QUESTION 1

a. Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database used in mobile networks to store information about subscribers who are
currently within the jurisdiction of a Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
Primary functions include:
i. Location Tracking: Keeps track of the current location of subscribers.

ii. Service Authorization: Determines whether a subscriber can access specific services.

iii. Roaming Number Allocation: Allocates temporary roaming numbers for incoming
calls.

iv. Data Synchronization: Updates the Home Location Register (HLR) with the
subscriber's current location.

b. Authentication Center (AUC)

The AUC is responsible for authenticating subscribers and securing communication.
Main functions include:
i. Authentication: Verifies the identity of subscribers using algorithms and keys.

ii. Encryption: Provides encryption keys to secure voice and data communication.

iii. Data Integrity: Ensures the integrity of data transmitted over the network.

c. Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a central database in a mobile network that stores detailed information about
subscribers.
Core functions include:
i. Subscriber Information Storage: Maintains subscriber profiles, including phone
numbers and service subscriptions.

ii. Location Information: Tracks the current location of subscribers for call routing.
 iii. Service Provisioning: Manages the activation and deactivation of services.

iv. Authentication and Security: Verifies subscriber identities and authorizes services.

d. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The EIR is a database that stores information about mobile equipment identities (IMEIs).
Primary functions include:
i. Device Authentication: Verifies the legitimacy of mobile devices.

ii. Blocking Stolen Devices: Prevents stolen or unauthorized devices from accessing the
network.

iii. IMEI Tracking: Monitors and tracks devices based on their IMEI numbers.

e. Operations and Maintenance Center (OMC)

The OMC is a system used for managing and maintaining network operations. Its primary
functions include:
Primary functions include:
i. Network Monitoring: Continuously monitors the performance and status of network
elements.

ii. Fault Management: Detects, diagnoses, and resolves network faults.

iii. Configuration Management: Manages the configuration of network elements.

iv. Performance Management: Collects and analyzes performance data to optimize

network efficiency.

QUESTION 1b

i. Frequency Reuse is a technique used in wireless communication to maximize the

use of available radio frequencies. It involves dividing a coverage area into
smaller cells, each with its own set of frequencies. These frequencies can be
reused in non-adjacent cells to minimize interference and maximize the network’s
 capacity. This method improves spectral efficiency and allows more users to be
accommodated within the same spectrum.

ii. Roaming refers to the ability of a mobile device to connect to a network other
than its home network, typically when the user is outside their carrier's coverage
area. This allows users to make calls, send texts, and use data services even when
they are in a different geographical location. Roaming is facilitated through
agreements between different network operators, ensuring continuous service for
the user.

iii. Handover, also known as handoff, is the process in which a mobile device
switches from one cell or base station to another without interrupting the ongoing
call or data session. This is crucial for maintaining seamless connectivity,
especially when the user is moving. There are different types of handovers, such
as hard handover (break-before-make) and soft handover (make-before-break),
each suited to different network conditions.

QUESTION 2
LTE Operation
i. Initial Attach Procedure
When the UE is powered on, it sends an attach request to the eNodeB.
The eNodeB forwards this request to the MME.
The MME authenticates the UE using data from the HSS.
Once authenticated, a default bearer is established between the UE and the P-GW, providing the
UE with an IP address.
ii. Bearer Establishment
Default Bearer: Provides basic connectivity.
Dedicated Bearers: Established for specific services requiring different Quality of Service
(QoS) levels.
iii. Data Transmission
The UE communicates with the eNodeB, which handles the radio transmission and reception.
The eNodeB forwards user data to the S-GW, which routes it to the P-GW.
The P-GW connects to external networks, enabling internet access.
iv. Handover
When the UE moves from one cell to another, the eNodeB coordinates with neighboring eNBs
via the X2 interface to ensure seamless handover.
The MME and S-GW manage the signaling and data forwarding during the handover process.
v. Paging and Call Setup
For incoming calls or data, the MME initiates a paging procedure to locate the UE.
The UE responds to the paging message, and the network sets up the necessary bearers for the
call or data session.

Diagram of LTE Operation

It shows the basic flow of communication from the UE to the eNodeB and then to the EPC,
highlighting the core components involved in LTE operation.

