KERALA VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES, POOKODE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

Title of Unit : Applied Ruminant Nutrition-II

Unit No. : 3
Credit Hours : 3+1
Compiled by
Dr. Biju Chacko
Dr. S. Senthil Murugan
Dr. Surej Joseph Bunglavan
Dr. Jinsy. V. S
Reference books
1. Animal Nutrition : Maynard L. A., Loosli, J. K., Hintz, H.F. and Warner, R. G (7 th edi)
2. Animal Nutrition : McDonald P., Greenhalgh, J. F. D., Morgan, C. A., Edwards, R Liam
Sinclair, L . and Wilkinson, R (7th edi)
3. Animal Nutrition : Banerjee G. C.
4. Principles of Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology : D.V. Reddy
 Title of the course: Applied Ruminant Nutrition-II Unit No.: 3
Credit hours: 3 + 1

Sl No Theory
1 Energy requirements of Livestock for maintenance: basal metabolism, factorial method and feeding trial
2 Method of estimating energy requirement.
3 Protein requirement for maintenance: different methods of estimation.
4 Mineral and vitamin requirement for maintenance
5 Nutrient requirements for growth: estimation of energy, protein, mineral and vitamin requirements.
6 Determination of nutrient requirements for pregnancy.
7 Determination of energy, protein, mineral and vitamin requirements for lactation.
8 Requirements of nutrients for work, fattening and wool.
9 Formulation of rations for cattle and buffaloes.
Feeding of cattle: growing, mature, dry, lactating and pregnant cows, breeding bulls and working
10
bullocks.
11 Formulations of rations for various classes of goats.
12 Feeding of kids, growers, lactating and pregnant does, meat goats.
13 Formulation of rations for various classes of sheep.
14 Feeding of lamb, growers, lactating and pregnant ewes, breeding rams, wool producers.
15 Utilization of agro industrial byproducts and agricultural wastes as animal feeds.
16 Unconventional feeds.
17 Use of urea molasses with concentrates and roughages.
18 Feeding of high yielding animals and role of bypass nutrients
19 Metabolic disorders and nutritional interventions
 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF LIVESTOCK FOR MAINTENANCE

Energy is the driving force for maintenance of life, growth, reproduction, production and
work.
Maintenance: state in which there is neither gain nor loss of a nutrient by the body
Fasting catabolism: when the need for feed is not met, tissue break down occurs and this
destruction of body tissues is referred to as the fasting catabolism. The destruction of body
tissues occurs in order to support the activities essential to life.
Basal metabolism: fasting catabolism measured at its minimum value. Measurement of
basal metabolism provides a direct estimate of the quantity of net energy which the animal
must obtain from its feed to meet the demand for maintenance. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
is highest for new born and it declines 8% per year of age. BMR is lowered by under
nutrition, increased by emotional stimuli, and declines with castration. True minimum value
of basal metabolism is attained in the case of man and the conditions for its measurement
are
a. Good nutritive condition: a poor state of nutrition tends to decrease heat production
during fasting.
b. Thermo neutral environment (around 250C): the range between the lower and upper
critical temperatures is referred to as the thermoneutral zone (zone of comfort).
Lower critical temperature: Environmental temperature below which heat production is
increased by body to maintain the body temperature.
Upper critical temperature: Environmental temperature above which heat production is
reduced by body to maintain the body temperature.
Ruminants have a wider thermo neutral zone and lower critical temperatures than pig
and poultry.
c. Post absorptive state: heat increment due to digestion and assimilation has been
dissipated. At post absorptive state, RQ of fat is reached in the case of non ruminants
and in ruminants the methane excretion will decline to a minimum level. Human beings
have simple digestive system and hence overnight fasting will result in post absorptive
state. Ruminants have four chambered stomach involving microbial digestion and hence
post absorptive state can be obtained only after a prolonged period of fasting (at least 4
days). The same period of fasting is recommended for the pigs to attain the post
absorptive state while fowl reaches the post absorptive state in two days of fasting.
d. Relaxation on bed: it is difficult in farm animals and hence activity increment has to be
considered. Activity increment is the amount of energy required for activity. In cattle
sheep and swine the activity increment is 20-30% of basal metabolism while in poultry it
is 50%
In general the basal metabolism is 10-15% greater when animals are standing (horse
being an exemption) and grazing animals have maintenance requirements 25-50%
greater than that of housed animals.
Fasting metabolism: it is the terminology used in ruminants instead of basal metabolism.
Fasting metabolism refers to heat production at specified times after the last feeding.
Standard metabolism: to avoid problems associated with prolonged fasting in ruminants,
some workers have determined heat production over a specific time period after the last
feeding and have referred this value as standard metabolism.
Resting metabolism: heat eliminated when an animal is lying at rest though not strictly in a
thermo neutral environment or in the post absorptive state.
Surface area law (Rubner): heat produced by all warm blooded animals is directly
proportional to body surface area and that expressed on this basis, heat production is a
constant for all species. Surface area is proportional to two-thirds power of body wt (W0.67)
i.e. metabolic body size rather than body weight. Therefore, heat production per kilogram is
greater in smaller animals when compared to larger ones
Brody, studied the basal metabolism of all animals ranging from mice to elephant and
developed the following equation.
Basal metabolism (k cal) = 70.5 W0.734 (Cattle have a fasting metabolism 15% higher than the
interspecies mean and for sheep it is 15% lower)
67.6 W0.756 (modification by Kleiber)
70 W0.75 (NRC, General formula)
Lusk suggested that basal metabolism is 1000 kcal per square meter of body surface per
24hrs regardless of the size of the animal.
Methods for the estimation of energy requirement for maintenance
A. Direct calorimetry: using animal calorimeter (an adult, healthy non producing animal in
post absorptive stage is put inside an animal calorimeter with arrangement for the
collection of feces, urine, gases and the determination of sensible heat loss as well as
heat loss by evaporation of water from lungs and skin surface).
B. Indirect calorimetry:
(1)Factorial method: by adding factors such as activity increment to the fasting
metabolism to obtain the maintenance energy requirement.
(2)Feeding trial method:
a) Short term feeding experiments: heat loss is measured indirectly by carbon
nitrogen balance or through respiration calorimetry (measurement of respiratory
gases exchange and urinary nitrogen excretion) to assess the net energy
requirement of animals.
b) Long term feeding experiments: energy equilibrium is assumed when the body
weight changes is absent or negligible
C. By using regression equations (most common method recently): feeding experiments
with different levels of feed intakes is conducted. Maintenance requirement is
obtained by extrapolation of intake of feed towards zero level of production.
D. Comparative slaughter experiments (Lofgreen and Garrett): More accurate than other
methods. Fasting heat production estimated by this method in beef cattle lies
between 72-82 kcal/kgW0.75, with a mean of 77 kcal/kgW0.75
Maintenance energy requirement of various species
a) Dairy cattle
1. Net Energy= 80 kcal/kgW0.75/day
2. Metobolisable Energy= 133 kcal/kgW0.75/day (for Indian cattle and buffaloes
Sen and Ranjhan proposed the value 122 kcal/kgW0.75/day)
3. Digestible Energy= 155 kcal/kgW0.75/day
4. TDN= 35.2g/kgW0.75/day
5. Net Energy [MJ/day] (ARC)=0.53 (W/1.08)0.67 + Activity increment (activity
increment is 0.0071 W for growing cattle and 0.0091 W for dairy cows; W is
the body wt in Kg)
b) Sheep
1. Metabolisable Energy= 98 kcal/kgW0.75/day (NRC, 1981)
2. TDN= 27.3g/kgW0.75/day
3. Net Energy [MJ/day] (ARC) = 0.226 (W/1.08)0.75 + Activity increment (activity
increment is 0.007 W; W is the body wt in Kg)
c) Goat
1. Metabolisable Energy= 119 kcal/kgW0.75/day
2. TDN= 30g/kgW0.75/day
PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE – DIFFERENT METHODS OF ESTIMATION
The amount of protein lost in the urine and feces of animals, and additional losses such as
hair, skin and hooves represent the amount of protein required for maintenance. The
estimation of maintenance requirement of protein is more complicated than that of energy.
The reasons are

1. Protein may be used as a source of energy in case of energy shortage.

2. Excessive intake of protein results in de-amination of protein and the resulting
nitrogen free substances will be used as a source of energy.
3. Adult growth has to be considered: adult growth is the growth and renewal of
epidermal tissues like wool, feathers, hooves etc
Urinary N: it includes, urea (more than 80%), creatinine, ammonia, uric acid, allantoin,
amino acids etc
Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen or EUN (Folin, 1905): minimum urinary nitrogen excreted on
a nitrogen free energy adequate diet. This is due to nitrogen catabolism taking place in the
body to maintain the vital processes.
Terroine and Sorg-Matter observed that 2.3 to 2.9 mg nitrogen is excreted per kilocalorie
BMR
(Commonly used value is 2 mg EUN/ kilocalorie basal metabolism or 500 mg EUN/ MJ basal
metabolism. In ruminants the value is 350 mg EUN/ MJ fasting metabolism, and the value is
lower due to recycling of urea to the rumen or large intestine)
Brody and coworkers:
EUN= 146 mg / kg W0.72/day
EUN of Indian cattle is 0.02g/kg body wt while that of Bos taurus is 0 .289 g/kg body wt.
It is very difficult to find out the EUN value although theoretically the procedure seems to be
very simple because experimental animals will hardly continue to consume normal quantity
of feed for a long time required for the experiment without any nitrogen (protein) in their
ration.
Exogenous urinary nitrogen: urinary nitrogen in excess of the endogenous portion.
Faecal Nitrogen: includes undigested or un-absorbed feed nitrogen along with MFN
Metabolic faecal nitrogen (MFN): faecal nitrogen excreted on a nitrogen free energy
adequate diet. Consist principally of unused digestive enzymes, abraded mucosa and
bacterial nitrogen. Amount of MFN in feces is directly proportional to the DM consumption.
MFN of
a) European cattle=5g/kg DMI
b) Indian cattle=3.5g/kg DMI
c) Buffalo=3.4g/kg DMI
# EUN and MFN put together in ruminants is 350 mg/kg W0.75/day
Methods for the estimation of protein requirement for maintenance

A) Nitrogen balance method: the minimum protein intake at which the nitrogen
equilibrium is achieved on a ration adequate in energy, minerals and vitamins is
considered as the requirement of protein.

In general the nitrogen balance study will be a short term experiment, and the question
always arises that how accurately the results apply to long term feeding.

During nitrogen equilibrium the nitrogen intake is equal to nitrogen excreted.

Established nitrogen equilibrium in any subject shows the following facts
a) animal is no more growing
 b) protein in diet is sufficient in quality and quantity
c) diet is adequate in energy
d) animal is not suffering from any wasting disease.
Negative nitrogen balance means the excretion of nitrogen exceeds the intake (e.g.
fasting, starvation, high fever, prolonged illness, low protein diets, diets poor in protein
quality, inadequate calorie content in the diet, injury etc)

Positive nitrogen balance means the Intake of nitrogen exceeds the excretion (growth,
pregnancy, recovery from fasting etc)

B) Feeding trial method: the level of protein in ration at which animal maintains its body
wt without loss or gain over an extended period of feeding with ration adequate in
energy, minerals and vitamins is considered as the maintenance requirement of protein.

C) Factorial method: EUN, MFN and dermal losses of hair and scurf is included (2.2gN/d for
cattle and 0.6-1 gN/d for sheep). Biological value (BV) of protein is also considered.

Requirement of truly digestible protein (TP)

TP (g/d)= (EUN + MFN + S1 or S2) X 6.25 X 100/BV

EUN = endogenous urinary nitrogen (g/d)

MFN = metabolic fecal nitrogen (g/d)

S1 (for cattle) = N loss through scurf (g/d)

S2 (for sheep ) = N loss through fleece (g/d)

BV of dietary protein is 70% for cattle and 65% for sheep

DCP requirement (g/d) = TP - (MFN X 6.25)

Protein requirement for maintenance

A) Cattle : 2.84g DCP/ kg W0.75/day

B) Sheep : 2.73g DCP/ kg W0.75/day
C) Goat : 3g DCP/ kg W0.75/day
D) Horse : 3g DCP/ kg W0.75/day

As per BIS specification Type I cattle feed should contain minimum 22%CP and Type II
cattle feed should contain minimum 20% CP.
New systems for expressing protein requirement of ruminants

The fundamental principle underlying the new systems for expressing the protein
requirements is that nitrogen requirement of a ruminant animal is considered both as
requirement of nitrogen by rumen microorganisms and requirement of protein by host
ruminant animal.
1. Metabolizable protein (NRC): that part of dietary protein un-degraded in the rumen and
the microbial protein, which are absorbed by the host animal and is available for use at
tissue level. Metabolizable protein requirement for maintenance of ruminants could be met
entirely by microbial protein. For each MJ of ME intake 7.8 g of microbial protein is
synthesized if there is sufficient nitrogen in the diet.
2. RDP/ UDP (UK Metabolizable protein system): rumen degradable and undegradable
protein system proposed by ARC.
3. French PDI system: true protein digested in the small intestine
Non protein nitrogenous (NPN) substances: ruminants natural feed contains 30% of the
nitrogen as NPN substances such as amino acids, amides and amines. 30% of the protein
requirements of dairy cattle and buffaloes can be met by feeding NPN compounds like urea,
biuret etc. Urea contains 46% N and the compound is 100% degradable in the rumen. For
efficient utilization of urea, simultaneous feeding of soluble carbohydrate (1kg/every 100g
urea) is a must for the sake of providing necessary energy requirement of the microbes.
Urea can be added at the rate of 3% in concentrate mixture (BIS specification is 1% in
concentrate mixture) and at the rate of 1% in total ration.

