln(x)
loga (x) = = .
log(a) ln(a)
For example
log(27)
log5 (27) = = 2.047
log(5)
As a corollary, one sees that
loga (x)
loga (y)
is independent of the base a.
A useful identity is
f (x) = eln[ f (x)] .
This enables one to change from base a to base e;
a x = [eln(a) ] x = eln(a)x ,
which is helpful when differentiating or integrating. It can also be of help in
simplifying certain expressions:
xln[ln(x)]/ ln(x) = [eln(x) ]ln[ln(x)]/ ln(x) = eln(x)·ln[ln(x)]/ ln(x) = eln[ln(x)] = ln(x) .

Exercises
Problem 15
Try to evaluate the following expressions without use of a calculator.

Page 24 from 43
 a)
log4 (16)

b)
log2 (32)

c)
log2 (0.5)

d)
log2 (32 · 8)

e)
!2
1
log4
16
f) r
3 1
log1/10
100
g) √
log5 53

h)
log7 (1)

i) √
log1/3 27

j) !
1
log10 100 · −3
10
k)
log3 (1)

l)
log3 (272 910 )

m)
log8 (2300 )

Exercises
Problem 16
Simplify the following expressions.

Page 25 from 43
 a)
5 x log3 (1)
b)
log4 (4 x )
c)
x
log3 [log3 (33 )
d)
log4 [log3 (81)]
e)
log2 (8 · 2 x )
f)
log5 (3 x ) − log3 (3 x log5 (3) )
g)
2log2 (2x)−log2 (x)
h) √ √
log5 (x − x2 − 1) + log5 (x + x2 − 1)
i)
53 log5 (3)
j)
2 log7 (3 x ) − log7 (32x )

If ln(a) = ln(b), then exponentiate both sides to obtain

eln(a) = eln(b)
or a = b. Thus, if we want of solve an equation like
1
ln(y) = 2 ln(x) + ln(2 + x)
3
we simply need to combine the logs on the right-hand-side to a single term,
ln[ f (x)], and we can then read off that y = f (x). First, move the constants in
front of the logs into the exponent
ln(y) = ln(x2 ) + ln(2 + x)1/3 ,
then use ln(a) + ln(b) = ln(ab) to obtain
ln(y) = ln[x2 (2 + x)1/3 ] .

Page 26 from 43
Thus, y = x2 (2 + x)1/3 .
A different possiblity is to first exponentiate both sides and then simplify. Thus,
if
ln(y) = ln(x/3) + x ,
then
x
eln(y) = y = eln(x/3)+x = eln(x/3) e x = e x .
3
Exercises
Problem 17
Solve for y and simplify as much as possible.

a)
ln(y) = ln(x) + ln(x2 )

b)
1 1
ln(y) = −3 ln(x) + ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)
2 2
c)
ln(y) = 2 ln(x + 2) − 2 ln(x) + ln(1) + ln(x + 2)

d)
log3 (y2 ) = log3 (x2 + 1) + log3 (y)

e)
1
ln(y) = ln(x + 2) + ln(x − 2)
2
f)
√ 1
ln y = 2 ln(x) − ln(y)
2
g)
ln(2xy) = ln(x2 ) + 2 ln(x)

The log brings down the exponent, so if one has an exponential equation such
as
32x = 27x+1 ,
take the log of both sides (in any base) to obtain a linear equation for x:

2x ln(3) = (7x + 1) ln(2) .

Page 27 from 43
Basic manipulations then result in
ln(2)
x= = −0.261
2 ln(3) − 7 ln(2)

Exercises
Problem 18
Solve for x.

a)
5 x−2 = 72x−1

b)
32x+3 = 42x

c)
43/x = 15

d)
31/(x+1) = 41/(4x+1)

e)
3log(x) = 3

f)
10log(x) = 7

g)
32x+2 − 26 · 3 x = 3

Trigonometry
Consider a right triangle with angles α and β. Since the sum of the angles of
a triangle is 1800 , it must be that β = 900 − α. Denoting the hypotenuse by r,
the side adjacent to α as x and the opposite side as y, we have the Pythagorean
theorem x2 + y2 = r2 , and the trigonometric ratios
y
sin(α) = ,
r
x
cos(α) = ,
r
and
y sin(α)
tan(α) = = .
x cos(α)

Page 28 from 43
The following ratios also sometimes appear in the literature:
1
sec(α) = ,
cos(α)
1
csc(α) = ,
sin(α)
and
1 cos(α)
cot(α) = = .
tan(α) sin(α)
Do not confuse these with the inverse trig functions.
Given the Pythagorean theorem and the definition of sin and cos, one obtains

[r cos(α)]2 + [r sin(α)]2 = r2 .