QUESTION 2b
i. Introduction
2G – Early 1990s
3G – Early 2000s
4G – Late 2000s
5G – Late 2010s

ii. Technology
2G – GSM, CDMA
3G – UMTS, HSPA
4G – LTE
5G – New Radio (NR), millimeter waves, massive MIMO

iii. Data Speed

2G – Up to 64kbps
3G – Up to 2 Mbps (UMTS), 42 Mbps (HSPA+)
4G – Up to 1Gbps.
5G – Up to 10Gbps

iv. Latency
2G – High
3G – Moderate
4G – Moderate
5G – Ultra low (as low as 1ms)

v. Capacity
2G – low
3G – Moderate
4G – Moderate
5G – High

vi. Key Features

2G – Digital voice, SMS, MMS
3G – Mobile internet, video calls, improved data services
4G – High speed internet, VoIP, HD video streaming.
5G – Enhanced mobile broadband, massive IoT, ultra-reliable low-latency communications
(URLLC)

QUESTION 2c

i. 2G (Second Generation)
Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
Function: The BTS is responsible for communicating directly with mobile devices. It handles
the radio communication and manages the air interface.
Components: Includes antennas, transceivers, and power amplifiers.
Technology: Uses GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) technologies.

ii. 3G (Third Generation)

Node B:
Function: Similar to the BTS in 2G, Node B handles the radio communication with mobile
devices. It is part of the UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and
CDMA2000 networks.
Components: Includes antennas, transceivers, and power amplifiers, but with enhanced
capabilities to support higher data rates.
Technology: Uses WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) and HSPA (High-Speed
Packet Access) technologies³.
4G (Fourth Generation)
Evolved Node B (eNodeB):
Function: The eNodeB is an advanced base station that handles all radio communications and
manages the air interface. It integrates the functions of both the BTS and the Radio Network
Controller (RNC) from previous generations.
Components: Includes antennas, transceivers, and advanced signal processing units.
Technology: Uses LTE (Long-Term Evolution) technology, providing high-speed data and
improved spectral efficiency³.

iii. 5G (Fifth Generation)

Next Generation Node B (gNodeB or gNB):
Function: The gNodeB is the base station for 5G networks, handling all radio communications
and managing the air interface. It supports higher data rates, lower latency, and massive device
connectivity.
Components: Includes advanced antennas (such as massive MIMO), transceivers, and
sophisticated signal processing units.
Technology: Uses NR (New Radio) technology, which includes millimeter waves, beamforming,
and network slicing.

QUESTION 3
i. EPC Network Architecture
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is the core network architecture of LTE (4G) networks. It is
designed to provide high-speed data services, mobility management, and session management.
The EPC is an all-IP network, meaning it uses Internet Protocol (IP) for all communications,
which simplifies the network and improves efficiency.
Key Components of EPC:
Mobility Management Entity (MME): Manages signaling and control functions, such as user
authentication, mobility management, and session management.
Serving Gateway (SGW): Routes and forwards user data packets, acting as a local mobility
anchor for inter-eNodeB handovers.
Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW): Connects the LTE network to external packet data
networks, such as the internet. It handles IP address allocation and QoS enforcement.
Home Subscriber Server (HSS): A database that contains user-related and subscription-related
information.
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF): Manages policy control and charging functions.

ii. Serving Gateway (SGW)

The Serving Gateway (SGW) is a critical component of the EPC. It serves as the point of
interconnection between the radio-side (eNodeB) and the core network. The SGW is responsible
for:
Routing and Forwarding: It routes and forwards user data packets between the eNodeB and the
PGW.
Mobility Anchor: Acts as a local mobility anchor for inter-eNodeB handovers, ensuring
seamless data session continuity when a user moves between different eNodeBs.
Buffering: Buffers downlink data during handovers to ensure no data loss.

iii. Packet Data Network (PDN)

A Packet Data Network (PDN) is a network that provides data transmission services using
packet-switching technology. In the context of LTE, the PDN refers to external networks that the
LTE network connects to via the PGW. These networks can include the internet, private
corporate networks, or other service provider networks.
Key Features of PDN:
Packet Switching: Data is divided into packets and transmitted independently over the network.
Connectivity: Provides connectivity to a wide range of devices, including computers,
smartphones, and IoT devices.
Public and Private Networks: Can be public (like the internet) or private (like corporate
intranets).