Urea recycling: Blood urea enters back into the rumen directly by transfusion through
rumen wall and also indirectly through saliva. Blaxter has estimated that about 20% of the N
absorbed as ammonia is recycled in sheep on normal nitrogen intakes.

Protein reserves: protein reserves form 5-7% of the total body protein. They are labile,
drawn upon on periods of starvation or reduced protein intake, and restored in times of
plenty, thereby contributing to the free amino acid pools of the body during depleting
processes. In times of emergency, among all the tissues liver is very much affected. About
1/4th of the body protein especially that in liver, followed by kidney, heart and skeletal
muscles are depleted and repleted. Less metabolic importance is attributed to the existence
of protein reserves than to energy reserves which are stored in larger amounts and in
specific organs.

Bypass protein/protected protein: bypass protein means rumen un-degradable protein. In

normal ruminant diet 60% of the dietary protein is degraded in the rumen and rest 40% is
UDP. By protecting the good quality dietary protein from ruminal degradation it is possible
to provide greater amounts of essential amino acids to the host ruminant. Methods
employed for protein protection are heat treatment, treatment of proteins with tannins and
treatment with formaldehyde.
MINERAL REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE

If animals are deprived of minerals in diet, they continue to excrete small amount of
minerals from body. Inorganic elements like calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium are
lost through urine as a result of maintenance of acid base balance and also through faeces
as a result of secretion of these minerals into digestive juices. The endogenous excretion of
minerals is very low when compared to the total mineral content of the body. The
requirement of minerals for maintenance can be assessed in the same way as for energy or
protein. A theoretical estimate can be made on the basis of endogenous losses whereas
practical estimates on the basis of feeding trials. It is difficult to make a ration totally absent
in any mineral and hence the estimation of endogenous losses is difficult.

Factors governing mineral requirement

1. Interrelationship between minerals/minerals and organic matter
2. Form in which the mineral is present in diet
3. Mineral status of the animal
4. Quantity of mineral present in the diet
VITAMIN REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE
Requirement of vitamins can be assessed on the basis of
1. freedom from signs of deficiency
2. estimation of vitamin in the blood
3. analysis of tissues for the content of vitamins
The requirement of fat soluble vitamins is dependant on the body weight in adult
animals. For those vitamins involved in metabolism (chiefly water soluble vitamins) the
requirement is based on feed intake or specific nutrient intake. In ruminants the entire
requirement of vitamin B complex and vitamin K is generally met by microorganisms in the
digestive tract. In pigs and poultry though there is considerable synthesis of B complex
vitamins in lower gut, these vitamins fails to get absorbed and is excreted in faeces .
 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH

Growth (Schloss): correlated increase in the mass of the body in definite intervals of time in
a way characteristic of the species.
Growth curve: The pattern by which animals grow from conception to maturity can be
represented by a sigmoid (S shaped) curve. From the fetal period till puberty the rate of
growth accelerates; after puberty it decelerates and reaches a very low value as the mature
weight is approached.
Development: When animals grow they do not simply increase in size and weight, but
various anatomical components grow at different rates, so that the proportion of the animal
change as it matures. John Hammond of Cambridge University described the development
of farm animals as a series of growth waves i.e. in early life nerve and bone tissue grow
rapidly, later the muscles and finally the adipose tissue. When growth rate is faster these
waves may overlap.
Attainment of maximum adult body size and development are governed by inheritance or
heredity but an optimum nutritional regime is the one which enables the organism to take
full advantage of its heredity.
Empty body weight: Live weight less the extraneous gut and bladder contents. When empty
body weight increases the weight of all chemical constituents in body (fat, energy and
protein) increase, but at different rates. Fat is deposited at increasing rate and protein at
decreasing rate. The energy content of body follows a curve similar to that of fat content.
The relationship of the weight of each component to empty bodyweight is curvilinear.
Allometric equations for growth (J S Huxley): allometry designates the changes in relative
dimensions of parts of an organism that are correlated with changes in overall size; or, more
concisely: “the relationship between changes in shape and overall size”
y=b x a
y= weight of the component (a part of the body), x= empty body wt, a=growth coefficient
(measure of the rate of growth of the part relative to the rate of growth of the whole
animal) and b is a constant. If a>1 then that body part is relatively growing faster than the
whole body (late maturing part) and vice versa if a<1 (early maturing). Among the nutrients
involved in growth, protein and water have growth coefficient less than 1 and fat/energy
has growth coefficient more than 1. During the early stages of growth more protein and
minerals are required in comparison to energy, whereas later energy requirement become
more than rest of the nutrients.
ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
Methods for the estimation of energy requirement for growth
1. Factorial method
Energy of the tissue formed + basal metabolism + activity factor, (the maintenance
requirement usually exceed the requirement for formation of new tissue)
in the case of pigs
NE (maintenance and wt gain)= DE X 0.70
NE (maintenance and wt gain)= ME X 0.96
Energy requirement calculated by factorial method may be inaccurate as the gains can vary
widely in the proportions of fat and protein according to genetic makeup and nutritional
regime of the animal.
2. Feeding trial method
Different groups of animals are maintained at different energy levels and the optimum
level of energy intake required for satisfactory growth is determined. Data regarding the
energy requirement for growth contained in the currently used feeding standards for farm
animals are based on the results of feeding trials.
PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
During early stages of growth, most important nutrient deposited in body apart from
water is protein. Protein requirement has to be assessed at least two or three times during
the growth period because maintenance requirement of protein increases with increase in
body wt where as requirement of protein for growth decreases as age advances. The
minimum quantity of protein required for growth is the amount that is deposited in the new
tissue formed. The theoretical requirement of protein is far below the actual requirement
because of the wastage in the digestion and metabolism. The protein wastage in
metabolism depends primarily on the efficiency with which the digested protein supplies
the essential amino acids required for the construction of body tissues. Therefore, the
requirement of protein means the requirement of essential amino acids. The amino acid
requirements are expressed in terms of the utilizable form i.e. the L form. In chicks’ arginine,
lysine, tryptophan and the sulfur containing amino acids need attention while in pigs it is
lysine, methionine/cysteine and threonine. The requirement of essential amino acids can be
estimated by
1. Feeding the animals a basal ration deficient in a particular essential amino acid to
which the amino acid is added in graded levels i.e. animals in different groups are fed
with different levels of amino acid. The level that is required for satisfactory growth
is taken as the requirement.
2. By analyzing the amino acid composition of the body of the animal and the feeds
that are available for feeding.
Methods for the estimation of protein requirement for growth
1. Factorial method: The requirement of protein by growing animals is equal to the sum of
requirement for maintenance and the requirement for the formation of new tissue with an
allowance for the loss in metabolism.
2. Nitrogen balance studies: minimum intake of nitrogen required to produce maximum
retention in the animal making satisfactory growth is taken as the requirement.
3. Feeding trials: minimum level of protein required to promote optimum growth of the
animal is taken as the requirement.
MINERAL REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
a) Calcium, phosphorus: required in bone formation.
b) Magnesium: deficiency occur only when the animals are fed on sprouting grass (grass
staggers or hypomagnesaemic tetany)
c) Sodium and chlorine: deficiency tested by their excretion in urine and saliva.
d) Sulfur: deficiency occur when diet is deficient in sulfur containing amino acids
(methionine, cysteine and cystine)
e) Iron: deficiency occur in milk fed animals (e.g. piglet anemia or thumps)
Iron deficiency anemia is common in milk fed piglets. Occur when piglets are reared in
concrete floors without any access to soil or other feeds. Anemic piglets are weak with pale
mucous membrane and unhealthy appearance. In severe cases there will be labored
breathing because of the deficiency of haemoglobin and the animal will have swollen
appearance around the head and shoulders. The condition can be prevented either by
drenching the piglets with a saturated solution of ferrous sulphate (1/3 rd teaspoon for
animals below 1 week and gradually increased to 1 teaspoon for animals above 4 weeks
age) or by swabbing the udder of mother with saturated solution of ferrous sulphate.
Another method is to inject 100mg of iron dextran compound when piglets are 3 days old
and then repeat the same dose at 21 days.
VITAMIN REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
Vitamin A: requirement is proportional to body wt. If green fodder is not offered to the
dam, the calf should be given 10000 IU of Vitamin A within few hours after birth and may be
reduced to 5000 IU/d for next 7 days and later to 1000 IU/d.
Vitamin D: not dietary essential in tropical countries
Vitamin B complex and Vitamin K: not critical because the rumen microbes will synthesize
these vitamins when the rumen starts functioning.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF LIVESTOCK FOR REPRODUCTION
Nutritional factors play vital role in the development of reproductive organs and
subsequent reproductive functions. Puberty in cattle is influenced by level of nutrition, the
faster an animal grows, the earlier it reaches sexual maturity. In cattle, puberty occurs at a
particular live weight or body size rather than at a fixed age. The attainment of puberty in
sheep is more complicated by their seasonal breeding pattern. In pigs on the other hand,
the primary determinants of puberty is age, breed, and the age at which gilt meets boar. In
general the tendency today is to mate the animals (cattle/ sheep/ pig) when they are
relatively young, which means that in the female the nutrient demands of pregnancy are
added to those of growth.
Commonly the reproductive troubles arise from multiple deficiencies. Under nutrition
delay puberty in both sexes and if severe can cause retrogressive changes or degenerative
changes even after the organs are completely developed. Death of fetus in the uterus or
birth of weak or permanently damaged young ones can also occur. Over feeding is also
disadvantageous, due to excessive fat deposition, there will be irregularity or cessation of
estrus, improper implantation and interference with production of fertile sperms.
Qualitatively nutrient requirements are similar for both males and females where as
quantitatively the requirements are more in case of females. On inadequate nutrition during
pregnancy the mother sacrifices her bones and tissues for the development of fetus.
Therefore, nutrition of pregnant mother should not only for producing a normal offspring
but also should prevent any drain from her body tissues.
1. Energy: most critical nutrient for pregnancy is energy. The main source of energy for a
growing fetus is glucose (during glucose scarcity, amino acids are used). Energy requirement
for reproduction consist of energy stored in new tissues formed and that is spend in the
entire process. Tissues formed consist of fetus and its membranes, enlargement of uterus
and development of mammary gland. The organs and tissues that grow with the fetus are
known collectively as the adnexa. In pregnant animals which are still growing, allowance for
growth also should be given. In some cases mature animals may have poor body conditions
because of previous lactation. In such cases, they should be given enough feed to improve
the condition. If a pregnant animal is given a constant daily allowance of food, its heat
production will rise towards the end of gestation. The increase is due to additional energy
required by the fetus for both maintenance and growth. It has been found that ME taken in
by mother in addition to her own maintenance requirement is utilized by the fetus with
comparatively low efficiency. For each additional 1 MJ, only about 0.13 MJ is retained in the
fetus.
Pregnancy toxemia: the disease is due to carbohydrate deficiency and occurs in pregnant
ewes during last month of gestation when there is scarcity of feed and also when they are
subjected to stress. The affected sheep becomes dull and lethargic, appetite goes down, and
may even show nervous symptoms such as trembling and folding the head at an unusual
angle. Animals showing nervous symptoms are likely to have a high (90 %) mortality. These
animals show hypoglycemia, ketonemia (increased levels of ketone bodies such as acetone,
acetoacetate and β hydroxybutyrate in blood) and an increase in plasma free fatty acids.
When the disease progresses, there will be metabolic acidosis.
 In general, fetus has high priority for nutrients compared to mother and it is able to
maintain a blood glucose level higher than that of the mother. For growing fetus there is
high requirement of glucose. When there is low availability of carbohydrates to the mother,
the level of blood glucose goes down to such a level that nerve tissues of mother are
seriously affected. Oxaloacetate is produced in body from glucose or glucogenic substances
such as glycerol propionate or glucogenic amino acids. There will be deficiency of
oxaloacetate during carbohydrate deficiency. Acetyl CoA produced in body cannot enter
Kreb cycle unless there is adequate level of oxaloacetate. Therefore, by an alternate
pathway the Acetyl CoA is converted to ketone bodies.
The disease can be treated by intra venous administration of glucose or by feeding
gluconeogenic substances (sodium propionate/propylene glycol) or feeds rich in starch. The
occurrence can be prevented by supplementation of enough quantity concentrate feed
during late pregnancy.
2. Protein: low protein diets causes cessation of estrus, fetal death, and birth of weak or
permanently damaged young ones or even still birth. Growth of fetus increases during the
second half of pregnancy and it during this period that deposition of protein becomes more.
Pregnant animal should get sufficient protein for maintenance (in growing animals,
allowance for growth also should be given), fetal growth and also to provide some protein
reserve in the animal (protein reserve will be useful during early stages of lactation).
Recently it has been suggested that supplementation of rumen undegradable protein (UDP)
can increase the ovulation rate of both cattle and sheep. In Australia, lupin seed (contains
high concentration of UDP) is used to flush ewes. Flushing is the technique of improving the
reproductive efficiency in ewes by increasing the plane of nutrition. Flushing is started 2-3
weeks before the start of breeding season. During the flushing period along with the
maintenance ration ewes are provided with an additional quantity of 250-500g of
concentrate depending upon the condition of the animal. The practice of transferring the
animals from low plane of nutrition to high plane will definitely improve the body condition
of the animal during mating and will promote the factors for multiple ovulation. Flushing
increases ovulation rate by stimulating the pituitary gland to produce more of the hormone
involved in ovulation, luteinizing hormone. There will be production of more twins and
triplets. Flushing will increase the lambing percentage by 10-20%.
A recently discovered peptide, neuropeptide Y has been shown to provide a link
between the control of feed intake (especially protein intake) and the secretion of GnRH.
Pregnancy anabolism: live wt gained by pregnant animals are considerably greater than
that accounted by the products of conception alone. The difference represents the growth
of the mother herself and in their own tissues deposits 3-4 times as much protein and 5
times as much calcium as is deposited in the products of conception-pregnancy anabolism.
The energy requirements for maternal growth are much larger than that for fetal growth.
However, much of the weight gained during pregnancy is lost in the ensuing lactation.
3. Minerals: most important minerals needed in reproduction are calcium and phosphorus.
Calcium deficiency upsets the normal reproductive processes and a very common sign is
reduction in the number of viable offspring’s in multiparous animals. In severe cases there
can be intrauterine death of fetus. Even if young ones are born alive they will be weak and
show pathological changes in osseous system. In such cases mothers bone will also be
depleted of calcium. Chief symptom of phosphorus deficiency is irregularity or cessation of
estrus. Most of the storage of calcium and phosphorus take place in last one fifth of
pregnancy. So intake should be adequate during this period.
Iron is another element important in reproduction. Intake should be sufficient not only
for maintenance and growth but also to provide storage both in mother and fetus.
Inadequate intake will result in depletion of iron store in mother.
Iodine is very important in reproduction. Severe deficiency leads to intra uterine death of
fetus. Other symptoms include goitre in newborn and birth of hairless piglets. Inclusion of
iodised salt (0.0076% iodine) in ration will prevent the condition.
In selenium deficient areas, supplementation of selenium increases lambing percentage.
A possible effect of selenium deficiency on reproduction is the delayed expulsion of the
placenta after calving in dairy cows. In addition, the trace elements copper, molybdenum,
manganese and zinc are important in influencing fertility. Level of copper in herbage below
3 ppm (on DM basis) will delay the return of dairy cow to oestrus after calving. Excess
molybdenum causes copper deficiency and it delays and depresses estrus by reducing the
secretion of LH. Copper deficiency in pregnant ewe lead to ‘swayback’ in the lamb.
Swayback or swing back or gingin rickets or enzootic ataxia occurs in lambs, kids and calves
as a result of feeding copper deficient ration to the mother during pregnancy. Symptoms
include uncoordinated movements of the hind legs, a stiff and staggering gait with swaying
of the hind quarters after few weeks following birth. Nervous symptoms are due to
demyelination of the spinal cord.
Zinc deficiency prevents spermatogenesis in males (zinc is a component of enzyme
thymidine kinase, which is required for spermatogenesis) and causes embryo mortality in
females.
4. Vitamins: in males deficiency of vitamin A causes degeneration of germinal epithelium of
testes leading to reduction in spermatogenesis or complete cessation of spermatogenesis.
In females the deficiency leads to keratinization of vaginal epithelium and it may lead to
cessation of estrus or irregularity of estrus. In severe cases of vitamin A deficiency there can
be intra uterine death of the fetus or birth of premature or weak young ones. There can be
even abortion and retention of placenta in mother. Congenital deformities due to Vitamin A
deficiency includes eye and bone malformations. Inclusion of sufficient green fodder in diet
will prevent the Vitamin A deficiency.
Vitamin D is needed for the proper utilization of Calcium and Phosphorus
Vitamin E is needed in reproduction in some species (rats, pigs, poultry). For cattle, sheep
and goat, Vitamin E has no much role in normal reproduction
B complex vitamins: requirement is high during pregnancy
Nutrient requirements for foetal growth
The quantities of nutrients deposited in the foetus can be determined by killing animals
at birth and analyzing them, and the time course of nutrient deposition during gestation can
be determined by analysis of fetuses and adnexa obtained from slaughtered animals. The
pattern of fetal growth can be described by Gompertz growth equations, which have the
form:
Log Y = A – Be-C x
Where Y = the wt of the fetus or a component of it
A, B and C are constants
x = day of gestation
Differentiation of Gompertz equations allows the calculation of nutrient deposition at
successive stages of gestation.
After 5 months of pregnancy the cow should be given an additional amount of 0.14 kg
DCP, 0.67 kg TDN, 12g Ca, 7g P daily, over and above the maintenance and production
requirements. This can be attained by feeding an extra quantity of 1.5kg concentrate
mixture and by incorporating 2% calcium carbonate in the concentrate mixture.
Steaming up: feeding practice in which the concentrate allowance for dairy cows is
increased 2-3 weeks prior to calving so that there is increased mammary development and
increased body reserves which later results in high milk production.
Nutrient requirement for maintenance and pregnancy (last two months) for cattle
weighing 400 kg (Ranjhan, 1998)
DM = 7.2 kg, DCP = 350g, TDN = 4kg, Ca = 23g, P = 18g
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF LIVESTOCK FOR LACTATION

