Here are detailed notes on the major language learning theories:
Language Learning Theories
Language learning theories attempt to explain how humans acquire, develop, and use language.
Several theories have been proposed, each emphasizing different aspects of language acquisition.
The following are some of the key theories:
1. Behaviorism
Overview:
Proposed by B.F. Skinner (1957) in his book Verbal Behavior.
Suggests that language learning occurs through habit formation, reinforcement, and
conditioning.
It emphasizes the role of the environment in shaping language behavior.
Key Concepts:
Imitation: Children imitate the language spoken around them.
Reinforcement: Correct language use is rewarded (positive reinforcement), while
incorrect use is corrected (negative reinforcement).
Repetition & Drills: Language is learned through repetition and practice.
Stimulus-Response Theory: Language learning is a response to stimuli from the
environment.
Criticism:
Does not explain how children produce novel sentences that they have never heard
before.
Ignores the role of cognitive processes in language learning.
Does not account for the complexity of language rules.
Example in Language Learning:
A child says “milk,” and the parent gives them milk (reward). The child learns that
saying “milk” gets them what they want.
2. Innateness (Nativist Theory)
Overview:
Proposed by Noam Chomsky (1959) as a response to behaviorism.
Suggests that humans are biologically programmed to learn language.
Children are born with an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which allows
them to acquire language naturally.
Key Concepts:
Universal Grammar (UG): A set of grammatical rules common to all languages.
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): There is an optimal time for language acquisition
(before puberty).
Poverty of Stimulus Argument: Children learn language despite limited exposure to
grammatical structures.
Criticism:
Does not fully explain second language acquisition (SLA).
Does not consider the role of social interaction.
Lacks empirical evidence for the existence of the LAD.
Example in Language Learning:
A child hears incomplete or incorrect sentences but still learns correct grammar.
3. Cognitivism
Overview:
Associated with Jean Piaget (1952).
Views language acquisition as part of a child's overall cognitive development.
Language learning occurs in stages and is linked to a child's ability to think and
understand concepts.
Key Concepts:
Cognitive Development Stages: Language develops alongside a child's ability to think
logically.
Schema: Mental structures that help process new information.
Accommodation & Assimilation: Children modify their understanding as they gain new
linguistic knowledge.
Criticism:
Does not fully explain why children can learn language without full cognitive
development.
Underestimates the role of social interaction.
Example in Language Learning:
A child learns the word “dog” and initially calls all four-legged animals “dog.” Later,
they differentiate between “dog” and “cat.”
4. Interactionism (Social Interactionist Theory)
Overview:
Proposed by Lev Vygotsky (1978).
Emphasizes the role of social interaction in language learning.
Language development occurs through communication with others (parents, teachers,
peers).
Key Concepts:
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a child can do
alone and what they can do with help.
Scaffolding: Support from adults or more knowledgeable peers helps children acquire
language.
Social and Cultural Influence: Language is learned through cultural context and
interaction.
Criticism:
Does not explain how children form complex grammatical structures.
Overemphasizes social factors while downplaying cognitive mechanisms.
Example in Language Learning:
A mother asks a child, “Do you want juice?” The child responds, “Juice!” Over time, the
child learns to say, “I want juice.”
5. Empiricism
Overview:
Associated with John Locke (17th century).
Suggests that knowledge, including language, comes from experience and sensory
perception.
Language is learned through observation and interaction with the environment.
Key Concepts:
Tabula Rasa: The human mind is a "blank slate" at birth, and knowledge is acquired
through experience.
Empirical Learning: Language is learned through exposure, practice, and sensory
input.
Criticism:
Does not explain why children can learn grammar rules that they are not explicitly taught.
Underestimates the role of innate cognitive structures.
Example in Language Learning:
A child learns the word “apple” after repeatedly seeing and hearing it in different
contexts.
Comparison of Theories
Key Role of Role of
Theory Main Idea Criticism
Proponent Environment Cognition
Language is learned
Cannot explain
B.F. through imitation,
Behaviorism High Low creativity in
Skinner reinforcement, and
language use.
habit formation.