Cancelling out the common factor of r2 leads to

[cos(α)]2 + [sin(α)]2 = 1 = cos2 (α) + sin2 (α) .

Thus, given the value of cos, sin or tan, we can calculate the value of the other
two at least up to an over all sign. In the next exercise the value of either sin,
cos or tan is given and you should first determine the angle and the the values of
the missing two trig functions. To determine the angle you need the appropriate
inverse trig function and you should make sure your calulator is set to degrees.
For example, if cos(α) = 1/2, then α √ = cos−1 (1/2) = 600 . √
Write this down (or
store it) and the calculate sin(60 ) = 3/2 and tan(60 ) = 3.
0 0

Exercises
Problem 19
Complete the table (00 ≤ α ≤ 900 ).

α cos α sin α tan α

1
1/2
1
√
3/2
0
Considering the quantities x, y, r and α, if two are known the√ other two can be
determined. For example, if x = 3 and y = 4, the r = 32 + 42 = 5 and
tan(α) = 4/3, giving α = tan−1 (4/3) = 53.10 . Or if, r = 10 and x = 5 then
cos(α) = 5/10 = 1/2 resulting in α = cos−1 (1/2) =√ 600 . The value
√ of y can be
dtermined from y = r sin(60 ) = 8.66 or from y = r2 − x2 = 75 = 8.66.
0

Page 29 from 43
Exercises
Problem 20
Complete the table (00 ≤ α ≤ 900 ).

x y r α
1 2
2 8
5 320
4 7
10 700
6 500
Consider the sector of a circle extended by the angle α. If the angle is measured
in degrees, the arc length of this sector is given by
α α
l= · 2πr = · πr .
360 180
At some point, some one got tired of writing π/180 and decided to define an
angle such that l = φr or φ = l/r. Here, φ is in radians and the conversion from
degrees to radians is
α
φ= ·π.
180
In calculus, radians have the advantage that
sin(φ)
lim =1.
φ→0 φ
In physics, we often jump back and forth between degrees and radians and the
next exercise is designed to make sure you know how to do that. First, an angle
is given in degrees and you should first use the simple formula given above to
calculate the angle in radians. Then you should set your calculator in radian
mode and calculate the sin and cos of the angle.
Exercises
Problem 21
Complete the table.

Page 30 from 43
 α φ cos φ sin φ
00
300
450
600
900
1800
2700
3600
A third possbility on your calculator for angles is grad. A right angle has 100
grad instead of 900 .
To describe the position of a point in the plane one needs angles 00 ≤ α <
3600 or −1800 < α ≤ 1800 . Angels are measured with respect to the +x axis
with counter-clockwise being defined as positive and clockwise as negative. A
simple diagram then shows that cos is an even function and sin (and hence tan)
is an odd function.
Given an angle, it is easy enough to calculate the sin, cos or tan of this angle, but
what if the value of sin, cos or tan is given? How do we determine the angle?
Evidently, this has something to do with the inverse trig functions, but it turns
out that we need more information to uniquely determine the angle. The sin−1
and tan−1 have the range −900 ≤ α ≤ 900 , but of course the actual angle might
be 1250 . The cos−1 has a range of 00 ≤ α ≤ 1800 , but the actual angle might be
−450 . In order to uniquely determine the angle we need to know what quadrant
it lies in. Some prefer working with the tan−1 , but I find it easier to work with
cos−1 . The cos−1 gives an angle in the upper-half plane where sin is is positive.
Thus, if I know the value of cos and that the value of sin is positive, then I know
that my calculator has given me the correct angle. If the value of sin is instead
negative, I need to take minus what my calculator says. The simple rule is
α = cos−1 (x) when sin(α) ≥ 0
α = − cos−1 (x) when sin(α) < 0
√ √
For example, if cos(α) = 1/ 2 and√sin(α) > 0, then α = cos−1 (1/ 2) = 450 .
On the other hand, if cos(α) = −1/ 2 and sin(α) < 0, then
√
α = − cos−1 (−1/ 2) = −1350 .