QUESTION 3b
i. Uu Interface
Description: The air interface between the User Equipment (UE) and the eNodeB.
Function: Facilitates wireless communication between the mobile device and the base station. It
handles the transmission of both control and user data.
ii. S1 Interface

a. S1-MME:
Description: Connects the eNodeB to the Mobility Management Entity (MME).
Function: Manages signaling for mobility, session management, and bearer control.
b. S1-U:
Description: Connects the eNodeB to the Serving Gateway (SGW).
Function: Handles the user data traffic between the eNodeB and the SGW.

iii. X2 Interface
Description: Connects two eNodeBs.
Function: Facilitates handover and coordination between neighboring eNodeBs. It helps in load
balancing and interference management.

iv. S5/S8 Interface

Description: Connects the SGW to the Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW).
Function:
S5: Used within the same network operator.
S8: Used between different network operators.
Both interfaces handle user data traffic and mobility management between the SGW and PGW.

v. S11 Interface
Description: Connects the MME to the SGW.
Function: Manages signaling for bearer establishment, modification, and release.

vi. S6a Interface

Description: Connects the MME to the Home Subscriber Server (HSS).
Function: Facilitates authentication, authorization, and subscriber profile management.

vii. SGi Interface

Description: Connects the PGW to external Packet Data Networks (PDNs), such as the internet
or private corporate networks.
Function: Handles the transfer of user data between the LTE network and external networks.

viii. S3 Interface
Description: Connects the MME to the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) in 2G/3G
networks.
Function: Supports interworking and mobility management between LTE and legacy networks.

ix. S4 Interface
Description: Connects the SGW to the SGSN.
Function: Facilitates user data transfer and mobility management between LTE and 2G/3G
networks.

QUESTION 4
i. Core Initialization
Network Elements: The LTE network consists of several key components, including the User
Equipment (UE), eNodeB (base station), Mobility Management Entity (MME), Serving Gateway
(S-GW), and Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW).
Initialization: When the network is powered on, these elements initialize and establish
connections with each other. The MME, S-GW, and P-GW are part of the Evolved Packet Core
(EPC).

ii. System Information Broadcasting

Broadcasting: The eNodeB broadcasts system information to all UEs in its coverage area. This
information includes cell identity, network identity, and other parameters necessary for the UE to
connect to the network.

iii. UE Attachment
Initial Attach: When a UE is powered on, it performs an initial attach procedure to connect to the
network. The UE sends an attach request to the eNodeB, which forwards it to the MME.
Authentication: The MME authenticates the UE using credentials stored in the Home
Subscriber Server (HSS).
Security: Security procedures are established between the UE and the network to ensure secure
communication.

iv. Bearer Establishment

Default Bearer: Once authenticated, a default bearer is established between the UE and the P-
GW. This bearer provides the UE with an IP address and basic connectivity.
Dedicated Bearers: Additional dedicated bearers can be established for specific services
requiring different Quality of Service (QoS) levels.

v. Paging
Paging Procedure: When an incoming call is received, the network initiates a paging procedure
to locate the UE. The MME sends a paging message to all eNodeBs in the UE's tracking area.
Paging Response: The UE responds to the paging message, indicating its readiness to receive
the call.

vi. Call Setup

Session Setup: The network sets up a session for the call by establishing the necessary bearers
and routing the call through the EPC.
Call Establishment: The call is established, and the UE can now receive the call.

QUESTION 5
LTE Channel Mapping
In LTE, data is transmitted over various channels, which are categorized into three types: logical
channels, transport channels, and physical channels. These channels work together to ensure
efficient data transmission from the network to the user equipment (UE) and vice versa.
i. Logical Channels
Logical channels define what type of data is being transferred. They are categorized into two
main types:
Control Channels: Used for transferring control plane information.
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): Transmits system information.
Paging Control Channel (PCCH): Carries paging information.
Common Control Channel (CCCH): Used for control information between UEs and the
network.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): Transfers dedicated control information.
Multicast Control Channel (MCCH): Used for MBMS control information.
Traffic Channels: Used for transferring user plane information.
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH): Transfers user data.
Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH): Used for MBMS traffic data.

ii. Transport Channels

Transport channels define how data is transferred over the air interface. They are responsible for
the characteristics of data transmission, such as encoding and interleaving. Key transport
channels include:
Broadcast Channel (BCH): Carries system information.
Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH): Main channel for downlink data transfer.
Paging Channel (PCH): Used for paging UEs.
Multicast Channel (MCH): Used for multicast data.
Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH): Main channel for uplink data transfer.
Random Access Channel (RACH): Used for initial access and random access procedures¹³.
 iii. Physical Channels
Physical channels define where data is transmitted in terms of time and frequency resources.
They carry the actual data over the air interface. Key physical channels include:
Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH): Carries user data and paging information.
Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH): Carries control information for resource
allocation.
Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): Carries the BCH transport block.
Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH): Carries uplink user data.
Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH): Carries uplink control information.
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH): Used for random access procedures.
These channels work together to ensure that data is efficiently transmitted and received,
maintaining the quality and reliability of the LTE network.