Humans are
Noam biologically Lacks empirical
Innateness Low High
Chomsky programmed to learn evidence.
language (LAD, UG).
Language
Ignores social
development follows
Cognitivism Jean Piaget Medium High aspects of
cognitive development
learning.
stages.
Lev Social interaction Does not fully
Interactionism High Medium
Vygotsky plays a key role in explain
Key Role of Role of
Theory Main Idea Criticism
Proponent Environment Cognition
language development. grammar
acquisition.
Cannot explain
Language is learned
complex
Empiricism John Locke through experience High Low
grammar
and observation.
learning.
Conclusion
Each theory provides a unique perspective on language acquisition. Modern research suggests
that language learning is influenced by a combination of factors—innate abilities, cognitive
development, social interaction, and environmental exposure.
Here are some key terms in Second Language Acquisition (SLA):
1. Acquisition vs. Learning
Acquisition: The subconscious process of picking up a language through exposure,
similar to how children learn their first language.
Learning: The conscious process of studying and memorizing language rules, often in a
formal setting.
2. Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
Suggests that there is an optimal age range (before puberty) for learning a language
naturally and achieving native-like proficiency.
3. Interlanguage
The transitional linguistic system that learners create as they progress toward fluency.
It contains elements of the native language (L1) and the target language (L2).
4. Fossilization
When language errors become permanent and resistant to correction, even with further
exposure or practice.
5. Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1985)
Learners acquire a language when they are exposed to comprehensible input (i+1)—
language slightly beyond their current level.
6. Affective Filter Hypothesis
Emotional factors like anxiety, motivation, and confidence affect language learning.
A low affective filter (low anxiety, high motivation) enhances learning, while a high
affective filter (fear, stress) hinders it.
7. Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1985)
Learners improve their language skills by producing (speaking/writing) and receiving
feedback, not just by understanding input.
8. Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990)
Learners must consciously notice language forms and patterns in order to acquire them.
9. Transfer (Positive & Negative)
Positive transfer: When similarities between L1 and L2 help learning (e.g., similar
grammar rules).
Negative transfer (Interference): When L1 rules interfere with L2 learning, causing
errors.
10. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – Vygotsky
The gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance
from a more knowledgeable person.
11. Scaffolding
Support provided by teachers or peers to help learners move through the ZPD until they
can use language independently.
12. Communicative Competence (Canale & Swain, 1980)
The ability to use language effectively in different social situations.
Includes grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.
13. Pragmatics
Understanding the social and cultural rules of communication (e.g., politeness, idioms,
indirect requests).
14. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: Learning driven by personal interest and enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation: Learning driven by external rewards (grades, job opportunities).
15. Code-Switching
Alternating between two languages within a conversation, often influenced by context
and speaker preference.
16. Fossilization
The process where certain language errors become permanent despite continued
exposure and learning efforts.
Krashen’s Five Language Learning Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen, a linguist and professor, developed five key hypotheses to explain how people
acquire a second language. His "Input Hypothesis" theory is widely used in Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) and English as a Second Language (ESL) teaching. Below are detailed
notes on each hypothesis.
1. Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
This hypothesis distinguishes between two different ways of developing language skills:
A. Acquisition (Subconscious Learning)
Similar to how children acquire their first language (L1).
Happens naturally through meaningful communication rather than formal grammar
instruction.
Requires exposure to the language in real-life situations.
Focuses on fluency rather than rules.
Example: A child learning English by interacting with native speakers, without being
explicitly taught grammar.
B. Learning (Conscious Learning)
Involves formal instruction, memorization, and grammar rules.
Happens in classroom settings with structured lessons.
Focuses on accuracy and correcting mistakes.
Example: A student memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary lists.
Key Takeaway:
Acquisition is more effective than learning for natural language development.
Krashen argues that focusing too much on conscious learning (grammar, drills) does not
lead to fluency.