A high yielding dairy cow may secrete about 4-5 times the DM contained in her body
through milk in a single lactation. The major constituent of milk is water (water- 87.5%,
protein-3.3%, fat-3.7%, lactose 4.8%, Ash-0.72%). About 95% of the nitrogen in milk is in the
form of protein, the remainder 5% being NPN compounds (urea, creatinine, glucosamine
and ammonia). Protein in milk includes casein (78% of the total milk nitrogen), β
lactoglobulin, α lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin and immunoglobulins. Proteins except
the bovine serum albumin and immunoglobulins are synthesized in the mammary gland
from amino acids in blood, while the bovine serum albumin and immunoglobulins are
absorbed directly from the blood. Lactose the milk sugar is synthesized in the mammary
gland from glucose and galactose. Lactose is the least variable constituent of milk for all
species, while fat is the most variable constituent. The milk fat is synthesized from plasma
lipids and blood glucose (glucose is converted to acetate in the mammary gland for fat
synthesis) in the mammary gland of non ruminants while in ruminants the precursors are
plasma lipids, acetate and β hydroxybutyrate. Ruminants cannot convert glucose to fat
because they do not have the two key enzymes, ATP citrate lyase and NADP malate
dehydrogenase. Triacyl glycerols make up about 98% of the fat phase, the remainder being
composed of certain fat associated substances such as phospholipids, cholesterol, the fat
soluble vitamins and pigments. The predominant saturated fat in milk fat is palmitic acid and
the unsaturated acids consist mainly of oleic with small contributions from linoleic and
linolenic. The fat phase is referred to simply as ‘fat’ and the remaining constituents other
than water are classified ‘solid not fat’ or SNF. The minerals present in milk are directly
absorbed from blood with considerable selectivity. Milk contains 13 times more calcium, 10
times more phoshorus, 5 times more potassium and contains only 1/7 th sodium and 1/3rd
chlorine when compared to blood. Vitamins present in milk are directly absorbed from
blood. Carotene enters milk, from plants. The occurrence of carotene in milk is limited to
the bovine species. The milk of sheep, goat, sow, water buffalo and camel has little or none
and women’s milk is nearly colorless. The principal water soluble pigment in milk is
riboflavin, while the principal fat soluble pigment in milk is carotene.

Factors affecting milk composition are given below:

a) milking technique: incomplete milking lowers the fat content
b) diseases: alters milk quality
c) breed: jersy-highest quality, Holstein-poorest
d) age: as age advances quality becomes poorer
e) stage of lactation: poorest quality when yield is highest
Energy: required in highest quantity. Additional energy required for lactation apart from
maintenance requirement will be proportional to the energy secreted in the milk. Energy
content of milk can be found out either by bomb calorimetry or by analysis of milk
constituents. Energy value (E) of milk (kcal/kg) can be calculated by using the formula,

E (kcal/kg) =304.8 + 114.1 F (F is the fat content in g/kg of milk)

ME requirement for lactation = Maintenance requirement + Energy in milk produced

Efficiency of utilization of ME for milk

production

Average value of efficiency of utilization of ME for milk production is 62% (0.62). Van Es has
suggested that the efficiency of utilization of ME for milk production is related to the
metabolizability (qm) of the diet, defined as the ME (MJ/kg DM) at the maintenance level as
a proportion of the Gross Energy (MJ/kg DM).
Efficiency of utilization of dietary ME for maintenance (km) in a lactating dairy cow may be
calculatd as
km = 0.35 qm + 0.503
and the requirement of ME for maintenance for a lactating dairy cow (MEm in MJ/d)
 MEm (MJ/d) = 0.53 (W/1.08)0.67 + 0.0091 W = 0.53 (W/1.08)0.67 + 0.0091 W
km 0.35 qm + 0.503
Dietary factors which affects the efficiency of utilization of ME for milk production

1. The level of protein in the diet: when protein content is inadequate, body tissues are
catabolized to make good the deficiency, a process which is wasteful of energy. On the
other hand, when protein content is too high, excess amino acids are used as source of
energy. Since protein is used relatively inefficiently for this purpose the overall efficiency of
utilization of ME is reduced.

2. Proportion of acetate produced in rumen: When the proportion of acetate is below 0.5,
the cow is unable to synthesize sufficient of the lower and medium chain fatty acids which
form a large part of milk fat. Similarly when acetate level is lower propionate predominates
and there is increased energy storage as body gain.

Fat corrected milk (FCM): usually the milks are adjusted to a 4% fat equivalent by the Gaines
formula to compare them on an equal energy basis

Fat corrected milk (FCM) kg = (0.4 X milk yield in kg) + (15 X fat yield in kg)

The net energy content of 1 kg FCM is 750 kcal, thus 750 kcal of NE is required for 1 kg of
FCM. Since the efficiency of conversion of ME to NE of milk is 62%, the ME required to
produce 1 kg FCM is 750/0.62 = 1210 kcal

Since the efficiency of conversion of DE to ME is 82%, the DE required to produce 1 kg FCM

is 1210/0.82 = 1476 kcal

The amount of TDN required per kg of FCM is 1476/4400 = 0.335 kg

Peak yield: after calving, milk yield gradually increases and reaches the peak by 35-42 days.
Thereafter there is weekly decline of 2.5% in milk yield. Peak yield may be calculated as 1.1
times the yield recorded two weeks post partum. P D P Wood suggested that the milk yield
of any day post partum (y) may be calculated using equations of the following type.

y(n) = anbe-cn , where n is week of lactation, a is a positive scalar directly related to total milk
production, b is an index of the animals capacity to utilize energy for milk production and c
is the decay rate. Values for a, b and c may be obtained from lactation yield data by a least
squares procedure. The constants for yield groups may then be used to predict week of
peak yield (b/c) and daily yield in a given week of lactation.

Intake of energy should be sufficient during the peak production otherwise tissue break
down occurs. Inadequate intake of energy will lower the efficiency of utilization of energy
for milk production. Therefore, during peak production the level of concentrate should be
increased. However, the change in feeding pattern should not affect rumen function and
milk fat percentage. Considering these factors, even in a very high producing dairy cow the
proportion of roughage should not be less than 40%. High yielding animals even fed with
optimum feed there will be loss in body weight during early lactation. This is restored during
later stages of lactation by providing extra feed. There is general agreement that the
efficiency with which ME is used for tissue deposition in the lactating cow is higher than in
the non lactating animal.