Exercises
Problem 22

Page 31 from 43
Calculate the angle x (−1800 < x ≤ 1800 ).

cos x sin x x
0, 2 > 0
0, 2 < 0
−0, 2 > 0
−0, 2 < 0
The angles can of course be greater than 2π or less than 0. In fact, the domain
of both sin and cos is x ∈ R and the range is both cases is y ∈ [−1, 1]. They are
both periodic functions of x with a period of 2π (radians):
sin(x + 2π) = sin(x)
cos(x + 2π) = cos(x)
both valid for all x.
Some special values are:
sin(x) = 0 when x = kπ
sin(x) = 1 when x = π/2 + 2kπ
sin(x) = −1 when x = 3π/2 + 2kπ
cos(x) = 0 when x = π/2 + kπ
cos(x) = 1 when x = 2kπ
cos(x) = −1 when x = π + 2kπ
Here, k = ±0, 1, 2, . . .
There are numerous relations between sin and cos, e.g.
cos(x) = sin(π/2 − x) or
sin(x) = cos(π/2 − x).
These are example of the general addition theorems for sin and cos:

sin(x ± y) = sin(x) cos(y) ± sin(y) cos(x)

cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(y) sin(x)

For example,

cos(x + π) = cos(x) cos(π) − sin(π) sin(x) = cos(x) · (−1) − 0 · sin(x) = − cos(x) .

Page 32 from 43
The multi-angle formulas also are derived from the theorems:
sin(2x) = sin(x + x) = sin(x) cos(x) + sin(x) cos(x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x) ,

cos(2x) = cos(x + x) = cos(x) cos(x) − sin(x) sin(x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) .

Of course, don’t forget that

sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 1 .

If one has a complicated combination of trig functions, one can sometimes sim-
plify it using the above equation, e.g.,
1 1 1 − cos(x) + 1 + cos(x)
+ =
1 + cos(x) 1 − cos(x) [1 + cos(x)][1 − cos(x)]
2 2
= =
1 − cos2 (x) sin2 (x)
Exercises
Problem 23
Simplify the following expressions

a)
sin2 (x) − 1
b)
cos(x) cos(−x) − sin(x) sin(−x)
c)
π
1 − sin(x) cos( − x)
2
d)
sin(x + π) + sin(x)
e)
cos(x) + cos(π − x)
f)
3π
sin(x + ) − cos(x)
2
g)
π
cos(x + ) sin(x) − cos2 (x)
2
Page 33 from 43
Vectors
A vector is a quantity with a magnitude and a direction. Examples are position,
velocity, acceleration and force. In 2-d, a vector may be described by a two
component object !
a1
~a =
a2
q
and may be depicted by an arrow. The magnitude of this vector is |~a| = a21 + a22 ≥
0 and is independent of the coordinate system. Not surprisingly, in 3-d we need
three components  
 a1 
~a =  a2 
 
 
a3
and can be depicted as an arrow starting at the origin q and ending at the point
(a1 , a2 , a3 ). The magnitude of this vector is |~a| = a21 + a22 + a23 ≥ 0. If |~a| = 1,
then it is called a unit vector.
Vectors are not attached to specific points in space, one can move the vector
around and it remains unchanged as long as one does not rotate it nor lengthen
or shorten it. This enables one to graphically add two (or more) vectors together.
Mathematically, the components of the two vectors are added together, so if
 
 a1 
~a =  a2 
 
 
a3
and  
 b1 
~b =  b2 
 
b3
then
 a1 + b1
 

~c = ~a + ~b =  a2 + b2  .
 
a3 + b3


For example,
1+3
! ! ! !
1 3 4
+ = = .
2 4 2+4 6
The multiplication of a vector by a constant is also done component-wise
 a1   αa1 
   
α~a = α  a2  =  αa2  .
   