2. Monitor Hypothesis
This hypothesis explains how language learners self-correct their speech and writing.
How It Works:
The "monitor" is a mental system that checks language output (speaking/writing) and
corrects mistakes.
It relies on conscious knowledge of grammar rules.
The "monitor" is activated when three conditions are met:
1. The learner knows the grammar rule.
2. They have enough time to apply it.
3. They are focused on accuracy rather than fluency.
Types of Monitor Users:
1. Over-users: Constantly correct themselves, leading to slow, hesitant speech.
2. Under-users: Rarely check for errors and rely only on natural speech.
3. Optimal users: Balance fluency and accuracy, using the monitor when needed.
Key Takeaway:
The "monitor" should be used moderately. Overusing it can slow down communication.
Fluency should be prioritized over grammar correction in conversation.
3. Natural Order Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that language learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable
sequence—some rules come earlier, and some come later.
Key Points:
Grammar rules are learned in a set order, regardless of teaching methods.
Some structures appear earlier (e.g., present continuous "He is running"), while others
come later (e.g., third-person singular "She runs").
This sequence is similar across different languages.
Explicit grammar instruction does not change this natural order significantly.
Example:
A child learning English might use "I go" before correctly saying "I am going"—even
if they were taught the correct form first.
Key Takeaway:
Grammar rules should not be forced early on.
Language teachers should introduce structures gradually and let learners progress
naturally.
4. Input Hypothesis (Comprehensible Input - "i+1")
This hypothesis is the core of Krashen’s theory and explains how learners acquire language.
Key Concept: "i + 1"
"i" = the learner’s current language ability.
"+1" = slightly more advanced language input (challenging but understandable).
Learners acquire language when they receive input slightly above their current level
(not too easy, not too hard).
Example:
A beginner learning English understands "She is running" (i).
They hear "She is running because she is late" (+1).
The extra phrase challenges them but is still understandable.
How to Provide Comprehensible Input:
Use simple sentences and visual aids.
Engage learners in meaningful conversations.
Provide stories, songs, and real-life dialogues.
Encourage listening and reading before focusing on speaking.
Key Takeaway:
Understanding input is more important than practicing speaking early on.
Grammar is learned naturally through exposure, not through direct teaching.
5. Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis explains how emotions affect language learning.
Key Concept:
Negative emotions (high affective filter) block learning.
Positive emotions (low affective filter) enhance learning.
Factors That Affect the Filter:
1. Anxiety: Fear of making mistakes discourages speaking.
2. Motivation: More motivation leads to better learning.
3. Self-confidence: A confident learner takes more risks and practices more.
Example:
A shy student in a strict classroom may struggle to speak due to fear of being corrected.
A relaxed student in a supportive environment will feel comfortable trying new words
and sentences.
How to Lower the Affective Filter:
Create a positive learning environment (supportive and stress-free).
Use engaging activities (games, group discussions, storytelling).
Encourage risk-taking without fear of mistakes.
Key Takeaway:
A stress-free, encouraging environment helps learners acquire language faster.
Teachers should focus on making learners feel safe and motivated.
Conclusion: How Krashen’s Hypotheses Impact Language
Learning
Hypothesis Key Idea Teaching Implication
Acquisition-Learning Natural acquisition is better than Focus on communication, not
Hypothesis formal learning. grammar drills.
Encourage speaking without fear of
Monitor Hypothesis Over-monitoring slows fluency.
mistakes.
Natural Order Grammar is acquired in a set Teach grammar naturally through
Hypothesis order. exposure.
Language input must be slightly Use engaging, understandable input
Input Hypothesis (i+1)
above current level. (stories, dialogues).
Affective Filter Reduce stress, increase motivation
Emotions impact learning.
Hypothesis and confidence.
Krashen’s five hypotheses emphasize the importance of natural exposure, meaningful
communication, and emotional support in second language learning. Grammar-focused
lessons should not dominate the learning process—fluency and comprehension should come
first.