Ketosis: In high producing dairy cows there is often a negative energy balance in the first
few weeks of lactation. In dairy cow the intake of DM will reaches its maximum only by 8-10
weeks after calving while the milk production reaches its peak by 4-6 weeks postpartum.
Therefore, the intake of energy may not keep up with the demand during the period of peak
production. Generally the disease occurs during the first 6 weeks following calving. In
response to negative energy balance and low serum concentration of glucose the cows will
mobilize adipose tissue with consequent increases in serum concentrations of non esterified
fatty acids. Moreover, there will be deficiency of oxaloacetate during carbohydrate
deficiency and the Acetyl CoA produced in body (from fat or from acetate) cannot enter
Kreb cycle. Therefore, by an alternate pathway the Acetyl CoA is converted to ketone bodies
resulting in ketonemia and ultimately ketonuria. Clinically the disease is manifested in two
forms
a) Wasting form: symptoms include gradual reduction in appetite and milk yield. The cow
refuses to eat concentrate feed and continues to eat hay. There will be woody appearance
(loss of cutaneous elasticity due to loss of subcutaneous fat) and sweet odour of ketone
bodies in breath and milk.
b) Nervous form: symptoms include walking in circles, crossing of legs, head pushing and
aimless movements
The disease can be treated by intra venous administration of glucose or by feeding
gluconeogenic substances (glycerol/sodium propionate/propylene glycol) or feeds rich in
starch.
Protein: Additional protein required for lactation apart from maintenance requirement will
depend on the quantity of protein secreted in the milk. Protein content of milk can be
assessed by chemical analysis or by using Gaines and Overman formula:

Protein in milk (g/kg) = 21.7 + 0.31 F (F = fat g/kg milk)

DCP required for a lactating dairy cow (g/d) =

Maintenance requirement + Protein secreted through milk

Biological value

Average Biological value is 70% (1 kg FCM with 35 g of protein needs 35/0.70 i.e. 50g
digestible protein in diet)

Metabolisable protein requirement for a lactating dairy cow (g/d) =

maintenance component + dermal component + milk component – component reflecting
live wt change

maintenance component g/d = 2.19g X kg W0.75

efficiency of utilization of Metabolisable protein for maintenance i.e.
1
dermal component g/d = 0.1125g X kg W0.75/day
efficiency of utilization of Metabolisable protein for dermal losses i.e.
1
milk component = CP of milk (g/kg) X 0.95 X kg milk produced
efficiency of utilization of Metabolisable protein for milk production i.e. 0.68
component reflecting live wt change = body wt loss (kg/d) X 138
efficiency of utilization of Metabolisable protein for weight loss i.e. 1
Effective rumen degradable protein (ERDP): represents the protein requirement of rumen
microorganisms.

ERDP requirement for a lactating dairy cow (g/d) = FME (MJ/d) X y

where FME is the fermentable metabolizable energy and y is the requirement of ERDP in
g/MJ of FME. y=9 for animals at maintenance and 11 for lactating animals

Requirement of truly digestible undegradable protein: microbial crude protein (MCP)

contains 75% of true protein and have a true digestibility of 0.85. The contribution of
microbial protein to metabolizable protein (MP) is MCP X 0.75 X 0.85 or 0.64 MCP.
Therefore, the requirement of truly digestible undegradable protein is MP – 0.64 MCP

Minerals and Vitamins:

Potassium is the mineral occurring in milk in largest amount; it is always abundantly
supplied in the feeds of plant origin commonly consumed.
Calcium and phosphorus
There is 1.2 g calcium (Ca) and 0.9 g phosphorus (P) in each kg of milk produced.
Availability values for Ca and P are 0.68 and 0.58 respectively
The best approach in feeding dairy cow is to keep the Ca:P ratio between 1:1 and 2:1.
Feeding of diets high in Ca during the pre-partem period can result in a high incidence of
parturient paresis in dairy cattle. A 500kg cow requires only about 30g of Calcium to meet
the maintenance and fetal Ca demands in late gestation. Low Ca diets (<20 g Ca/d) fed
during the last two weeks before parturition is effective in preventing parturient paresis.
Maintaining a Calcium: Phoshorus ratio 1:3.3, two weeks prior to parturition will prevent the
occurrence of milk fever. But feeding of phosphorus above 80 g/d increase the incidence of
milk fever, because it will reduce the intestinal Ca absorption. If the ration is low in Ca, the
resulting negative balance of Ca can stimulate the activity of parathyroid gland. Low Ca
intake will make the cow in negative Ca balance and in a state of withdrawal of Ca from
bone thus maintaining the normal blood Ca level of 9-12 mg/dL.
A method of controlling parturient paresis in dairy cows when the Ca intake exceeds the
requirement is to manipulate the anion cation balance of the diet. Diets high in cations
especially sodium and potassium tend to induce milk fever compared with those high in
anions, primarly chloride and sulfur (reduces the incidence of milk fever). Analyzing the feed
stuffs for sodium (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl) and sulfur (S) and determining the value
of (Na + K) – (Cl + S) to produce a significantly negative total will effectively prevent
parturient paresis (-ve DCAB concept). To prevent the occurrence of milk fever when high
Ca diets are fed to dry cows, dietary cation anion balance must be reduced below -3
mEq/100g of dietary DM.

Daily requirement of magnesium (Mg) for maintenance is 3 mg/kgbwt and the

concentration of Mg in milk is 0.125g/kg milk. Availability of dietary Mg is very low (0.17)
Daily requirement of Na for maintenance is 8 mg/kgbwt and the concentration of Na in milk
is 0.6g/kg milk. It is recommended that 28 g of sodium chloride/day should be provided in
addition to that in the food, or 15g/ton of concentrate ration.
Daily requirement of Vitamin A for a lactating cow is 99 IU/kgbwt
Daily requirement of Vitamin D for a lactating cow is 10 IU/kgbwt
Effect of feed intake on yield and composition of milk
When cows are fasted, there is decline in milk yield but the level of SNF and fat rises
Limitation of the energy part of the diet has a greater effect on the SNF content of milk than
does limitation of the protein, although it is the protein fraction which is reduced in both
cases. Most of the fall in protein content is probably due to increased gluconeogenesis from
amino acids, owing to a reduced propionate supply on low energy diets.

Lactose concentration shows little change, as would be expected of the major determinant
of the osmotic pressure of milk.

Drop in fat content of milk becomes more obvious when the proportion of roughage falls
below 40% and the fat % of milk goes to 2% when the proportion of roughage falls below
10%. Generally the acid detergent fibre content of the diet of dairy cow should be
maintained above 19% and the minimum chop length of forage should be 7 mm for
optimum fat content in milk. On high fibre diets the proportions of VFA would be about 70%
acetic acid, 18% propionic acid and 12% butyric acid. When the proportion of concentrate is
increased the level of acetic acid may go below 40% and thus lowers the milk fat.

Non- glucogenic ratio (NGR): an increase in the level of acetate and butyrate in the rumen
enhances the milk fat % whereas the increase in propionate content lowers the milk fat%. If
the ratio of acetic acid to propionic acid in the rumen contents falls below 3:1 then milk of
low fat content will be produced. Some workers have claimed that the most important
determinant of milk fat content is the balance of glucogenic to non glucogenic VFA in rumen
contents and that is defined as the non glucogenic ratio

NGR = (A + 2B + V)/ (P + V), where A, P, B and V are molar proportions of acetate,

propionate, butyrate and valerate in the rumen contents. Milk fat drops if the ratio falls
below 3.

Challenge feeding: challenge feeding is started two weeks before the expected date of
calving and is continued until the peak yield is attained. By increasing the amount of
concentrate in ration the animals are challenged to produce at their maximum potential.
Concentrate allowance is increased so long as the animal respond with a high yield.
Challenge feeding lowers the chance for ketosis, however, there is more chance for udder
edema at the time of calving.

Nutrient requirement for 1 kg milk produced with 4% fat (Ranjhan, 1998)

DCP = 45 g, ME = 1.13 Mcal, TDN = 315g, Ca = 2.7g, P = 2g

The requirement for TDN and DCP have been calculated per kg of milk production taking
1188 kcal of ME per kg of 4% fat corrected milk and 132g digestible nitrogen for 100g of milk
nitrogen.

Nutrient requirements of the lactating dairy goat

Peak yield is attained by about 4 weeks postpartum. Nutrient requirements of the

lactating goat may be derived factorially from estimates of the requirements for
maintenance, milk production and live weight change. On an average the lactation
requirement is 345g TDN and 45g DCP per kg of 4%FCM over and above the maintenance
requirement. The mineral requirement for lactation is 1.3g Ca, 1.1g P and 0.2g Mg/kg milk
produced.

Nutrient requirements of the lactating ewe

Peak yield is attained by about 2-3 weeks postpartum. The lactation requirements
during the first 2 months are approximately twice the requirements for maintenance at the
corresponding body weight.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF LIVESTOCK FOR WORK, FATTENING AND WOOL

PRODUCTION

Nutrient requirements for work

The source of energy in skeletal muscle is the absorbed products of digestion from
the diet. When food supply is adequate, a working animal first draws up the carbohydrates
and fats in the feed. If supply is inadequate, the body fat is used for the purpose and as last
resort muscle and other protein tissues are used. Theoretically, only carbohydrates need to
be supplied to meet the extra energy required for work. High carbohydrate diet increase
work performance because carbohydrates yield more energy per litre of oxygen and also
promote greater build up of muscle glycogen. However, fats can be utilized as their
catabolism can be used by the system to furnish energy. It has been found that high fat diets
can be equal to or superior to high carbohydrate diets for horses on endurance rides.

Immediate energy for muscle contraction is met by ATP. Muscle contains only small
amounts of ATP as such, but the supply is renewed by phoshocreatine (labile reservoir of
ATP). Glucose is the primary source of ATP for short term exhausting efforts, but fatty acids
becomes the predominant source during long term less intensity work. Glucose is
completely broken down in aerobic condition to CO2 and water yielding 36/38 moles of
ATP/mole of glucose. This occurs only when there is sufficient oxygen in the tissue. During
tremendous exertion, because of the inability of respiration to provide sufficient oxygen
(anaerobic condition), glucose is converted to pyruvate and then to lactate yielding 2 moles
of ATP. Accumulation of lactic acid in muscle makes the muscle into an inactive stage called
rigor. When this occurs the deficit of oxygen is spoken off as the oxygen debt. However,
training or conditioning decreases the level of lactate production. In general training
increases the efficiency of energy utilization by muscle because

1. Increases size and number of mitochondria per cell

2. Increases aerobic capacity
3. Increases glycogen content of muscle
4. Increase turnover rate of adipose tissue fatty acids
5. Increase efficiency and utilization of free fatty acids
6. Decrease lactate production

Working animals normally doesn’t need extra protein over the maintenance, except
probably when the work done is very hard. The need of B complex vitamins is increased in
work because they are needed in energy metabolism (however, its need is met from feed
due to increased feed consumption). There is no evidence that the requirement for fat
soluble vitamins is increased during exercise. The requirement of salt is increased during
heavy exercise due to its loss in sweat. If the diet contains adequate amount of calcium, the
increased need for calcium during work will be corrected by the increased intake of the feed
due to greater energy needs. There is increased phosphorus requirement during work.
Working animals should have access to water to prevent the dehydration.

In India bullocks are the main stay of agriculture. The requirement of nutrients for
bullocks for work production is comparatively lower than for fast moving horses. For
bullocks, work is categorized into 2 types- normal (2-4 hrs/d) and heavy work (6-8 hrs/d).
Nutrient requirements for a 400kg working bullock are given below (Sen, Ray and Ranjhan;
1978).
 Normal work Heavy work

DM (kg) DCP (kg) TDN (kg) ME (Mcal) DM (kg) DCP (kg) TDN (kg) ME (Mcal)

7.6 0.45 4 14.4 9.8 0.57 4.8 17.3

Nutrient requirements for fattening

Lean meat from a well fattened animal is better flavored and more juicy than that
from a lean one. The improvement in the quality of lean meat and not the storage of thick
masses of fat is the main objective in fattening animals before they are slaughtered for
meat. During fattening fat is stored in the lean meat tissues, chiefly between the bundles of
muscle fibres. The storage of fat, which forms the so-called ‘marbling’ of meat, adds to the
juiciness and flavor, besides increasing the digestibility and nutritive value. Lean meat from
a well fattened animal is more tender than from a lean one of the same age. In the case of
young animals, fattening may not make the lean meat appreciably more tender, though it
does greatly improve the juiciness and flavor. Fattening beef cattle generally makes the lean
meat more tender, but fattening may not increase the tenderness of the lean of lamb or
pork. In the fattening of mature animals or those which have completed their growth, the
gain consists primarily of fatty tissue. Proportion of fat in the gain made by an animal
steadily increases during the fattening period and it is the chief reason why the feed cost
per unit gain increases rapidly after an animal has become fairly well fattened. Such flesh
contains much more fat and less water, and it is correspondingly more expensive to
produce.

Tallow produced by cattle and the mutton suet formed by sheep have higher melting
points than lard from swine. This is because lard contains much more oleic acid, which is
liquid at ordinary temperatures, and less stearic acid and palmitic acid, which melt at higher
temperatures. In the case of swine and chicken if the feed contains considerable fat, the
kind of fat in the food may have a pronounced effect upon the character of fat stored in the
body. This is because the fatty acids in the food fats are to some extent deposited
unchanged in the fatty tissues. Thus if the swine are fed considerable amounts of soybeans
or peanuts, the pork will be so soft that the carcasses will be undesirable from the market
standpoint. Just opposite in effect, cottonseed meal and coconut oil meal tend to produce
hard pork. However, the character of body fat formed by ruminants is apparently not
changed appreciably by the kind of fat in the feed.

The first requirement of a ration for fattening animals is an abundance of total

digestible nutrients or net energy. The amount of protein needed and also of vitamins and
minerals will depend chiefly on the age of the animals, the requirement being much greater
for young animals than for those that are well grown when fattening begins. Fattening
young animals should be fed liberally, otherwise they may merely continue to grow,
because of their strong growth impulse, and may fail to fatten properly. Young animals
when fattened, they make rapid growth of muscles and other protein tissues, and therefore,
they need an abundant supply of protein. However in the fattening of mature animals there
is little storage of protein in the gain produced and much less protein is therefore needed
than for growing animals. If fattening animals are fed rations that are rich in carbohydrates
and fat, but too low in protein, they are apt to go ‘off feed’ and may even suffer from
digestive disturbances. Considering all these factors, it is recommended that even for
mature animals a ration for fattening should not generally have a wider nutritive ratio than
1:10. Mature fattening animals do not require a much greater amount of minerals than they
need for mere maintenance, and their vitamin requirements are also low. On the other
hand, young fattening animals have even greater needs for minerals and vitamins than
those that are merely making normal growth.