QUESTION 5
i. SISO (Single Input Single Output)
Description: SISO is the simplest form of antenna configuration. It uses a single antenna at both
the transmitter and the receiver.
Usage: This configuration is straightforward but has limitations in terms of data rates and
reliability because it cannot exploit spatial diversity to combat signal fading and interference¹.

ii. MISO (Multiple Input Single Output)

Description: MISO uses multiple antennas at the transmitter and a single antenna at the receiver.
Advantages: This setup improves the reliability and quality of the signal by using techniques
like beamforming, which directs the signal towards the receiver, thereby reducing the impact of
fading and interference¹².

iii. SIMO (Single Input Multiple Output)

Description: SIMO uses a single antenna at the transmitter and multiple antennas at the receiver.
Advantages: This configuration enhances the reception quality by allowing the receiver to
combine signals from multiple antennas, which helps in mitigating the effects of multipath
fading and improving signal strength¹³.

iv. MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)

Description: MIMO uses multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the receiver.
Advantages: This is the most advanced and efficient configuration. MIMO significantly
increases data rates and reliability by exploiting spatial diversity and multiplexing. It allows
multiple data streams to be transmitted simultaneously, which enhances the overall capacity and
performance of the network.

PART B

QUESTION 1
A transmission system is a setup that transmits signals from one place to another. These signals
can be electrical, optical, or radio signals. The primary goal Is to transmit data accurately and
efficiently over a distance using various technologies such as copper cables, fiber-optic cables,
satellite links, and wireless communication technologies.

QUESTION 2
i. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
FDM is a technique where multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously over a single
transmission path by allocating a unique frequency band to each signal. This method is
commonly used in radio and television broadcasting.
ii. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM involves dividing the time into several slots, with each slot being allocated to a different
signal. This allows multiple signals to share the same transmission medium by transmitting in
different time slots.
iii. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDMA is a channel access method used in multiple-access protocols as a channelization
protocol. It divides the frequency band into multiple channels, each assigned to a different user.
 iv. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
TDMA is a channel access method for shared medium networks. It allows several users to share
the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots.
v. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
OFDMA is a multi-user version of the popular Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) digital modulation scheme. It assigns subsets of subcarriers to individual users,
allowing simultaneous data transmission from multiple users.
vi. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. It reduces
interference and improves the efficiency of data transmission by splitting the signal into several
narrowband channels at different frequencies.

QUESTION 3
In 4G LTE, a resource block is the smallest unit of resources that can be allocated to a user. It
consists of 12 subcarriers in the frequency domain and one slot in the time domain, typically
lasting 0.5 milliseconds.

QUESTION 4
i. Multiplexing: is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal over a shared
medium.
ii. Demultiplexing: is the reverse process, where the combined signal is separated back into
the original individual signals. Channels are multiplexed using techniques like FDM,
TDM, and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).

QUESTION 5
The transmission path refers to the physical medium through which the signal travels.
Key characteristics include
i. Attenuation: Loss of signal strength as it travels.
ii. Bandwidth: The range of frequencies that can be transmitted.
iii. Noise: Unwanted signals that interfere with the transmission.
iv. Latency: The time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver.
QUESTION 6
The Bit Error Rate (BER) is a measure of the number of bit errors that occur in a transmission
system over a given period of time. It is defined as the ratio of the number of erroneous bits to
the total number of bits transmitted. A lower BER indicates a more reliable system. Factors
affecting BER include noise, interference, and signal attenuation.

QUESTION 7
To connect audio signals to digital systems, the audio signal must be converted from an analog
format to a digital format.
This process includes:
i. Sampling: Measuring the amplitude of the audio signal at regular intervals.
ii. Quantization: Converting the sampled values into discrete levels.
iii. Encoding: Representing the quantized values in binary form.

QUESTION 8
A 30-channel Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) system typically refers to the European E1
standard, which combines 30 voice channels into a single digital stream. Each voice channel is
sampled at 8 kHz, and each sample is encoded into an 8-bit value, resulting in a data rate of 64
kbps per channel. The combined data rate for 30 channels is 2.048 Mbps, including additional
bits for synchronization and signaling.

