2.

1 Introduction to Biodiversity Learning Objective

Explain levels of biodiversity and their
Diversity of life forms is measured on 3 different levels:
importance to ecosystems.
Ecosystem diversity: The number of different habitats available in a Essential Knowledge
given area.
1. Biodiversity in an ecosystem includes genetic,
species, and habitat diversity.
2. The more genetically diverse a population is, the
Species diversity: The number of different species in an ecosystem and better it can respond to environmental
the balance or evenness of stressors. Additionally, a population bottleneck
population sizes. can lead to a loss of genetic diversity.
3. Ecosystems that have a larger number of
species are more likely to recover from
disruptions.
Genetic diversity: How different the genes are of individuals within a
4. Loss of habitat leads to a loss of specialist
⛰️ population.
species, followed by a loss of generalist species.
It also leads to reduced numbers of species that
have large territorial requirements.
5. Species richness refers to the number of
Richness (r) different species found in an ecosystem.
Total number of different species in an ecosystem.
Evenness
Measure of how balanced the population sizes are between species.

High (r) is generally a good sign of ecosystem health

Genetic Diversity is Beneficial Bottleneck Event Inbreeding Depression
Higher genetic diversity increases a Environmental disturbance Occurs in small populations
population’s ability to survive (e.g., natural disaster) that when closely related
environmental stressors (e.g., drought, drastically reduces population individuals mate, increasing
disease). size, killing organisms harmful genetic mutations
regardless of their genome, (e.g., Florida panthers with
leading to reduced genetic kinked tails, heart defects).
diversity.

Ecosystem Resilience
The ability of an ecosystem to recover from disturbances

⛰️ Higher species diversity = higher ecosystem resilience

2.2Ecosystem Learning Objectives
Describe ecosystem services.
Services Describe the results of human disruptions to ecosystem services.
Essential Knowledge
1. There are four categories of ecosystem services: provisioning,
Goods and services provided by natural ecosystems regulating, cultural, and supporting.
that are 2. Anthropogenic activities can disrupt ecosystem services, potentially
beneficial to humans (often monetarily of life- resulting in economic and ecological consequences.
sustaining

__Provisio _Regulati _Supporti __Cultural

ning ng ng Services_
Services_ Services_ Services__ _______
_______
Examples ________
Examples
________
Examples Examples
Goods taken directly from ecosystems
(e.g., lumber, fish, honey, medicine).
Natural regulation of Processes  Revenue from
climate/air quality (e.g., supported by recreation,
trees sequestering CO₂, tourism, or
filtering pollutants).
ecosystems (e.g., scientific
discoveries (e.g.,
wetlands filtering park fees,
water, bees medicinal
research).
pollinating

crops ).
⛰️ Human activities disrupt the ability of Humans Disrupt
ecosystems to function, which decreases the
value of ecosystem services they provide.
Ecosystem Services

Disrupted by Disrupted by Disrupted by Disrupted by

overharvesti deforestatio
Disrupted by pollinator hab. deforestation,
ng, water n loss & filling pollution, urbanization
pollution, in wetlands for
development
clearing land
for
ag/urbanizati
2.3Island Biogeography Keep in mind this
applies to more
Learning Objectives
Describe island biogeography.
than actual islands Describe the role of island
Island Biogeography - Study of ecological relationships & community structure on biogeography in evolution.
islands Essential Knowledge
- Islands can be actual islands in a body of water or figurative 1. Island biogeography is the study of
habitat islands such as central park in New York City or National the ecological relationships and
distribution of organisms on islands,
Two basic “rules” or observations
and of these organisms’ community
of Island Biogeography structures.
2. Islands have been colonized in the
 Larger islands past by new species arriving from
elsewhere.
The larger the island, the greater the ecosystem 3. Many island species have evolved to
diversity be specialists versus generalists
● Greater ecosystem diversity = more food & because of the limited resources,
hab. resources
such as food and territory, on most
● More niches, or “roles” organisms can play
islands. The long-term survival of
in the ecosystem
specialists may be jeopardized if
and when invasive species, typically
 Islands closer to the mainland generalists, are introduced and
outcompete the specialists.
easier for colonizing organisms to get to
island from mainland

● More colonizing organisms =

more genetic
Larger Islands Support More Species Distance to Mainland
Larger islands = Support more Easier colonization leads to higher species richness.
species due to more niches, larger
populations, and lower extinction
rates.

Inverse
relationship
between island
distance from
Positive correlation mainland &
between island size and species
species richness richness

Evolution on Islands

Different beaks quickly evolve to fit variety of

different food sources on Island
Single colonizing species from mainland
quickly evolves to many slightly different
species to adapt to new island cond.
2.4Ecological Tolerance Learning Objective
Describe ecological tolerance.
Essential Knowledge
Ecological Range of Tolerance (fundamental niche) 1. Ecological tolerance refers to
the range of conditions, such as
temperature, salinity, flow rate,
and sunlight that an organism
range of conditions (temperature, pH, salinity) an organism can endure. can endure before injury or
death results.
2. Ecological tolerance can apply
to individuals and to species.