Nutrient requirements for wool production

Production of better quality wool is confined to temperate regions of the world

while carpet type wool production is prevalent in the tropics. In India about 51.7 million
sheep produce 41.18 million kg wool annually. Different breeds of sheep have different
capacity for wool production. In India average annual wool production per sheep is 0.8 kg.
Efficiency of wool production ranges from 0.3 to 2.2g wool per 100g DM intake depending
upon the breeds and quality of diet. Wool growth is distinct from the growth of other
tissues in respect of two factors.

1. Wool growth continues even on a negative energy and nitrogen balance (sub-
optimal growth only)

2. Amino acid configuration of wool is entirely different from that of other tissues.

The quantity and quality of wool produced is dependent on the nutrition. Keratin
molecules serve as the main building blocks of wool and hair. Wool protein requires all the
amino acids similar to other animal tissues, but the requirement for sulfur containing amino
acids is higher. Keratin is formed by the oxidation of cysteine molecules to cystine by the
formation of disulphide bonds. Keratin contains 10-12% sulphur containing amino acids (9%
as cystine) compared with 2-3% in plant proteins and in the microbial proteins synthesized
in the rumen. In the ARC system, wool protein deposition (Pw) is linked to protein deposition
in other tissues (Pt) by the equation: Pw = 3 + 0.1 Pt

Protein nutrition seems to be more important than energy intake on wool

production. Feeding of rumen protected proteins rich in sulphur containing amino acids
enhances wool production (e.g. formaldehyde treated casein). Sheep are able to produce
maximum wool at moderate level of energy intake, only when sufficient good quality
protein is provided in the diet. The supply of methionine and cysteine in diet is important
for wool production. Methionine can be converted to cysteine in body. The wool produced
in animals consuming tyrosine deficient diet will be weak in strength.

Energy requirement for wool growth is less than 5% of BMR in sheep. During dietary
energy deficiency animals produce wool of shorter staple length. The dependence of wool
growth on energy intake is due in part to the association between energy intake and the
synthesis of microbial protein. The efficiency with which metabolizable energy is used for
wool production is estimated to be about 18%. Very high levels of nutrition increases the
diameter of the fibre, and it is significant that finer wools come from nutritionally less
favourable areas of the land. However, periods of starvation may cause an abrupt reduction
in wool growth; this leaves a weak point in each fibre and is responsible for the fault in
fleeces –“break”.

Sulfur requirement of wool producing animals is quite high as it required for the
synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids and proteins. Copper is associated with the
formation of disulfide linkages in the wool fibre and its deficiency also affects the
keratinization process. Copper is involved in crimp formation in wool fibre. Wool produced
due to Copper deficiency (loss of crimp or waviness in wool accompanied by a general
deterioration in quality, losing its elasticity and affinity for dyes thus resembling hair rather
than wool) is called steely wool or stringy wool. Deficiency of copper also affects the process
of pigmentation in the wool due to inhibition of tyrosinase (a copper containing oxygenase)
required in the conversion of tyrosine to melanin. Zn deficiency leads to parakeratosis due
to keratinization of epithelial cells and results in falling of hair or wool. Selenium is another
important mineral in wool production because it is essential for the activation of deiodinase
enzyme that converts thyroxine into tri-iodotyrosine. In animals grazing on poor quality
pastures dietary deficiency of Vitamin A reduces staple length and clean fleece weight.

The requirements for wool production in India have been derived by ICAR from data
on experiments conducted at the Central sheep and wool research institute, Avikanagar and
the requirement for wool production for a sheep weighing 30 kg is given below.

DM (g) Energy DCP(g) Ca(g) P(g) S(g)

TDN (g) ME (Mcal)

1000 450 1.62 54 2 1.3 2.4

Write short notes

1. Physiology of muscle contraction

2. Trans sulfuration reaction related to wool protein synthesis

FEEDING OF CATTLE
Feeding of calves
a) Pre-ruminant growth (upto 3 months age)
Calves may be weaned immediately after birth, wherever it is possible. The first secretion of the
mammary gland of the dam following parturition is known as colostrum, which is designed by nature
to give young one a good start in life. Calves should be fed colostrum soon after birth, within half an
hour or at the most within two or three hours. Colosutrum feeding should be continued for a
th
minimum of 4 days (fed at the rate of 1/10 of their body weight). Colostrum should be fed fresh as
milked from the mother and should not be warmed as it will clot if heated. It greatly differs from
milk produced later during lactation. The major difference between normal milk and colostrum is
that the latter contains a large proportion of immunoglobulins, albumin and minerals. Colostrum is
richer than normal milk in most nutrients (including vitamins:-especially vitamin A) except lactose
and fat and has a laxative effect. However, its major function is to confer passive resistance on the
new born against pathogenic microorganisms. Immunoglobulins present in colostrum are absorbed
intact by pinocytosis, passing through the mucosa of the gut into the lymphatic system, and reach
the circulation through the thoracic duct. The capacity of the new born to absorb the antibodies
intact from the gut contents declines rapidly and last for only about 12-24 hours after birth. This
passive immunity is necessary for the young one until they develop active immunity. The colostrum
of ruminants contains a trypsin inhibitor which protects the immunoglobulins from digestion. The
globulin fraction in colostrum declines quite rapidly with successive milkings. Within three or four
days after parturition milk loses its colostral properties and becomes normal.
Composition of colostrum of cow:-
Water : 77.5%, Fat: 3.6%, Lactose: 3.1 %, Protein: 14.3%, Minerals: 1.5%
Artificial colostrum: In the absence of colostrum from the dam or from other newly calved cows, a
mixture (though not a complete substitute) can be prepared as follows:- Whip an egg in 300 ml of
warm water, add half a teaspoonful of castor oil, one teaspoon of cod liver oil (equal to 10,000 I. U.
of vitamin A), 500 ml of warm whole milk, stir well and feed at body temperature. This is sufficient
for one time feeding. The calf should be fed thus 3-4 times a day.
Calf starter: concentrate feed consisting of ground grains, oilcakes, animal protein supplements and
brans, fortified with vitamins, minerals and antibiotics (23-26% CP and 72-75% TDN). After 15th day
of age small quantity of calf starter and good hay can be fed to calves along with milk.
Ingredients Percentage
1. Finely ground maize 45
Groundnut cake 35
Fish meal 8
Wheat bran 10
Mineral mixture 2
2. Groundnut cake 32
Dried tapioca chips 15
Ragi 10
Wheat bran 25
Fish meal 10
 Molasses 6
Mineral mixture 2
To every 100 kg of the mixture add 0.5 kg of common salt and 25-30 g of Vitamin AB2D3
supplement
B.I.S standards for calf starter meal

Characteristics Requirement
Moisture per cent by Wt. (max.) 10
Crude protein (Nx6.25) per cent by weight 23-26
Crude fat per cent by Wt. (min.) 4
Crude fibre per cent by weight (max.) 7.0
Total ash per cent by weight (max.) 5.0
Acid insoluble ash per cent by weight (max.) 2.5
Common salt (on dry basis) per cent by weight (max.) 1.0
Calcium on dry basis per cent by weight (min.) 1.2
Phosphorus (on dry basis) per cent by weight (min.) 0.8
Vitamin A IU/kg 10,000
Milk replacer: On dairy farms, where production cost are high and the product is sold as whole milk,
many dairy men are turning to milk replacers as a means of lowering the cost of raising young stock.
It is a constituted food mixture capable of replacing whole milk on DM basis when fed to young
calves in gruel form, from 2 weeks of age. Usually milk replacer will be a dry feed mixture that is
reconstituted with warm water and fed as a substitute of milk. The successful raising of calves on
milk replacers depends very largely on how nutritionally complete the product is.
Objectives:
1. To raise orphan calves
2. To supplement dams milk
3. To wean calves at early age
4. To make raising of calves cheaper
 Ingredients Parts/100
Eg: for a milk replacer
Dried skim milk 48
Dried whey 20
Dextrose 7
Linseed meal 13
Oat flour 5
Coconut oil 3.5
Minerals 2
Antibiotics 1
Common salt 0.5

To every 100 kg of the mixture add 25-30 g of Vitamin AB2D3 supplement

Feeding Schedule up to 3 months

Age of calf Milk Calf starter Hay
1-4 days Colostrum- 1/10th body wt in 3 feeds
5-14 days milk-1/10th body wt in 3 feeds
15-21 days Milk- 1/10th body wt A little A little
22-42 days Milk- 1/10th body wt 100g adlib
Up to 2 months Milk- 1/15th body wt 250g adlib
th
2-3 months Milk-1/20 body wt 500g adlib
If green fodder is not offered to the dam, the calf should be given 10000 IU of Vitamin A within few
hours after birth and may be reduced to 5000 IU/d for next 7 days and later to 1000 IU/d.

b) Feeding of calves from 4 months to 1 year

Age of calf Concentrate mixture (16%DCP, 70% TDN) Green fodder

4 months 0.75 kg 2-3 kg

5 months 1 kg 3-5 kg

6-9 months 1.5-2 kg 5-10 kg

9-15 months 2-2.1 kg 10-15 kg

15-20 months 2.1-2.25 15 kg

Above 20 months 2.25-2.5 15-20 kg

Cross bred calves grow at the rate of 0.5kg/d

c) Feeding of bull calves

 Calves which are intended to be raised as future breeding bulls should be kept on liberal
amount of milk for the first 6 months of their life (supplemented with calf starter and good quality
hay from 2 weeks of age). They should be fed 2.5 kg concentrate mixture/day from 6-12 months of
age and 3 kg concentrate mixture/day from 1-2 years of age.

Bull calves to be used for draft purposes should be castrated at 12-15 months of age and
their feeding schedule should be identical to that of heifers.

Bull calves which are reared for meat production are generally fattened before slaughter.
Such animals are given extra feed to supply 50% extra DCP and TDN to attain a body weight of 200
kg at 1 year of age to be marketed for slaughter.

Feeding of breeding bulls

Breeding bulls are to be fed good quality green fodder together with concentrates and to be
exercised regularly to keep them in thrifty condition. Nutrient requirements for 500kg breeding bull
is given below (Sen, Ray and Ranjhan 1978)

DCP (g) TDN (kg) ME (M cal) Ca (g) P (g) Carotene Vitamin A

(mg) (IU)

450 4.5 16.2 20 15 53 21000

Feeding of working bullocks

During off-season when the animals are not working, they should be fed as per the
maintenance requirement. However, while working, they should be fed with rations containing more
energy. Green grass (e.g. 30 kg of green maize for 500 kg animal) and legume fodder (e.g. 10 kg of
cow pea for 500 kg animal) alone can meet the requirement of a working animal. During very heavy
work and when straw forms the basal roughage, a concentrate mixture (1-2 kg) should be
incorporated in the ration.

Feeding of pregnant cows

Ideally, a dairy cow should calve every year, should have a lactation length of 305 days and a
dry period of 60 days. During this last 60 days of pregnancy the cow should build up the body
reserve lost in early lactation and will require nutrients to provide for the rapid growth of fetus and
for the regeneration of mammary tissues. In the practice called steaming up, dry cows are offered
extra quantity of concentrate during the last few weeks of pregnancy. During the last 60 days about
20-30 kg of live weight is increased. Normally during the last trimester of gestation 50% of DCP and
25% of TDN of the maintenance requirements are fed above the maintenance requirement by
providing 1-1.5 kg of additional concentrate mixture.

Feeding of dry animals

Some times in farms, the animals may be dry and not pregnant due to one or other reason.
Dry animals needs to be fed the maintenance ration. Maintenance requirement can be met by 30 kg
of good quality green alone or 7-8 kg straw supplemented with 1 kg concentrate mixture.
Feeding of lactating cows

Feeding of cattle and buffaloes is based on their nutrient requirements. The nutrients
required by the animal should be met by providing sufficient quantity of concentrate and roughage.
As roughages paddy straw, green grass, legume fodders or silage can be used. By feeding good
quality green grass alone in sufficient quantity the entire maintenance requirement of the animal
can be met. Concentrate mixture, in such cases need to be provided to meet the extra requirement
of the production. If good quality legume fodder is available in plenty, the DCP content of
concentrate mixture can be reduced, since a major part of the protein requirement would be met
from the fodder itself and in such cases the major nutrient to be provided from the concentrates
becomes energy. On the basis of protein content, 1kg of concentrate mixture with about 15-16%
DCP and 68-70% TDN can be replaced by either 20 kg of good quality green grass or 6-8 kg of legume
fodder. On the basis of dry matter content, one kg of paddy straw can be replaced by 4-5 kg of green
grass.

