Proposal for Project: Geophysical Investigation of Road Pavement Failure within Modibbo

Adama University, Yola, Adamawa State

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Road pavement failures are a significant concern in civil engineering, particularly
in regions with varying geological and environmental conditions. Modibbo Adama
University, located in Yola, Adamawa State, has experienced several instances of
road pavement deterioration, leading to increased maintenance costs and safety
hazards. This study aims to investigate the underlying geophysical factors
contributing to these failures, utilizing advanced geophysical techniques to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the subsurface conditions affecting
road integrity.
Roads failures are discontinuity in a road pavement resulting in cracks, potholes,
bulges anddepression (Aigbedion,2017). According to (FMW& H,1997), failed
roads are characterized by potholes, polishing/pavement surface wash, block and
longitudinal cracks, drainage collapse,depression/ sinking of roadways, over
flooding of the carriage way, gullies and trenches, rutting and raveling. Failures of
highway pavement are a major experience which occurs on Nigeria roads
(Osuolale, et al.,2012). The failure of highway pavement is dated back to the
colonial period (Chukwueze,2015). These failures have been attributed to some
factors such as properties of construction materials, sub-grade condition,
environmental conditions, traffic condition,traffic loadings, lack of drainage and
poor workmanship (Arumala and Akpokodje,2012; Jegede,2014;
Madedor,2014;Ogundipe,2008 the road majorly used by student and lecturers
modibbo adama university is characterized by severe pavement distresses ranging
from large potholes, alligator cracking, collapse and clogging of drainage channels
evident in regions especially modibbo adama university primary school and
Second opposite students center. Occurrence of these failures is a major problem
to both motorist and pedestrians as these failures could contribute significantly to
loss of live, properties and human injuries through accidents, impedance of
human movement and flow of economic activities, encouragement of
environmental pollution and degradation and a host of other negative
consequences. Therefore, it is necessary to ascertain the major factors
responsible for occurrence of failures along the road under consideration as this
will serve as an aid in proffering solution to the major causes of failures along the
road
1.2 Statement of Problem
Road pavement failures at Modibbo Adama University have resulted in
disruptions to transportation, increased vehicle operating costs, and potential
safety risks for users. Despite regular maintenance efforts, the recurrence of
these failures suggests that the underlying causes have not been adequately
addressed. This study seeks to identify the geophysical factors contributing to
these failures, thereby providing insights that could inform better engineering
practices and maintenance strategies.
The modibbo adama university road is characterized by severe pavement
distresses ranging from large potholes, alligator cracking, and collapse and
clogging of drainage channels evident in regions especially modibbo adama
primary school line and opposite students center. Occurrence of these failures is a
major problem to both motorist and pedestrians as these failures could
contribute significantly to loss of live, properties and human injuries through
accidents, impedance of human movement , encouragement of armed robberies
along affected regions, environmental pollution and One of the foremost
consequences of distresses present in modibbo adama road is the delay in travel
time caused by reduction in vehicular speed. Travel time of student and lecturers
modibbo adama University Yola, adamawa State have been adversely affected by
the presence of this distresses particularly the deep crevice (potholes) present at
opposite basketball field and primary school junction. These developments have
resulted to poor service delivery on the part of the lecturers and non-attendance
of students especially during important courses.
Notable of some of the effect is damage of essential part of both private and
commercial vehicle. Presence of some of these distresses contribute significantly
to damage of essential part of mobility aid resulting to commitment of huge
amount of financial resources in their repair and maintenance. This situation is a
cause to worry particularly to commercial vehicle owners as a result of reduction
in their earning ability. In other to avert continual deterioration of the road and its
attendant consequence to road users, delay in academic activities of the
neighboring university as a result of delay in travel time, it is extremely important
that the major causes of these failures should be investigated. Therefore, this
study will investigate and proffer solutions to the major causes of pavement
failures within road.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Understanding the geophysical factors influencing road pavement failure is crucial
for developing effective mitigation strategies. This study will provide valuable data
that can assist civil engineers, policymakers, and stakeholders in making informed
decisions regarding road maintenance and design. Furthermore, the findings
could serve as a reference for future research in similar geological settings.
Key findings obtained from investigation of the major cause of pavement failures
in Ifite roadwill be significant in the following ways:
1. Ensure pavement durability through improved service life.
2. Serve as a reference or body of knowledge for further studies or remedies of
pavementdistresses.