QUESTION 9
Bit stuffing is a technique used in data transmission to ensure that the data stream remains
synchronized. It involves inserting non-information bits into the data stream to break up
sequences of bits that might otherwise be misinterpreted as control signals. For example, in
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control), a ‘0’ bit is inserted after five consecutive ‘1’ bits to
prevent confusion with the frame delimiter.

QUESTION 10
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) and Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) are both
standards for transmitting large volumes of data over digital networks.
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
 i. Synchronous transmission.
ii. Easier multiplexing and Demultiplexing.
iii. Higher data rates (up to several Gbps).
iv. Better network management and fault detection.
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
i. Plesiochronous (nearly synchronous) transmission.
ii. More complex multiplexing and Demultiplexing.
iii. Lower data rates (up to 140 Mbps).
iv. Limited network management capabilities.

QUESTION 11
Virtual Container (VC) is a structure used in SDH to transport user data. It provides a flexible
and efficient way to manage and transport different types of data streams.
Types of VCs, includes:
i. VC-11: Used for lower-rate signals (1.5 Mbps).
ii. VC-12: Used for 2 Mbps signals.
iii. VC-3: Used for 34 Mbps signals.
iv. VC-4: Used for 140 Mbps signals.

QUESTION 12
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal to transmit data.
Types of modulation:
i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the data signal.
 ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)
The frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to the data signal
 iii. Phase Modulation (PM)
The phase of the carrier signal is varied in line with the data signal.
QUESTION 13
Radio Transmitter
Microphone: Converts sound to electrical signal
Modulator: Modulates the carrier signal with the audio signal
Amplifier: Increases the power of the modulated signal.
Antenna: Transmits the signal

Radio Receiver

Antenna: Receives the signal

Tuner: Selects the desired frequency
Demodulator: Extracts the audio signal from the carrier
Speaker: Converts electrical signal back to sound

QUESTION 14
Types of antennas and how they radiate power.
i. Dipole Antenna
A dipole antenna consists of two conductive elements such as metal wires or rods. It radiates
power by creating an electromagnetic field that propagates away from the antenna. The radiation
pattern is typically omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the antenna.
ii. Yagi Antenna
A Yagi antenna, or simply Yagi antenna, consists of a driven element, a reflector, and one or
more directors. It radiates power in a specific direction, making it highly directional. This type of
antenna is commonly used for television reception and amateur radio.
iii. Parabolic Reflector Antenna
A parabolic reflector antenna uses a parabolic-shaped reflector to focus the radio waves into a
narrow beam. This type of antenna is highly directional and is used in applications such as
satellite communications and radar.

QUESTION 15
i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the data signal.
ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)
The frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to the data signal.
iii. Phase Modulation (PM)
The phase of the carrier signal is varied in line with the data signal.
iv. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
QAM combines both amplitude and phase modulation. It is used in digital television and cable
modem applications.
v. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM is a method used to digitally represent analog signals. It is the standard form of digital
audio in computers and various Blu-ray, Compact Disc, and DVD formats.

QUESTION 16
FM Radio Transmitter
Microphone: Converts sound to an electrical signal.
Audio Amplifier: Amplifies the audio signal.
Oscillator: Generates a high-frequency carrier signal.
Modulator: Modulates the carrier signal with the audio signal.
Power Amplifier: Increases the power of the modulated signal.
Antenna: Transmits the signal.

QUESTION 17
Wave-guides are structures that guide electromagnetic waves from one point to another.
Types of wave-guides include:
i. Rectangular Wave guide
A hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross-section. It is used for microwave frequencies.
ii. Circular Wave guide
A hollow metallic tube with a circular cross-section. It is also used for microwave frequencies
but has different mode characteristics compared to rectangular wave-guides.
iii. Dielectric Wave guide
A wave-guide that uses a dielectric material to guide the waves. It is used in optical fiber
communications.

QUESTION 18
 i. RTN910
The RTN910 is a compact microwave radio that supports multiple service interfaces and
transmission capacities. It typically has slots for IF (Intermediate Frequency) modules, power
supply modules, and service interface modules.
ii. RTN950
The RTN950 is a versatile microwave radio that supports a wide range of frequencies and
capacities. It has slots for various modules including IF modules, power supply modules, and
service interface modules.
iii. RTN980
The RTN980 is a high-capacity microwave radio designed for long-distance transmission. It
features slots for high-capacity IF modules, power supply modules, and multiple service
interface modules.