Ecological range of tolerance is

divided into zones
Optimal range

Organisms survive, grow, and reproduce.

Zone of physiological stress

Survival with reduced growth/fertility.

Zone of intolerance

Organisms die (e.g., suffocation, thermal

shock).

Limiting Factors
______________________________________________________________________________
Even if all the other factors are optimum, it’s the one most likely to regulate population growth

Connections: Global climate change is either pushing organisms outside their optimum range of tolerance (causing
stress or death), and/or is shifting the geographic location of their optimum zone of tolerance.
2.5 Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems
Learning Objective
Natural disturbance is a natural event that disrupts the structure and or function Explain how natural disruptions,
of an both short and long-term, impact
ecosystem an ecosystem.
Essential Knowledge
Natural disturbances can be even greater Natural Climate Change 1. Natural disruptions to ecosystems
have environmental consequences
than human disruptions.
that may, for a given occurrence, be
as great as, or greater than, many
 Periodic : Regular frequency (e.g.,
earth’s climate has varied over human-made disruptions.
wet/dry seasons). 2. Earth system processes operate on a
geologic time for numerous
range of scales in terms of time.
reasons Processes can be periodic, episodic,
Ex: Slight changes in earth’s orbit or random.
 Episodic: Occasional frequency (e.g.,
& tilt cause mini ice ages & 3. Earth’s climate has changed over
droughts, hurricanes). geological time for many reasons.
warmer
 Random : Unpredictable frequency 4. Sea level has varied significantly as a
periods as earth shifts slightly result of changes in the amount of
(e.g., volcanoes, earthquakes).
closer to & further from sun glacial ice on Earth over geological
time.
5. Major environmental change or
upheaval commonly results in large
swathes of habitat changes.
6. Wildlife engages in both short- and
long-term migration for a variety of
reasons, including natural
disruptions.

Environmental Change = Habitat Disruption

Major environmental disturbances result in widespread habitat
changes or loss

Migration
Wildlife may migrate to a new habitat as the result of natural
disruptions
2.6 Adaptations
Learning Objective
Fitness & Adaptation Describe how organisms
adapt to their
All populations have some genetic diversity, or variability environment.
in genomes of Essential
Knowledge
individuals; Genetic diversity exists 1. Organisms adapt to their
Adaptation: a new trait that increases an environment over time,
both in short- and long-
organism’s fitness (ability to survive and term scales, via
reproduce) incremental changes at the
genetic level.
2. Environmental changes,
Adaptation & Natural Selection either sudden or gradual,
Natural selection: Traits improving survival/reproduction become may threaten a species’
survival, requiring
common individuals to alter
behaviors, move, or perish.

Selective pressure/force:
Environmental factors (e.g.,
predation, drought) driving
adaptation.

Predation (hawk) = selective pressure

Environmental Change
& Evolution

 As environments change, different traits may become  Ex: a drought can kill off finches with smaller beaks, making
adaptations & old traits may become disadvantages larger beaks for cracking harder seeds an adaptation

Pace of Evolution
Faster in short-lived species (e.g., bacteria). Slow environmental change
allows adaptation; rapid change causes die-offs.
2.7 Ecological Succession Learning Objectives
Describe ecological succession.
Ecological succession: A series of predictable stages of growth that a forest goes Describe the effect of ecological
through succession on ecosystems.
Essential Knowledge
Primary Succession: Begins on bare rock (e.g., volcanic rock). Pioneer species = 1. There are two main types of
ecological succession: primary and
moss/lichen. secondary succession.
2. A keystone species in an ecosystem
is a species whose activities have a
particularly significant role in
determining community structure.
3. An indicator species is a plant or
animal that, by its presence,
abundance, scarcity, or chemical
composition, demonstrates that
some distinctive aspect of the
character or quality of an
ecosystem is present.
4. Pioneer members of an early
successional species commonly
move into unoccupied habitat and
over time adapt to its particular
Secondary Succession: Begins on existing soil after disturbances (e.g., fire). Pioneer conditions, which may result in the
species = grasses, weeds. origin of new species.
5. Succession in a disturbed
ecosystem will affect the total
biomass, species, richness, and net
productivity over time.

Stages of succession are

characterized by which types of
plant species dominate the
ecosystem; different species are
adapted to the conditions of
different stages.

Stages of Succession
Pioneer or early succession species Mid-successional species Late successional or climax community
Fast-growing, sun-tolerant (e.g., moss, Larger plants needing deeper soil (e.g., species
grasses). shrubs, pine trees). Slow-growing, shade-tolerant trees (e.g.,
oaks, maples).

Primary Succession pioneer species Secondary Succession pioneer species