1.4 Scope of the Study

The study will focus on the geophysical investigation of road pavement failure
specifically within the boundaries of Modibbo Adama University, Yola. It will
encompass the use of electrical resistivity methods to assess subsurface
conditions and identify potential issues related to moisture content, soil
composition, and other geological factors contributing to pavement failure.

1.5 Location and Geology of the Study

Modibbo Adama University is situated in Yola, Adamawa State, characterized by a
diverse geological setting that includes sedimentary and volcanic rock formations.
The region's geology plays a significant role in determining the mechanical
properties of the soil and, consequently, the performance of road pavements.
Understanding the local geology is essential for interpreting the results of the
geophysical investigations.
S/n Label control
1 L1 Failed
2 L2 Failed
3 L3 Failed
4 L4 control
5 L5 Failed
6 L6 failed

1.6 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to investigate the causes of road pavement failure within
the Modibbo Adama University (Main Campus), Yola using the geophysical
method, with the following objectives;
(1). To determine the geophysical properties/parameters of the soil
(2). To delineate the subsurface geologic features/sequence that characterizes
the sites
(3). To identify any subsurface geologic stru
ctures such as fractures, faults, cavities, and other weak zones that can induce
vulnerability.
(4). To proffer sustainable recommendation to the problem of gully erosion at
the site.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Related Literature