QUESTION 19
i. Three main parts of optical fiber:
Core: The central part of the fiber where light is transmitted.
Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects light back into the core.
Coating: Protects the fiber from damage and moisture.
ii. Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection occurs when light traveling through a medium hits the boundary with a
less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing it to be reflected back into
the original medium.
iii. Launching Light in a Laser
Light is launched in a laser by exciting electrons in a gain medium to a higher energy state.
When these electrons return to a lower energy state, they emit photons, which are then amplified
by stimulated emission.
iv. Color Code of 144 Core Cable
1. Core 36: Orange
2. Core 127: Aqua
3. Core 142: Slate
4. Core 19: Brown
5. Core 67: Red
 6. Core 102: Black
7. Core 112: Violet

QUESTION 20
Steps for Splicing an Optical Fiber
1. Preparation: Clean and strip the fiber ends.
2. Cleaving: Cut the fiber ends to create a smooth surface.
3. Alignment: Align the fiber ends using a splicing machine.
4. Fusion Splicing: Use an electric arc to fuse the fiber ends together.
5. Protection: Apply a protective sleeve over the splice.

QUESTION 21
Single Mode Fiber:
Core Diameter: Smaller core (approximately 9 µm).
Light Propagation: Allows only one mode of light to propagate.
Distance: Suitable for long-distance communication (up to 40 km or more).
Bandwidth: Higher bandwidth and less signal attenuation.
Cost: Generally more expensive due to the precision required in manufacturing and installation.
Applications: Used in telecommunications, cable TV, and long-distance data transmission.
Multi-mode Fiber:
Core Diameter: Larger core (50 µm or 62.5 µm).
Light Propagation: Allows multiple modes of light to propagate.
Distance: Suitable for short-distance communication (up to 2 km).
Bandwidth: Lower bandwidth and higher signal attenuation compared to single mode.
Cost: Generally less expensive and easier to install.
Applications: Used in local area networks (LANs), data centers, and short-distance data
transmission12.

QUESTION 22
Fujitsu optical equipment, such as the Fujitsu FLASH series, operates based on the principles of
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). These
systems use optical fibers to transmit data at high speeds over long distances.
Key components include:
Optical Transmitters: Convert electrical signals into optical signals.
Optical Receivers: Convert optical signals back into electrical signals.
Multiplexers: Combine multiple signals into one for transmission.
Demultiplexers: Separate combined signals back into individual signals.
Add/Drop Multiplexers (ADMs): Add or remove specific signals from the multiplexed data
stream34.

QUESTION 23
Satellite communication involves the use of artificial satellites to provide communication links
between various points on Earth.
The system consists of:
Ground Segment: Includes Earth stations that transmit and receive signals.
Space Segment: The satellite itself, which receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals.
Uplink: Transmission from an Earth station to the satellite.
Downlink: Transmission from the satellite to an Earth station56.

QUESTION 24
Types of Satellites in Space
i. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
Altitude: 160 to 2,000 km.
Applications: Earth observation, scientific research, and communication.
ii. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites
Altitude: 2,000 to 35,786 km.
Applications: Navigation (e.g., GPS), communication.
 iii. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Satellites
Altitude: 35,786 km.
Applications: Weather monitoring, television broadcasting, communication.
iv. Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO) Satellites
Altitude: Varies, typically around 600 to 800 km.
Applications: Earth observation, environmental monitoring.
v. Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) Satellites
Altitude: Transfer orbit to GEO.
Applications: Transition phase for satellites moving to GEO78.

QUESTION 25
Earth stations, or ground stations, communicate with satellites by transmitting and receiving
radio waves. They use parabolic antennas to establish a telecommunications link with the
satellite.
The process involves:
Transmission: Sending signals to the satellite (uplink).
Reception: Receiving signals from the satellite (downlink).
Multiplexing/Demultiplexing: Combining and separating multiple signals for efficient
communication.

QUESTION 26
A satellite transponder is a device that receives signals from the Earth station, amplifies them,
and retransmits them back to another Earth station.
The process involves:
Receiving: The transponder receives the uplink signal from the Earth station.
Frequency Conversion: It converts the received signal to a different frequency to avoid
interference with the uplink signal.
Amplification: The signal is amplified to ensure it can travel back to Earth.
Transmission: The amplified signal is transmitted back to the Earth station on the downlink
frequency.