αa3
   
a3

Page 34 from 43
The magnitude of this vector is |α~a| = |α||~a|.
A point in the x − y plane may be described by a cartesian position vector
!
x
~r = ,
y

or in polar coordinates be specifying the distance from the origin, |~r| = x2 + y2 ,

p

and the angle φ with respect to the +x-axis:

φ = cos−1 (x/|~r|) when y ≥ 0
φ = − cos−1 (x/|~r|) when y < 0.
For example, if !
3
~r = ,
4
√
then |~r| = 32 + 42 = 5 and φ = cos−1 (3/5) = 53.10 . Or with
!
−1
~r = ,
−2
√ √
then |~r| = (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 5 and φ = − cos−1 (−1/ 5) = −116.60 .
p

Exercises
Problem 24
Make a sketch of the vector and calculate |~r| and φ.

a) !
2
~r =
1
b) !
1
~r =
2
c) !
−3
~r =
4
d) !
−2
~r =
−2
e) !
−3
~r =
0

Page 35 from 43
 f) √ !
7
~r =
−3

If the point is given in polar coordinates, that is, |~r| and φ are known, then it is
easy to determine the cartesian components x and y:
x = |~r| cos(φ)
y = |~r| sin(φ)
Exercises
Problem 25
Make a sketch of the vector with the given |~r| and φ and caclulate the x and y
components of ~r.

a)
|~r| = 2 φ = 300

b)
|~r| = 4 φ = 1350

c)
|~r| = 3 φ = −900

d)
|~r| = 6 φ = −1300

e)
|~r| = 1 φ = −600

In physics you will have problems where two or more forces act on a particle.
The resulting force F~R , is the vector sum of all these forces

F~R = F~1 + F~2 + · · ·

Newton’s second law then states F~R = m~a, m being the mass of the particle
and ~a its acceleration induced by the forces. If the forces are given in cartesian
coordinates, it is easy to find the vector sum, but the forces are normally given
in polar coordinates. Although one may graphically add the forces together, it
is normally more accurate first to change from polar to cartesian coordinates,
add the vectors together, and then convert the resulting force back into polar
coordinates. For example, we have two forces acting on a particle. One with
a magnitude of |F~1 | = 50 N acting at an angle of φ1 = 100 and a second of

Page 36 from 43
magnitude |F~2 | = 40 N acting at an angle of φ2 = −700 . What is the magnitude
of the resulting force and at what angle does it act?
In cartesian coordinates
! !
50 cos(100 ) 49.24
F~1 = N= N
50 sin(100 ) 8.68
and ! !
40 cos(−700 ) 13.68
F~2 = N= N.
40 sin(−700 ) −37.59
The resulting force is
!
62.92
F~R = F~1 + F~2 = N,
−28.91

with a magnitude of |F~R | = 62.922 + (−28.91)2 N = 69.24 N acting at an angle

p

of φR = − cos−1 (62.92/69.24) = −24.670 .

Exercises
Problem 26
Calculate F~R , |F~R | and φR .

a)
|F~1 | = 40; φ1 = 00 |F~2 | = 40; φ2 = 900

b)
|F~1 | = 10; φ1 = 1350 |F~2 | = 20; φ2 = −450

c)
|F~1 | = 50; φ1 = 1800 |F~2 | = 60; φ2 = −1350

d)
5
|F~1 | = 5; φ1 = 450 |F~2 | = √ ; φ2 = −900
2
e)
|F~1 | = 15; φ1 = 300 |F~2 | = 15; φ2 = 600

f)
|F~1 | = 30; φ1 = 1350 |F~2 | = 30; φ2 = 450

Apart from adding vectors together, one can also muliply them by one another.
One possibilty is the scalar (or dot) product written as ~a · ~b = ~b · ~a = a1 b1 + a2 b2

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(in 2-d) = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (in 3-d). The scalar product of a vector with itself
is the square of its magnitude: ~a · ~a = a21 + a22 = |~a|2 . Geometrically,

~a · ~b = |~a| · |~b| cos(α) ,

α being the angle between the two vectors. Evidently, when the vectors are
perpendicular, α = 900 and the scalar product is zero. This formula for the
scalar product also holds in three or more dimensions.
With the vectors !
1
~a =
2
and !
~b = 3
4
√ √ √
we have |~a| = 1 + 4 = 5, |~b| = 9 + 16 = 5 and ~a · ~b = 1 · 3 + 2 · 4 = 11. For
the angle between the vectors

~a · ~b 11
cos(α) = = √ = 0.984 ,
|~a||~b| 5·5
giving α = 10.30 .
Finally, the usual rules for opening up a bracket hold,

~a · (~b + ~c) = ~a · ~b + ~a · ~c .