A comprehensive review of existing literature will be conducted to understand the current state
of knowledge regarding road pavement failures and the effectiveness of geophysical methods
in investigating these issues. Previous studies on similar topics will be analyzed to identify gaps
in knowledge and potential methodologies for this research.
Pavement deterioration is the process by which distresses develop in pavement under the
combined effects of traffic loading and environmental conditions. Deterioration of pavement
greatly affects serviceability, safety and riding quality of the road. After construction, roads
deteriorate with age as a result of use and therefore, they need to be maintained to ensure that
the
requirements for safety, efficiency and durability are satisfied. Normally, new paved
roads deteriorate very slowly in the first ten to fifteen years of their life, and then go on to
deteriorate much more rapidly unless timely maintenance is undertaken. These deteriorations
were contributed to many reasons such as excessive loads, climatic changes, poor drainage and
low-quality pavement materials. The most common road distresses are cracks, potholes,
rutting,
raveling, depressions and damaged edges.
The pavement as they may lead to premature failure and traffic hazards. Before going into
maintenance strategies, engineers must look into the causes of road deterioration.
Major Nigeria highways are known to fail shortly after construction, without performing its
function before its design life, and have been traced to several factors. These include poor
construction material, poor design and specification, road usage, poor drainage and
geotechnical
factors (Ebiloma and Rimtip,2019;Madu Uyaelumuo and Orji,2018).
The pavement structure is expected to posses’ desirable characteristics for it to perform
satisfactorily during its service life and this feature includes: adequate skid resistance,
durability,
favorable light reflecting characteristics, minimum noise pollution, good riding surface, long
design life with low repair cost, and impermeable surface and structural efficiency
Kadeyali,1997).
2.2 Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavement is one of the commonly constructed pavement structures due to its relative
economy in construction and service life (Kadeyali,1997). In a flexible pavement, stresses
generated by wheel load are transmitted to a lower layer (usually sub-grade) by grain to grain
transfer mechanism as it does not rely on its flexural strength for load transfer. Flexible
pavement consist of a bituminous surface placed over a layer of granular material and a layer of
suitable mixture of fine and coarse aggregate resting on the natural compacted sub-grade
acting
as the pavement foundation (Kadeyali,1997). Flexible pavements are mostly of bituminous
material acting as the binding agent such that it remains in contact with the underlying
materials
even when minor deficiencies occur.
Flexible pavements are further divided into three subgroups namely: high type, intermediate
and
low type (Neeraj and Kumar,2019). High type pavements have surface course that sufficiently
support the anticipated traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and they are not
vulnerable to unfavorable weather condition. Intermediate type pavements have surface
course
that moderately support anticipated traffic load with likelihood of the pavement developing
distress and this mainly due to the quality of the treated surface as their treated surface are low
compared to the high type pavements (Neeraj and Kumar,2019). Low type pavements are
highly
vulnerable to environmental conditions, marginally support expected traffic load with high
possibility of distress been developed. This type of flexible pavement is used mainly for low cost
roads and have wearing course ranging from untreated to loosed natural materials to surface
treated earth.
2.2.1 Structural Component of Flexible Pavement
The structural component of a flexible pavement includes: sub-grade or prepared road bed,
sub-
base, base course and wearing course, all these components are superimposed on each other
and
perform distinct functions (Kadeyali,1997). The performance of each component largely
dictates
the performance of the flexible pavements and as a result proper evaluation of these
components
is required for effective pavement performance and service life.
2.2.1.1 Sub-grade
The sub-grade is one of the most important structural components of a flexible pavement. It is
a
natural compacted earth lying beneath other layers and act as interface between the pavement
and the underlying soil (Kadeyali,1997). It is referred to as the pavement foundation as it
transmits the expected traffic load to the underlying soil of sufficient bearing capacity. The sub-
grade consists mainly of earth material and must be compacted to the desirable density, near
the
optimum moisture content. The strength and stiffness of the sub-grade considerably influences
the performance of a pavement structure (Chandravali,2019). The stiffness is referred to as the
degree of resistance upon loading and it depends primarily upon the soil properties, existing
stress conditions and soil stress history (Susanka,2016).
2.2.1.2 Sub-base
The sub-base is a layer of material above the sub-grade and beneath the base course and they
function primarily to provide structural support, improve drainage and reduce intrusion of fines
from the sub-grade to the pavement structure (Kadeyali,1997). The structural capacity of the
wearing course can be used to determine whether a sub-base can be dispensed with. If the
pavement is constructed over a high-quality wearing surface, stiff sub-grade may not require
additional features offered by a sub-base layer and in such condition, sub-base may be
dispensed
with.
2.2.1.3 Base-course
The base-course is a layer of materials directly above the sub-base and beneath the wearing or
surface course, it reduces the magnitude or intensity of the load transmitted to the underlying
pavements layers (Kadeyali,1997). It provides additional load distribution mechanism and
contributes to sub-surface drainage. It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slug and
other
untreated or stabilized materials.
2.2.1.4 Wearing Course
Wearing course is a layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior
quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete. The
functions
and requirements of this layer are: It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
drainage. Also, it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the
underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade, it must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic
and provide a smooth and skid resistant riding surface, it must be water proof to protect the
entire
base and sub-grade from the weakening effect of water.
2.3 Durability of Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavement consists mainly of layered materials which include the sub-grade, base
course,
sub-base and the surface course and the strength and durability of the pavement is largely
dependent on the nature of the various components (Obeta and Njoku,2016). The sub-grade
(regardless of the nature of frost susceptibility or fluctuation in water table) functions primarily
as the pavement foundation providing a favorable platform for the construction of the
pavement.
The sub-base whether natural or stabilized with Portland cement, asphalt, lime, flyash, act as a
support the base course, prevent the intrusion of fine grained sub-grade soil into the base
course
and ensuring the drainage of free water (Obeta and Njoku,2016). The base course which
comprises chiefly of good quality aggregates (bound or unbound) provides an important
portion
of the structural capacity of the pavement bearing significant amount of the wheel load
transmitted to it through the pavement surface and transferring this load to the underlying
layers
(sub-base) while the surface course typically made of asphaltic concrete (wearing course)
withstand skidding, traffic abrasion and disintegration effect of climate Christopher et al (2006).
It is therefore evident that the durability of pavement is affected by the nature of these
materials
expressed in terms of strength, moisture content, drainage and spatial variability.The
opposition of a pavement to weathering and abrasive action of traffic within its design life is
used to gauge the durability of a pavement (Obeta and Njoku,2016). Depending on the factor of
concern, it can be gauged using the thin-film oven test, rolling thin-film oven test, pressure
ageing vessel method and concept of durability index from the Marshal test. With regards to
asphalt paving materials, durability can also be defined as the resistance posed by these
materials
in the asphalt pavement structure to adverse effects of environmental conditions such as
water,
ageing and temperature variations for a lengthy period without any substantial deterioration
while taking into account a given volume of traffic loading (Scholz and Brown,1996). Thus,
pavement durability is also the measure of how asphalt binder physical properties change with
age (age hardening).
2.4 Flexible Pavement Evaluation
Normally, the term pavement refers to the surface layer (M.T. Highway,2016). With respect to
highway design, it refers to pavement overall thickness including wearing (surfacing) course,
base course and sub-base course. It is hard and tough coating layered over the natural sub-
grade
in order to provide stable and leveled surface for vehicles. It is an arrangement comprising of
superimposed layers of processed materials over the natural sub-grade which its main function
is
to transmit and distribute the vehicles’ axle loads to the sub-grade. The structure of pavement
should provide suitable riding quality surface, adequate skid resistance and least noise pollution
(Mathew and Rao,2017).Flexible pavement design is the process of selecting the most effectual
and inexpensive
composition of flexible pavement courses or layers (taking cognizance of the pavement
thickness
and type of selected materials and increasing traffic axle load to be carried and handled during
the pavements’ design life) to fit the sub-grade foundation (Shamil and Flamarz,2017). Flexible
pavement structure design differs from building and bridges design owing of the fact that the
design of pavement hitherto is based on semi-empirical or empirical method and there is no
rationalistic design method. Flexible pavement design consists mainly from two steps or parts:
Material mix design to be utilized in each course of pavement and pavement thickness design
comprising of each layer of components (Shamil and Flamarz,2017).
Review of Types of Road Failures
Pavement distress can be classified as follows:
2.7.1 Alligator Cracking
Alligator cracking are series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the hot mix
asphalt surface under repeated traffic loading (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). As the number and
magnitude of loads increases, longitudinal cracks begin to develop and after repeated loading,
these longitudinal cracks connect forming many sided-angled pieces that develop into a pattern
which takes the shape of an alligator or crocodile (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). This cracking is
likely due to infiltration of water into the pavement.