The feeding schedule for different classes of adult cows (approximate body weight 250 kg)
Concentrate Mixture Roughage
(kg) (kg)
Dry cows (Maintenance) 1.2 25-30 kg grass
or
5kg grass + 5-6 kg straw
Milking 1kg concentrate mixture for every 2.5 kg Milk produced, plus
maintenance allowance
Pregnant 1 kg concentrate mixture plus 1 kg energy supplement (rice gruel/
ground maize/ tapioca/ tamarind seed meal/jack fruit seed meal)
from 6th month of pregnancy in addition to the maintenance and
production allowance.
Growth allowance 1kg concentrate mixture in first lactation and 0.5 kg in second
lactation if they are below 4 years of age
Note: For every additional 50 kg in body weight, an additional allowance of 500 g of concentrate
mixture may be given. The quantities given above are only approximate. The exact quantity
to be given for each cow should be decided by the condition of the animal at any time. High
yielding cows in early lactation (up to 90 days) may be fed up to one kg of energy
supplements in addition to the above ration for optimum production and reproduction. (It is
also advisable to add 100 g buffer/day/animal [e.g. Soda bicarb/ MgO] to prevent acidosis
when energy supplements are added). Rumen bypass fat can also be used to increase the
energy density of the diet @ 100 – 150 g per animal per day.
B.I.S. specifications for compounded feeds for cattle (1992)

Grade I Grade II
1. Moisture % (maximum) 11 11
2. Crude protein (Nx6.25) %by weight (min) 22 20
3. Crude fat % by weigh t (min) 3 2.5
4. Crude fibre % by weight (max) 7 12
5. Acid insoluble ash % by weight (max) 3 4
6. Common salt, % by weight (max) 2 2
 7. Calcium, % by weight (Min) 0.5 0.5
8. Phosphorus, % by weight (Min) 0.5 0.5
9. Vitamin A (I.U. / kg) 5000 5000

Items 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 on dry matter basis.

Example of a concentrate mixture

Dried tapioca meal 28 parts
Groundnut cake 22 parts
Gingelly cake 10 parts
Rice bran 27 parts
Cotton seed 10 parts
Min. mixture 2 parts
Common salt 1 parts
B.I.S specification for mineral mixtures for cattle

Type I (With salt) Type II (Without salt)

Moisture % by Wt (max.) 5 5
Calcium % by wt ( min.) 18 23
Phosphorous % by wt (min) 9 12
Salt (chlorine as sod. Chloride) 22 -
% by wt (minimum)
Iron % by wt (min) 0.40 0.50
Iodine (as KI) % by wt. (min) 0.02 0.026
Copper % by wt.(min) 0.06 0.077
Manganese %by wt (min) 0.10 0.12
Cobalt % by wt. (min) 0.01 0.013
Fluorine % by wt. (max) 0.05 0.07
Zinc %by wt(min) 0.30 0.38
Sulphur Max 0.40 0.50
Acid insoluble ash % by wt (max) 3.0 2.5
Nutrient requirements for cattle and buffaloes (ICAR, 1998)
The requirements are expressed in terms of DM, DCP, TDN, ME, Ca, P, Carotene and Vitamin A.
Maintenance requirement
Body wt (kg) DM (Kg) DCP (g) TDN (kg) ME (Mcal)

200 3.5 150 1.7 6.0

250 4.0 170 2.0 7.2
300 4.5 200 2.4 8.4
350 5 230 2.7 9.4
400 5.5 250 3.0 10.8
450 6.0 280 3.4 12.4
500 6.5 300 3.7 13.2
 550 7.0 330 4.0 14.4
600 7.5 350 4.2 15.5

Feeding of protected proteins/ by pass protein

Bypass protein means rumen undegradable protein (UDP). In normal ruminant diet 60% of the
dietary protein is degraded in the rumen and rest 40% is UDP. By protecting the good quality dietary
protein from ruminal degradation it is possible to provide greater amounts of essential amino acids
to the host ruminant. Methionine and lysine are generally considered as the limiting amino acids for
milk production. Feeding of bypass protein sources that supply these limiting amino acids post
ruminally will result in increased milk production in ruminants. The benefit of feeding bypass protein
is more pronounced in high producing animals. Methods employed for protein protection are heat
treatment, treatment of proteins with tannins and treatment with formaldehyde. Protected amino
acids are also used now a days as feed additives. Encapsulation procedures to protect amino acids
from ruminal degradation includes coating or mixing the most limiting essential amino acids like
methionine and lysine with a combination of fats or fatty acids and sometimes by addition of
carbonates, kaolin, lecithin or glucose.

Feeding of protected fat/ bypass fat/ rumen inert fats

In dairy cows the intake of DM will reaches its maximum only by 8-10 weeks after calving while the
milk production reaches its peak by 4-6 weeks postpartum. Therefore, the intake of energy may not
keep up with the demand during the period of peak production. Hence high producing dairy cows
are often in a state of negative energy balance in the first few weeks of lactation. The diminished
ingestion capacity of dairy cows during the first three months of lactation makes it obvious to
increase the energy density of diet by adding fat to the ration. However, excess fat in ruminant
ration depresses the rumen microbial activity and thus reduces the digestibility of all the nutrients.
Therefore, rumen protected fats have been developed for feeding high yielding dairy cows during
early lactation. Protecting dietary fats from ruminal degradation can be achieved by:

a) Feeding of fat products containing saturated or hydrogenated fatty acids (saturated fatty
acids have high melting point of above 500C and hence they remain intact at the rumen
temperature of 390C). But the disadvantage is that they are less digestible even in the small
intestine.
b) Fatty acid calcium salts: calcium salts of fatty acids remain intact in the slightly acidic pH of
the rumen (5.5 to 6.5) but dissociate in an acid environment of abomasum (pH 2-3). The
free fatty acids liberated in the abomasum are absorbed in the intestine.
c) Encapsulation of fat by formaldehyde treated proteins.

Feeding of cattle and buffaloes by thumb rule method

Cattle consume 2-2.5kg of DM for every 100 kg body wt.

Crossbred cattle/buffaloes consume 2.5-3kg of DM for every 100 kg body wt

2/3 as dry roughage

 2/3 as roughage
1/3 as green roughage
Total DM

1/3 as concentrate

If the green fodder is a legume, the proportion of green fodder may be reduced to 1/4DM of the
total roughage component and remaining 3/4 as dry roughage

Extra allowance during pregnancy: during the last trimester of pregnancy an allowance of 1-1.25 kg
and 1.5-1.75 kg of concentrate is recommended for cattle and buffalo/ cross bred cattle respectively.
During the last week of gestation, the amount of concentrate mixture should be reduced and a little
bran is fed to keep the animal in laxative condition before calving. After parturition the cow/buffalo
should be given fresh warm water and a mash consisting of 1kg wheat bran, 1-1.5 kg ground/cooked
grain, 0.5kg jaggery and 25g each of common salt and mineral mixture. Feeding of this mash is
continued for 3-4 days and the regular feed is introduced gradually.

Extra allowance for milk production: additional amount of 1 kg concentrate mixture is required for
every 2.5 kg milk produced by dairy cow and an additional amount of 1 kg concentrate mixture is
required for every 2 kg milk produced by buffalo (cow milk is assumed to have 4% fat and buffalo
milk 6% fat). If the lactating animal is in first and second lactation, extra allowance needed to take
care of growth has to be added.

Azolla as livestock feed

Azolla pinnata is a free floating aquatic fern. The plant had nitrogen fixing blue green algae
(Anabaena) as symbiont in the leaf cavities which use their own photosynthetic energy to reduce
atmospheric nitrogen and convert it to plant nitrogen. Therefore, like a legume it is good source of
protein for animals.

Nutritive value: Azolla has high protein (28% on DM basis) and mineral content. In addition it has
high digestibility of 68% which compares well with that of concentrates. It can be fed either fresh or
dried and can be stored after drying.

Yeild: Azolla grows and multiplies well in artificial ponds and can be harvested once daily after 10-15
days of initial growth. A small area of 9’’ X 6’’ would yield about 500-600g (fresh basis) at each
harvest. Yield of azolla is approximately 730 metric tons/hectare/year at the rate of 200 g/sqm/day.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING OF GOAT AND SHEEP

Salient features
➢ Goat (Capra hircus) is believed to have descended from the Pasang (Capra aegagrus).
➢ India has 20% of the world’s goat population.
 ➢ India has 20 breeds of goats.
➢ Goats are most efficient domestic animal in the use of water (approaching the camel in the
low rate of water turnover per unit of body weight).
➢ Feeding habit of goat is termed browsing. They stand on their hind limbs and pluck the
tender leafy twigs of herbs, shrubs and small trees.
➢ Goat has a wider range of feed acceptability and fibre digestibility compared to cattle and
buffaloes.
➢ For its size, goat is capable of consuming more feed than a cow does (the DM consumption
is 3-7% of body weight i.e. it is 3-4% for meat goats and 5-7% for lactating goats).
➢ When expressed in percentage of body weight, the DM intake of small breeds of goats is
greater than larger breeds.
➢ DM intake of goats rises just after parturition and reaches maximum between 6 and 10
weeks of lactation and then decreases.
➢ Goats due to their liking for herbs, shrubs and tree leaves (top feeds), can also be reared in
those parts of the country where fodder cannot be grown sufficiently.
➢ Goat produces more milk than a cow or buffalo from the same quantity of nutrients. The
nutrient conversion efficiency for milk production of a dairy cow is on an average 38%,
where as for goat it ranges between 45-71%.
➢ Goats are known for their round the clock eating habit.
➢ Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG) is located at Mathura, U.P.
➢ Nutrient requirements for goat is published by NRC in 1981 and ICAR in 1985 (Revised in
1998).
➢ Goats have very prehensile tongue and movable upper lip and they are called mobile
pruning machine/poor mans cow.
➢ Goats are less sensitive than other ruminants to the toxic effects of tannic acid
➢ Goats are more sensitive than other ruminants to the toxic effects of cyanogenic glycosides.
➢ In general goats refuse to eat soiled feed.
➢ Goats can distinguish between bitter, sweet, salty and sour tastes and they have high
tolerance for bitter tastes than cattle.
➢ Goat meat is termed ‘chevon’.
➢ When compared to sheep:- a) Goats are more capable of using cell wall rich and nitrogen
poor forages. b) Goats retain the feed for longer time in the digestive tract, have a higher
concentration of cellulolytic bacteria in the rumen and are more efficient in recycling of
blood urea (greater rumen ammonia concentration).
➢ Goats show preference for leaves when the whole plant is put before them.
Nutrient requirements and feeding of goats
Principle of computation of ration for goats is similar to that of cattle. Dry matter
consumption is widely variable. Varies from 3-7% of body weight. Goats can consume more feed per
unit body weight than either cow or sheep. Practical rations should be based on cheap feeds such as
browse. Nutrient requirements for goat were published by NRC in 1981 and ICAR in 1985 (revised in
1998). On an average the ME requirement for maintenance is 119 kcal/kg W0.75, TDN requirement
for maintenance is 30g/kg W0.75 and the DCP requirement for maintenance is 3g/kg W0.75. Nitrogen
to sulphur ratio of diet should be generally 10:1.
Nutrient requirements for maintenance of goats (ICAR, 1998)

Live weight DM DCP TDN Ca P

(kg) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)

15 500 23 240 1.1 0.7

20 615 29 295 1.3 0.9
25 730 34 350 1.6 1.1
30 830 39 400 1.8 1.2
40 1040 48 500 2.3 1.5
50 1230 57 590 2.7 1.8
60 1410 66 675 3.1 2.1

Feeding of kids
Upto 3 months of age, milk feeding is done. Milk is fed at the rate-1/6th of the body weight
for the 1st month, 1/8th during the second month and 1/10th-15th during the 3rd month. Kid starter
and good quality fodder can be offered from the 2nd week onwards.

i) The feeding schedule for kids of different age is given below

Age of kid Body weight (kg) Milk (g) Kid starter (g) Green fodder (g)

`Birth to 4 days 1.5 – 2.0 Colostrum - -

5 – 30 days 2.0 - 3.0 300 – 500 Small quantity Small quantity
30 – 60 days 3.0 - 5.0 400 - 600 50 – 100 Small quantity
60 – 90 days 5.0 – 7.5 500 – 750 100 - 200 250 – 500
Age of kid Body weight (kg) Milk (g) Concentrate mixture(g) Green fodder (g)

90 - 120 days 7.5 – 10.0 - 200 – 250 500 – 750

5th and 6th month 10.0 – 15.0 - 250 – 300 750 - 1000
Examples of a kid starter is given below:
Ingredients Parts
Deoiled groundnut cake 12
Horse gram 30
Wheat/Maize/Jowar 30
Rice polish/Wheat bran 15
Dried unsalted fish 10
Mineral mixture 2
Common salt 1
Vitamin AB2D3 25 g/100 kg of the mixture
Feeding schedule for different categories of goats

Category of goat Body weight (kg) Quantity to be fed per day

 Concentrate (g) Green fodder (kg)
Growing (6-12 months) 15-20 300-400 1-2
Adult goats 25-30 200-300 2-3
Breeding bucks 30-40 400-500 3-5

Reproduction
For meeting the demands of the growing foetus in advanced pregnancy and spermatogenesis
in breeding males, an extra allowance of 55g DCP, 400g TDN, 2g calcium and 1.4g phosphorus should
be provided over and above maintenance requirement. During the non-breeding period, the buck
doesn’t require additional concentrate mixture and can be maintained only on good quality grass
legume mixture. During the last 6 weeks of gestation there should be liberal feeding of good quality
fodder and 400-500 g of concentrate mixture. Few days before the expected date of kidding, reduce
the quantum of concentrate feed to one half and add bran to provide more bulk. After kidding, feed
a bran mash for a few days, gradually bringing the doe to the full feed for milk production.