Exercises
Problem 27
Calculate the magnitudes of the following vectors.

a) !
−1
~a =
2
b) !
~b = 0
1
c)  
 3 
~c =  −2 
 
 
−6

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 d)  
 2 
~
d =  3 
 
 
2

Exercises
Problem 28
Which of the following vectors are unit vectors?

a)  
 0√ 
~a =  −1/√ 2
 

1/ 2
 

b)  
 3 
~b =  −1 
 
−1
c) !
1
~c =
0
d) !
1/2
d~ =
−1/2

Exercises
Problem 29

a) Given are the vectors

! !
1 2
~a = and ~b = .
3 4

Calculate the scalar product ~a · ~b.

b) Given are the vectors
   
 2   3 
~c =  2  and d~ =  2  .
   
   
4 3
~
Calculate the scalar product ~c · d.

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 c) Given are the vectors
! !
2 3
~a = and ~b = .
7 5

Calculate the angle between ~a and ~b.

d) Show that the vectors
! !
10 2
~a = and ~b = .
−4 5
are perpendicular to each other.
e) ~a and ~b are two distinct vectors that are both perpendicular to a third vector
~c. Is the vector 2~a − ~b also perpendicular to ~c?
f) Determine the parameter s such that the vectors
! !
4 s
~a = and ~b = .
1 3
are perpendicular to each other.
g) Determine the parameter t such that the vector
!
7
~a = t
2
is an unit vector.

Another possiblity to multiply vectors is the vector (or cross) product written as

~c = ~a × ~b = −~b × ~a .

The magitude of this vector is |~c| = |~a × ~b| = |~a| · |~b| sin(α). Geometrically, this
is the area of the parallelogram formed by the two vectors. Evidently when the
vectors are parallel (α = 0) or antiparallel (α = 1800 ) the vector product is zero.
The vector ~c is perpendicular to both ~a and ~b and its direction my be found using
the right-hand-rule: your thumb points in the direction of ~a, index finger in the
direction of ~b and your middle finger then points in the direction of ~c.
The components of ~c may be found as follows. With
   
 a1   b1 
~a =  a2  and ~b =  b2  ,
   
   
a3 b3

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then  
 a2 b3 − a3 b2 
~c = ~a × ~b =  a3 b1 − a1 b3  .
 

a1 b2 − a2 b1
For example, with    
 1   4 
~a =  2  and ~b =  5  ,
   
   
3 6
   
 2 · 6 − 3 · 5   −3 
~c = ~a × ~b =  3 · 4 − 1 · 6  =  6  .
   
  
1·5−2·4 −3

As a check, ~a · ~c = -3+12-9 = 0 and ~b · ~c = -12+30-18 = 0.

Exercises
Problem 30
Given are the vectors
     
 2   3   2 
~a =  1  , ~b =  4  and ~c =  −1  .
     
     
−2 1 3

Calculate

a)
~a × ~b

b)
~b × ~a

c)
~a × ~c

d)
~b × ~c

e)
~a × (~b + ~c)

f)
(~a + ~b) × ~c

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 g)
~a × (3~b)

Linear systems of equations

A 2-d linear sytem of equations is of the form
a1 x + b1 y = c1
a2 x + b2 y = c2
Here we have two equations and two unknowns and geometrically are looking
for the interesection of the two lines. If the lines have different slopes, then the
solution is unique. If the slopes are equal, the lines are either parallel and there
is no solution, or they are the same line in which case the solution contains an
infinite number of points, namely the whole line.
One possibilty to solve these equations is to use one of them to solve for one
variable in terms of the other and stick that into the other equation. For example,
if we have the equations
1) 7x + y = 15
2) 3x + 2y = 8,
the first equation gives y = 15 − 7x. Putting this in the second equation gives
3x + 2(15 − 7x) = 8. Opening up the bracket and rearranging results in x = 2
and y = 15 − 7 · 2 = 1. Although this method always works, it becomes quite
cumbersome for higher dimensional sytems. It is normally better to multiply
one or more equations by a non-zero factor to eliminate one of the variables.
For example, muliplying the first equation above by 2 results in
1’) 14x + 2y = 30. Now, taking 1’) -2) gives 11x = 22 or x = 2. y can now be
calculated from 1).
Exercises
Problem 31
Solve the following linear sytems of equations.

a)
x − 2y = 5
x − y = 3
b)
2x − y = 4
−x + y = −1

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c)
3x − 6y = −3
x − 3y = −2
d)
−x + 3y = 5
2x − 4y = −6
e)
2x − 3y = −1
4x − 2y = 2
f)
2x + 3y = 12
3x + 2y = 13
g)
5x + 6y = 16
7x + 8y = 22

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