Plate 2.3: Photograph of alligator Cracking (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

7.2 Transverse Cracking

These are cracks perpendicular to the pavement centerline Mehedi and Mohd (2020). This cracks
are caused by shrinkage of hot mix asphalt surface due to low temperature or asphalt binder
hardening, it is also referred to as thermal cracking.

Plate 2.2: Photograph of Transverse Cracking (source:Fiel

2.7.4 Longitudinal Cracking
These are cracking that occurs in the surface of road and runs lengthwise along the pavement.
It
can consist of a single crack or as a series of parallel cracks. This crack occurs as a result of
asphalt hardening, diurnal temperature fluctuations and reflection of a crack or joint in the road
pavement (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

Plate 2.4: Photograph of Longitudinal Cracking (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

2.7.5 Slippage Cracking
Due to poor bonding between pavement layers, slippage cracking appears as crescent-shaped
(half-moon) or wave-like cracking (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). This type of pavement can be
caused by poor bonding of material with an underlying layer or a low strength surface mix and
may be exacerbated by continual traffic breaking or wheel turning (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).
This cracking create rough riding surface, voids and bulges and will begin incurring heavier and
heavier impact forces from traffic, which will increase the damage. This will cause potentially
larger damage subsequently; especially as water channeling and penetration damage the
pavement base and advance the deterioration.