Milk production
For each litre of 4%FCM produced, the dairy goat should be provided with 45g DCP and 345g
TDN. The requirement of nutrients for milk production at various levels of fat has not been worked
out as sufficient data on this aspect are not available. To supplement the extra nutrients for lactation
a good quality concentrate mixture should be provided at the rate of 350 g for each litre of milk
produced over and above the maintenance requirement.
The feed ingredients used for feeding of cattle can be used for feeding goats also. As
concentrate feeds, it is preferable to add grams. Compounded cattle feeds of good quality available
in the market are also useful for feeding of goats. As roughage, mostly tree leaves are used. Green
grass, legume fodders, agricultural byproducts, silage etc. can also be used as roughage.
Finisher ration
Since goats are slaughtered mostly for lean meat, the ration should be planned to include 30-
40% of the DM from roughage source and the balance amount from concentrate (12-14% DCP and
60-65% TDN). In general slaughtering age for goats is 10-12 months.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING OF SHEEP
Salient features
➢ Sheep (Ovis aries) originated from the wild ancestor Visnei (Ovis orientale).
➢ Dry matter consumption is 2-3% of body weight.
➢ India has 4% of the world’s sheep population.
➢ India has 44 descript breeds of sheep.
➢ Young tender grasses and common leguminous green fodder are more relished by sheep.
➢ Sheep with their small muzzle and split upper lips, can nibble tiny blades of vegetation which
cannot be eaten by bigger animals.
➢ Sheep depend more on natural pastures for their nutrient requirements and require less
concentrates. More than any other class of farm livestock sheep is dependent on natural
pastures for maintenance and production.
➢ Ration computation of sheep is similar to that of goats
➢ Feeding of lambs is similar to that of kids
➢ Creep feed:- composition similar to that of kid starter
 ➢ Nutrient requirements for sheep was published by NRC in 1985.
➢ A minimum of 3% fat in sheep ration is essential.
➢ Sheep are superior to goats in their growth rate as young animals.
➢ Methionine appears to be the first amino acid to be limited in microbial protein for both
wool growth and body gain.
➢ Sulphur should be present in the diet of ewes at a ratio of 10 parts Nitrogen to 1 part
Sulphur.
Nutrient requirements for maintenance (Ranjhan, 1998)

Live wt (kg) DM (g) DCP (g) TDN (g) Ca (g) P(g)

20 575 28 258 1.1 0.8

25 678 33 305 1.3 0.9
30 775 38 350 1.5 1.0
35 873 43 393 1.7 1.2
40 964 48 434 1.9 1.3
45 1055 53 475 2.3 1.5
50 1140 56 513 2.3 1.5
55 1225 60 551 2.4 1.6
60 1310 65 588 2.6 1.7

Maintenance requirement for sheep

1) DCP:- 2.73 g/kg W0.75
2) TDN:- 27.3 g/kg W0.75
3) ME:- 98 kcal/kg W0.75
4) Water: intake of water is influenced by atmospheric temperature and humidity, stage of
growth, gestation, lactation and other stresses. An adult sheep require about 2 litres of
water a day during winter and 3.5 to 4 litres during summer.
Feeding of pre-weaned lambs
Immediately after birth, the lamb should be assisted to suckle in order to get the advantages of
colostrum. During early stages, the growth rate of lambs is greater when compared to kids. Up to
three months of age, major nutritional requirements are met by the mother’s milk. From the age of
two weeks creep feed can be given. The amount of creep feed consumed is dependent upon the
dam’s milk production. An example of a creep feed mixture is given below:
Ingredients Parts
Maize 40
Oats 30
Dried unsalted fish 10
Barley 17
Mineral mixture 2
Common salt 1
Vitamin AB2D3 25 g/100 kg of the mixture & Antibiotics (as per dosage) should be incorporated in
the creep feed mixture. With good feeding and management practices lambs can be weaned at
three months of age. The body weight at weaning is 12-16 kg (14 kg avg bwt) depending upon the
breed.
Reproduction
Flushing is practiced in ewes 2-3 weeks prior to the onset of breeding season. Ewe in last 6 weeks of
gestation needs more energy, protein, minerals and vitamins to meet the increased requirement.
Excessive energy intake may lead to obesity which results in birth difficulties in ewes. Low energy
intakes can result in low birth weights of lambs and perhaps pregnancy toxemia in ewes. As the
pregnant ewe cannot consume sufficient bulky roughages as the space in abdomen is reduced due
to growth of fetus and its membranes it has to be fed with good quality forage. During the last 6
weeks of gestation, in addition to grazing, 250-400g of good quality concentrate mixture is generally
fed. A body weight gain of about 100 g/day (for smaller breeds) to 150 g/day (for larger breeds) is a
fair measure of nutrient intake status during the last few weeks of pregnancy.
Generally rams are maintained on the same feeding system as ewes. During breeding season
they require supplementary feeding for a month before and as well as during the whole breeding
season. At this time an average ram should be offered 250- 500 g of concentrate mixture depending
upon the breed and body condition.
Lactation
For a lactating ewe during the first 3 days after lambing there is only a need of a little grain
and bran mixture as concentrate feed with enough quantity of good quality forage. Concentrate
mixtue should be gradually increased in amount with liberal feeding of roughage. During the peak
lactation, the DM intake may even go up to 4% of body weight. At this stage the shepherd should be
cautious to increase the supplemented concentrate feed upto 250-500g along with legume hays (1-2
kg). Where good pastures are not available all care must be made to provide extra protein and
minerals particularly of copper, sulphur, zinc and cobalt other than common salt. Feeding of
supplemental concentrate can be gradually diminished after 12 to 13 weeks of lambing as the lambs
are weaned from the mother. Until the next breeding season the ewes may be maintained on
grazing alone.
Feeding schedule for different categories of sheep under farm conditions

Body weight (kg) Quantity to be fed per day

Concentrate (g) Oat hay (g/d)*
12-15 200 400
16-25 250 600
26-35 300 700
Breeding ram 450 800
Pregnant ewe 400 800
Lactating ewe 500 800

*6-8 hr grazing in pasture land is sufficient to meet the requirement of roughage

Diet related diseases

1. Pregnancy disease or pregnancy toxemia or ovine ketosis or twin lamb disease
2. Stiff lamb disease or white muscle disease: It is a strange disease of young suckling lambs,
which usually becomes apparent when the lambs are 1-5 weeks old. The affected lambs
become characteristically stiff that they are unable to walk or to nurse without assistance.
 The disease occurs due to dietary deficiency of vitamin E. The disease can be prevented by
incorporation of wheat germ meal (rich source of vitamin E) in the concentrate mixture of
pregnant ewes and the creep feed of lambs.
3. Polioencephalomalacia or Cerebrocortical necrosis : Occurs in sheep and goats. Acute
thiamine deficiency is the cause of this disease. Even when the intake/ rumen microbial
synthesis of thiamine is adequate, abnormally high concentrations of thiaminase enzyme
from unusual plants or microflora destroy the vitamin before the absorption, leading to a
deficiency condition. Sick animals are excitable, incoordinated and have impaired vision. In
sheep the incidence is highest in feed lot lambs 5-8 months of age. Treatment consist of iv/
im administration of thiamine.
4. Urinary calculi: Affected animals excrete alkaline urine with high phosphorus content. The
incidence can be greatly reduced by preventing an excessive intake of phosphorus and by
maintaining a proper Ca: P ratio of 2:1. Reducing the alkalinity of urine by feeding
ammonium chloride at 0.5% of complete diet is also effective. In grazing sheep, the disease
is associated with consumption of forages having high silica content. Sodium chloride
supplementation at 4% of the total diet helps to prevent urinary calculi in them.
5. Overeating disease or Enterotoxemia or Pulpy kidney disease: This usually occurs in lambs
which have been on full feed for some time and which are being provided with a heavy
allowance of grain. The animals affected are almost always the largest, fattest, most
vigorous and greediest in the lot. More commonly, the lambs live a few hours, showing
typical nervous symptoms, such as the head being thrown back or the lamb running in circle
or pushing against a fence. Sometimes the disease causes sudden death, the lamb throwing
back its head, staggering, falling to the ground and dying in convulsions. One opinion
regarding the cause of this disease is attributed to the production of type D toxin in the gut
by the anaerobic bacteria Clostridium perfringens. Indigestion produced by eating too much
concentrates causes inflammation of the walls of the intestines, which then becomes
permeable to poisonous products/ toxins formed in the gut. To reduce the occurrence of
this disease the following precautions must be taken
1. The grain/concentrate mixture should be distributed in the troughs so that no lamb can
get more than its share.
2. While feeding, mix the grain with some bulky feed like ground hay.

Write Short notes on

1. Pregnancy disease or Pregnancy toxemia or Ovine ketosis or Twin lamb disease
2. Flushing

AGROINDUSTRIAL BY PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURAL WASTES AND OTHER

UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS
Feed ingredient which is not generally used in the conventional system of animal feeding
is termed as unconventional feed or non conventional feed. The term unconventional feed
is a relative term and may differ from region to region. The use of non conventional feed
resources (NCFR) has become essential in animal feeding in our country due to the limited
availability of conventional feed ingredients. The use of NCFR will decrease the competition
for food grains between livestock and human beings and will decrease the feeding cost.
However, the constraints in the utilization of unconventional feeds include:
a) Presence of anti-nutritional factors.
b) Availability of such feeds is restricted to particular season.
c) Difficulties involved in the processing and detoxification of such feeds.
I. Agricultural crop residues
a) Straws: straws consist of stems and leaves of plants after the removal of the ripe seeds by
threshing. Cereal straws are conventional feeds for livestock in India. However, in the
temperate countries straw is considered as unconventional feed and the conventional
feeds includes cereals, milling byproducts, oil cakes, green fodder, legumes and hays.
b) Stovers: stover is the leaves and stalks of maize, sorghum or soybean plants that are left
in a field after harvest. It can be directly grazed by cattle or dried for use as dried
roughage.
c) Husk (hulls): these are the outer covering of cereal grain, pulses and some oil seeds. They
are available in bulk in the milling industry like rice milling and solvent extraction plants
for ground nut oil and corn oil in the form of rice hulls, ground nut husks, maize husks
etc.
II. Byproducts from sugar industry
a) Sugarcane tops: in most of the commercial plantations, sugar cane tops are burnt in the
field at the time of harvesting the canes. However, in Asian countries the farmers feed
their animals with the cane tops either fresh or dried as a roughage source to meet the
energy requirement for maintenance.
b) Bagasse: It is the fibrous residue of sugar cane stalks after the juice has been pressed out
in sugar factories and is mostly utilized by factories as fuel. Dried bagasse consists of fibre
and pith and is used in rations of ruminants. It is a good source of cellulose but poor in
protein content and has large amounts of lignin.
c) Molasses: the word molasses comes from the Portuguese word melaço, which has its
origin from mel, the Latin word for "honey". In sugar industry the juice obtained by
crushing of sugar cane is boiled to concentrate it, which promotes the crystallization of
the sugar and the rest forms the molasses. In animal feeding, molasses is mostly used as
a binder for commercially pelleted feeds. It can also be used as a carrier for urea
impregnation of poor quality roughages. Cane molasses contains 3% CP, 0% DCP and 10%
ash comprising excellent source of minerals except phosphorus. The term molasses brix is
used in referring to the amount of sugar content of molasses. Brix is determined by
measuring the specific gravity of molasses, the value is then applied to a conversion table
from which the level of sucrose (or degrees Brix) can be determined.
d) Pressmud: it is a byproduct of sugar industry during the process of precipitation of
impurities.
III. Minor oil seeds and cakes
a) Sal seed meal: sal seed is obtained from sal tree. The sal seed oil is used locally for
cooking and lighting and is said to be employed for adulterating ghee. It is suitable for
soap making and is used as a substitute for coco butter in the manufacture of chocolates.
Sal seed meal has very high tannin content and contains about 7% CP and 45% TDN. Sal
seed meal does not have DCP and hence it is used as energy source and not protein
source. Treatment with alkali is found to be effective in removing tannins from the meal.
It can be incorporated in poultry rations to a level of 5-10%.
b) Mahua cake: it contains 14% CP and 2% mowrine (a saponin) which is an antinutritional
factor. It can be substituted for wheat bran in concentrate mixture for livestock after
water treatment.
c) Neem cake: neem cake is obtained after the removal of neem oil (used in soap industry)
from neem seed. Neem cake is also used as a fertilizer. It contains 8.45% DCP and 57.8%
TDN. It is bitter due to nimbidin and nimbadiol and hence is not palatable when given
exclusively. It can be incorporated up to 10% in concentrate mixtures for cattle.
d) Castor bean meal: it is rich in protein (30-40% CP). Ricin is the major toxic factor and it
acts by the inhibition of protein synthesis. Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA) is yet
another toxin present in castor bean. Ricin is a potent cytotoxin but a weak
haemagglutinin, whereas RCA is a weak cytotoxin and a powerful haemagglutinin.
e) Karanj cake: Pongamia pinnata or karanj is a medium sized tree. The cake left after oil
extraction from seeds can be detoxified to be used in animal feeds. The major toxic
principle is karanjine a furanoflavanoid.
f) Rubber seed cake: it contains 18.6% DCP and 54% TDN. Cyanogenic glycosides identical
to that present in cassava is present in rubber seed kernels. Rubber seed cake can be
incorporated upto 20% in the concentrate mixture for cattle.
IV. Fruit and vegetable factory byproducts
a) Mango seed kernel: mango peels and kernels are byproducts of the canning industry.
Mango seed kernel has a DCP of 6.1% and TDN of 50%.
b) Pineapple wastes: it contains 80-95% moisture and 5% CP.
c) Banana peels
d) Citrus peels
e) Dried cocoa pod husk: it contains 6% CP and can be incorporated up to 15% in ruminant
diets
f) Tomato processing wastes
g) Potato processing wastes
V. Forest residues
a) Woods and barks: woods are undigestible and unpalatable. The bark is partially
digestible.
b) Fallen leaves/ forest foliage: fallen leaves from the forest can be commercially exploited
for livestock and poultry feeding as source of carotene, trace minerals and vitamins. The
term Muka is generally used to describe the animal feed produced from tree foliage.
c) Saw dust: it is not palatable and is practically indigestible. Digestibility of saw dust can be
increased by breaking the ester bond between lignin and cellulose in them. Acid
treatment, alkali treatment, biochemical methods (using white rot fungi) and high energy
electron irradiation has been found successful in breaking this ester bond. However,
none of these has been found to be economically viable and technically feasible under
commercial conditions.
d) Pulp mill and paper mill residues: primary sludge collected at pulp mills and paper mills
has high content of cellulosic fibres (acid detergent fibre) and hence they can be
incorporated in ruminant ration. However, these may contain toxic chemicals which need
to be removed prior to feeding them to livestock.
e) Fodder tree leaves: most of the tree leaves generally contain 30-45% DM and 9-25% CP.
The crude fibre in tree leaves is complex and highly lignified in the mature stage. The
calcium content of tree leaves is 2 to 3 times higher than that of cultivated fodders.
However, phosphorus content is low, resulting in a wide calcium-phosphorus ratio.
Commonly used fodder tree leaves are discussed below
i) Bamboo leaves: tender leaves are relished by livestock. The leaves contain about 9.4%
DCP.
ii) Banyan (Ficus): Pipal or Ficus religiosa leaves are relished by sheep and goats. Leaves
form a maintenance ration for goats when fed alone. The leaves contain 5.5% DCP and
39.2% TDN. However, cattle and buffaloes do not relish these leaves.
iii) Banana leaves: after the harvest the banana leaves are available for feeding
ruminants. Cattle and buffalo relish the leaves. The leaves contain 16-17% CP on DM
basis.
iv) Babul/ Acacia: acacia leaves are lopped for feeding of small ruminants while camels
browse on them. Acacia pods are very good source of protein (30-55) and are relished by
sheep and goats.
v) Guava: small ruminants relish the leaves which contain about 10% CP
vi) Glyricidia: it is a deep rooted legume. It is mostly grown as a live fence and is used as a
support plant for black pepper. The leaves contain 25-30% CP and can be harvested at
every 3-4 months interval. It is a good fodder for sheep, goats, buffaloes and cattle.
 vii) Subabul/ Ipil-ipil/ Leucaena leucocephala: it is a perennial shrub. The leaves contain
21-25% CP. The fodder is suitable for ruminants but is toxic to pigs and horses because of
mimosine, a toxic amino acid.
viii) Imli/ Tamarindus indica: the leaves of tamarind tree are rich in protein (14% CP) and
are relished by small ruminants.
Ix) Jack: the leaves are palatable to sheep and goats. The leaves contain 13-14% CP.
x) Tapioca: leaves are rich in protein (8.3% DCP on DM basis). It contains cyanogenic
glycosides and hence may cause adverse effects in ruminants if fed above the rate of
0.8% of body weight.
xi) Rain tree pod: the pods are quite palatable due to sweet taste. It contains about 8-9%
DCP and 64% TDN.
VI. Animal wastes
a) Meat meal: it is prepared by rapid drying and sterilizing the meat of fallen animals in wet
rendering plants. It contains 60-70% CP and is a good source of essential amino acids and
B complex vitamins. It is incorporated at 8-10% level in rations for swine and poultry.
Some meat plants prepare meat cum bone meal which is also a rich source of calcium
and phosphorus.
b) Bone meal: it is obtained as a powder by grinding crushed bones and then pressing them
through a 1-mm mesh. Steamed and sterilized bone meal is an important source of
calcium and phosphorus in livestock and poultry rations.
c) Blood meal: it is a slaughter house byproduct and contains about 80% CP on DM basis.
Unlike other animal protein sources it has a poor amino acid balance with lysine and
leucine being relatively high and isoleucine being very low.
d) Tankage: it is an ideal protein supplement for swine and it includes the offal’s of
slaughtered animals.
e) Feather meal: feathers are processed at a temperature of 130-1450C and dried to about
600C and ground. It is high in protein content (80%) however deficient in several essential
amino acids and hence incorporated below 5% in poultry ration.
f) Hatchery by-product meal: made by drying and grinding of hatchery refuse consisting of
infertile eggs, dead embryos and shells of hatched eggs.
g) Poultry excreta: it is a rich source of nitrogen. The NPN fraction of poultry excreta consist
chiefly of uric acid which can be utilized by ruminants for rumen microbial protein
synthesis. On an average poultry litters contains 31% CP.
VII. Wastes from aquatic foods
It includes fish wastes, frog meal and prawn wastes
VIII. Aquatic plants
It includes algae, African payal, lotus, water spinach, water hyacinth etc.
IX. Miscellaneous byproducts
a) Acacia pods
b) Brewery waste: it is mostly the brewer’s grain left after the extraction of malt required
for the production of beer. It is used in feeding ruminants. It has 20-23% DM and about
19% CP.
c) Coffee husk: it contains 3.2% DCP and 42% TDN.
d) Tapioca starch waste: it is available from the processing plants after the extraction of
starch. It contains about 64% TDN on DM basis.
e) Tamarind seed powder: it contains 13% DCP and 64% TDN. It contains tannin, but
overnight soaking in cold water reduces the tannin content.
X. Single-cell protein (SCP): SCP is obtained from single cell organisms such as yeast,
bacteria and algae that have been grown on specially prepared growth media. Yeast
propagated specifically for animal feed is usually Torulopsis utilis (fodder yeast). Unicellular
algae such as Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina maxima and Scendesmus obliquus are used in
producing SCP. Among various types of bacteria Methanomonas methanica has been more
thoroughly investigated for SCP production.
Certain unconventional feeds and their recommended levels of inclusion in livestock
rations
Sl. Name of feed Percentage level of inclusion
No. Cattle/goat Pig Poultry
1. Tapioca leaf meal 30 5 5
2. Tapioca starch waste 25 15 -
3. Silk cotton seed cake 20 - -
4. Rubber seed cake 30 10 -
5. Coffee husk 20 - -
6. Tea waste 25 10 -
7. Spent annatto seeds 10 - -
8. Cocoa pod 20 - -
9. Shrimp shell powder - 5 5
10. Fish silage - 10 10
11. Beer waste - 25% on Dry matter basis in cattle ration
 FEEDING OF UREA TO RUMINANTS
Non protein nitrogen (NPN) feedstuffs: Feeds which contain nitrogen in a form other than
protein or peptides are termed as NPN feeds. NPN compounds include ammonia, amides,
amines, amino acids, urea, biuret and ammonium salts such as monoammonium and
diammonium phosphate.
Urea: urea is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. The molecule has two
amine (-NH2) groups joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group. Urea dominates as a source of
NPN for animals with a functional rumen. Microbes in the rumen degrade the dietary urea into
ammonia which is used for the synthesis of microbial protein. For the efficient utilization of the
ammonia thus liberated, a readily available source of energy is a must because the carbon
skeleton for the synthesis of microbial protein from ammonia is provided by soluble
carbohydrates in the diet. Starch is the most satisfactory source, being fermented at a moderate
rate. Molasses is of moderate value as it is fermented too rapidly, while cellulose is least
valuable as it is fermented very slowly. A level of 1 kg of starch per 100 gram urea is often
suggested as a guideline. Urea having an average of 46% nitrogen has a crude protein
equivalent of 287.5% (46 X 6.25). Therefore, urea can be used as a source of nitrogen when high
energy concentrates with a crude protein level below 12-13% is fed. Mineral content of the
feed affects the utilization of urea because some of the minerals are also involved in the
production of microbial protein. For example, sulphur in the form of sulphate must be provided
as it is needed in the synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids. Urea should be introduced
slowly in ruminant diets since the animals require an initial adaptation period. Methods of urea
feeding includes
1. Mixed with concentrates: Urea can be incorporated upto a level of 3% in concentrate
mixtures for dairy cattle. However, the level should not exceed 1% of the total DM in the
ration. BIS recommends a level of 1% urea in the concentrate mixtures for cattle and
buffalo. While mixing urea to concentrates, care should be taken for uniform distribution
otherwise there is a chance of occurrence of toxicity. Urea should never be mixed with raw
soybean as it contains urease enzyme which causes degradation of urea liberating ammonia
and carbon dioxide.
2. Urea Molasses Liquid Diet (UMLD): it is a homogenous mixture of urea in the liquid molasses
along with minerals, vitamins and common salt (Urea-2.5 parts, Molasses-92 parts, Water-
2.5 parts, Mineral mixture-2 parts, Salt-1 part and Vitablend AD3 is added at the rate of
25gm per 100 kg of UMLD). UMLD should be introduced gradually and it can substitute the
concentrate mixture to a certain extent.
3. Urea Molasses Mineral Block (UMMB): a simple method of supplying protein precursors to
ruminants on pasture is through the use of urea in salt licks or blocks. Solidified blocks
containing molasses, urea, minerals and small amount of oil cakes are placed in front of the
animals in the manger so that they can lick as and when necessary. National Dairy
Development Board (NDDB), Anand has developed UMMB which contain molasses-45%,
urea-15%, mineral mixture-15%, salt-8%, calcite powder-4%, bentonite-3% and cotton seed
meal-10%.
4. Urea mixed with silage: urea can be added at the rate of 0.5% on fresh basis in silage
prepared using plants rich in soluble carbohydrates. This will increase the CP content of
silage by about 5%.
5. Urea ammoniation of dry roughages: most cereal crop residues has 8-12% lignin and 60-70%
cellulose and hemicellulose. Lignin is found interspersed with hemicellulose in the cell wall
fraction forming a matrix around the cellulose microfibrils. Due to this arrangement lignin
limits the action of microbial cellulases and hemicellulases resulting in low digestibility of
these polysaccharides. Urea ammoniation is the most convenient and most successful
method of straw treatment for breaking the ester bond of lignin with other fibre
constituents. Weighed quantity of chaffed straw is spread on a thick polythene sheet in a
layer of 40-50 cm (thickness). Fertilizer grade urea at the rate of 4% (it is better to use 2-3%
in hot and humid climate) of dry fodder is used (4 kg urea is dissolved in 100 litres of water
for each 100 kg straw). The urea solution is sprayed over the straw, mixed uniformly and
then stacked airtight by covering with another polythene sheet and left for 3-4 weeks for
reaction. The stack is opened from one side; required quantity for feeding the animals is
spread for overnight aeration and then offered to the animals. During urea treatment,
ammonia released from urea acts on alkali labile ester bonds of lignin with cellulose and
hemicellulose, making cellulose and hemicellulose available. Urea ammoniation of straw
improves the digestibility of fibre, improves the crude protein content (CP increases from
around 3% to 6-8%) and improves the voluntary feed intake.
Urea toxicity: reasons for toxicity includes poor mixing of urea in feed, accidental ingestion of
urea, inadequate adaptation period, low availability of drinking water and very low level of
carbohydrate in the ration. In such cases, the liberated ammonia is absorbed at a high rate.
When the level of absorbed ammonia in the blood exceeds the capacity of the liver to convert it
into urea, the animal develops nervous signs. Symptoms of toxicity include tetany, ataxia,
convulsions, bloat, excessive salivation, respiratory difficulty and bellowing. In cattle, clinical
signs are visible when rumen ingesta levels of ammonia are 100 mg/dL, serum levels of
ammonia nitrogen are 1 mg/dL and when blood ammonia nitrogen concentration reach 0.7-0.8
mg/dL. As a treatment measure oral administration of vinegar (0.5 L for goat and 4L for cow) is
recommended. Repeated dosing may be necessary as the clinical signs tend to recur about 30
minutes after treatment. The most effective treatment when the toxicity is detected at an early
stage is prompt and efficient emptying of rumen by rumenotomy.