Plate 2.5: Photograph of Slippage Cracking (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

2.7.6 Corrugating and Shoving
Corrugation and shoving are two defects that usually occur in flexible pavements. It is caused by
weak sub-grade conditions, improper rolling, poor mixing, temperature effect of bitumen and
weak bottom layers (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). Corrugation is characterized by formation of
ripples or waves on the flexible pavement generally perpendicular to the traffic flow. It occurs
at
the points where traffic starts and stops.

Plate 2.6: Photograph of Corrugation and Shoving (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

2.7.7 Potholes
A pothole is a defect created on the road surface as a result of the primary failure in the asphalt
pavement used in road making, which leads to the structural failure of the road surface
(Mehedi
and Mohd,2020). The asphalt pavement failure occurs due to the presence of water in the
underlying soil structure and the presence of traffic passing over the affected area on the road
(Mehedi and Mohd,2020). The water in the underlying soil structure can come from floods,
underground erosions or cracks from the road surface.

Plate 2.7: Photograph of Pothole along miracle junction ifite road (source: Field).
2.7.8 Raveling
Raveling refers to the progressive disintegration of hot mix asphalt layer from the surface
downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). It is
caused by loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a result of dust
coating on the aggregate particle particles that forces the asphalt binder to bond with the dust
rather than the aggregate, it is also caused by aggregate separation where the fine particle are
missing from the aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the remaining
coarse particles at their relatively few contact points. Inadequate compaction during
construction
also causes raveling as high density are required to develop sufficient cohesion within the hot
mix asphalt.
Plate 2.8: Photograph of Raveling (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).
2.7.9 Depression
Depressions are localized pavement surface with slightly lower elevations than the surrounding
pavement (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). They are very noticeable after infiltration of water as a
result of rainfall; they are caused by frost heave, uneven sub-base or sub-grade settlement
resulting from inadequate compaction during construction (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).
Depression
can be repaired by removing the affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of
poor sub-grade patch over the repaired sub-grade.

Plate 2.9: Photograph of Depression 9Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

2.7.10 Water Bleeding
Water bleeding of pavement occurs when water seeps out of joints or cracks or through an
excessively porous hot mix asphalt layer, it is caused by inadequate compaction during
construction or poor mix design, high water table and poor drainage, low air void content
(Mehedi and Mohd, 2020).

Plate 2.10: Photograph of Water Bleeding (Mehedi and Mohd ,2020).

2.7.11 Rutting
A rut is a permanent longitudinal surface depression that occurs in the wheel paths of a flexible
pavement due to the passage of traffic (Mehedi and Mohd,2020). Ruts accumulate
incrementally
with traffic volume; rut depth at any location is measured as the vertical distance between the
top
of the heave and the bottom of the depression, rut are caused primarily by asphalt layer
problems, structural layer problems and weak sub-grade problems (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).
Plate 2.11: Photograph of Rutting (Mehedi and Mohd,2020).

2.8 Causes of Highway Failures

2.2 Geophysical Investigation

Geophysical investigations are non-invasive methods used to assess subsurface conditions. This
section will focus on the electrical resistivity method, which is widely used in engineering
geology. Geophysical methods of exploration play important roles due to their extensive
applications in exclusive fields of human endeavours. They have been efficiently implemented
to resolve environmental, pollution, construction and engineering issues (Nelson and Haigh,
1990; Adiat et al., 2009). The rampant failure of road network in Nigeria particularly in Cross
River State according to Abong (2017) has become a grave concern both to the road users and
government. It is not unusual to see potholes, cracks, depression and bulges at the roads and
this result to hold up, opportunity for robbers to dispossess road users of their assets, crashes
and death. Available information at the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC, 2011) revealed that
Nigeria ranks 191 of 192 countries of the world with unsafe roads, and as a result 162 deaths
per 10,000 populations occur from road crashes. Most accidents recorded in major high ways in
Cross River State happened within the bad portions which are as a result of failure.Ifabiyi and
Kekere (2013) and Osemudiamen (2013) revealed that incompetence of subsurface geological
substances, geology, sage, poor construction, poor renovation, insufficient information
approximately the subsoil and geomorphology are answerable for the failure. Other factors in
the opinions of Lebourg et al(2005), Fatoba et al(2010) and Adeyemo et al(2014) that could in
all likelihood results in failure of the roads are capabilities like faults, sinkholes, cavities which
are not considered by foundation and structural engineers before construction
2.2.1 Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity is a critical parameter in geophysical investigations, providing insights into
subsurface material properties.
2.2.1.1 Electrical Potential of Electrodes
The electrical potential difference between electrodes is fundamental in measuring resistivity
and understanding subsurface conditions.

2.2.1.2 Four Electrodes Configuration

This subsection will discuss the four-electrode configuration, which minimizes the effects of
contact resistance and enhances measurement accuracy.

#000 2.2.1.3 Mode of Electrodes Configuration

Different configurations of electrodes (e.g., Wenner, Schlumberger) will be explored,
highlighting their application and effectiveness in various geological settings.

2.2.1.4 Apparent Resistivity

This section will define apparent resistivity and its significance in interpreting geophysical data,
particularly in identifying moisture content and soil composition.

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials
A detailed list of materials and equipment required for the geophysical investigation will be
provided, including resistivity meters, electrodes, and data processing software.
The major instrument used for data acquisition was a Resistivity
Meter Model SSR-MP-ATS by IGIS (India) which can measure the
earth resistance with an accuracy of 1μΩ and 24V rechargeable
batteries. Accessories included twenty-one (21) electrodes, current
and potential reels, measuring tapes, GARMIN 12 Global
Positioning System (GPS), Hammers and Umbrella
3.2 Method
This section will outline the methodologies employed in the study.
The proposed methodology includes the following steps:
1. Site Selection: Identify key areas within the university campus exhibiting signs of pavement
failure.
2. Geophysical Survey:
- Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): To assess the thickness and condition of pavement layers
and detect voids or anomalies.
- Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT): To evaluate the moisture content and stratigraphy of
the subgrade.
- Seismic Refraction: To determine the shear wave velocity and assess the stiffness of the
pavement and underlying materials.
3. Data Analysis: Interpret the geophysical data using appropriate software to visualize
subsurface conditions and correlate findings with surface distress.
4. Reporting: Compile a comprehensive report detailing findings, analysis, and
recommendations for pavement rehabilitation.
3.2.1 Geo-Electrical Method
The geo-electrical method will be described in detail, including the setup, data collection, and
processing techniques used during the investigation.

3.2.2 Geotechnical Data Processing and Interpretation

This subsection will explain the processes involved in analyzing the collected data, including
software tools and statistical methods used to interpret the results.
3.3 Expected Outcomes
The study is expected to yield insights into the geophysical factors contributing to road
pavement failures at Modibbo Adama University. Anticipated outcomes include:
- Identification of critical subsurface conditions affecting pavement integrity.
- Recommendations for improved design and maintenance practices based on the findings.
- Contributions to the body of knowledge in geophysical engineering and road infrastructure
management.
References
1. Baker, R., & Smith, J. (2018). Geophysical methods for the assessment of pavement
conditions. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 24(2), 123-135.
2. Hossain, M., & Ahmed, K. (2020). Application of electrical resistivity tomography in evaluating
pavement conditions. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 21(5), 557-570.
3. Zeng, Y., & Li, Q. (2019). Ground Penetrating Radar for pavement evaluation: A review.
Journal of Transportation Engineering, 145(6), 04019016.

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