QUESTION 27
Different frequency bands are used in transmission networks, each with specific frequency
ranges and applications:
L Band: 1 to 2 GHz, used in satellite communication and GPS.
S Band: 2 to 4 GHz, used in weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications
satellites.
C Band: 4 to 8 GHz, used in satellite communication and Wi-Fi.
X Band: 8 to 12 GHz, used in radar and satellite communication.
Ku Band: 12 to 18 GHz, used in satellite communication and direct broadcast satellite services.
Ka Band: 26.5 to 40 GHz, used in high-resolution satellite communication and radar.

QUESTION 28
Kepler’s laws describe the motion of planets around the sun, which also apply to satellites
orbiting Earth:
First Law (Law of Ellipses): The orbit of a planet (or satellite) is an ellipse with the sun (or
Earth) at one of the two foci.
Second Law (Law of Equal Areas): A line segment joining a planet (or satellite) and the sun (or
Earth) sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
Third Law (Law of Harmonies): The square of the orbital period of a planet (or satellite) is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

QUESTION 29
Perigee: The point in the orbit of a satellite closest to Earth.
Apogee: The point in the orbit of a satellite farthest from Earth. These points are crucial for
understanding the satellite’s orbit and its distance from Earth at different times.

QUESTION 30
Television Broadcasting: Delivering TV signals to homes.
Internet Access: Providing internet connectivity in remote areas.
Weather Monitoring: Observing weather patterns and forecasting.
Navigation: GPS systems for location tracking.
Military Communication: Secure communication for defense purposes.
Disaster Management: Coordinating relief efforts during natural disasters.
Scientific Research: Studying space and Earth’s atmosphere.
Telemedicine: Providing medical services to remote locations.
Maritime Communication: Ensuring communication for ships at sea.
Aviation Communication: Supporting communication for aircraft.

QUESTION 31
Spacecraft control systems manage the orientation and position of a spacecraft. They include:
Attitude Control: Maintains the spacecraft’s orientation using gyroscopes, reaction wheels, and
thrusters.
Orbit Control: Adjusts the spacecraft’s orbit using thrusters.
Telemetry and Command: Sends and receives data between the spacecraft and ground control.

QUESTION 32
Launching involves several stages:
Preparation: Assembling and testing the spacecraft.
Launch: Using a rocket to propel the spacecraft into space.
Orbit Insertion: Adjusting the spacecraft’s trajectory to achieve the desired orbit.
Deployment: Activating the spacecraft’s systems and deploying any necessary components, such
as solar panels.

QUESTION 33
Power Subsystem: Provides and manages power for the satellite.
Communication Subsystem: Handles the transmission and reception of signals.
Thermal Control Subsystem: Maintains the satellite’s temperature within operational limits.
Attitude and Orbit Control Subsystem: Controls the satellite’s orientation and position.
Command and Data Handling Subsystem: Manages the satellite’s operations and data
processing.

QUESTION 34
Fixed Assignment Multiple Access (FAMA): Allocates fixed frequency bands or time slots to
users. Suitable for predictable and constant traffic.
Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA): Allocates frequency bands or time slots based
on demand. Suitable for variable and busy traffic.

QUESTION 35
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
i. Uses fewer channels with wider spacing.
ii. Suitable for short to medium distances.
iii. Lower cost and complexity
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
i. Uses more channels with narrower spacing.
ii. Suitable for long distances and high-capacity networks.
iii. Higher cost and complexity.

QUESTION 36
A satellite link budget calculates the total gain and loss from the transmitter to the receiver.
Simplified example:
Transmitter Power (Pt): 50 dBm
Transmitter Antenna Gain (Gt): 30 dB
Free Space Path Loss (Lfs): 200 dB
Receiver Antenna Gain (Gr): 30 dB
Receiver Sensitivity (Pr): -100 dBm
Link Budget Calculation: [ Pr = Pt + Gt – L{fs} + Gr ] [ Pr = 50 + 30 – 200 + 30 = -90 \
text{ dBm} ]
Since the received power (-90 dBm) is above the receiver sensitivity (-100 dBm), the link is
viable.
A microwave link budget example:
Transmitter Power (Pt): 40 dBm
Transmitter Antenna Gain (Gt): 25 dB
Free Space Path Loss (Lfs): 150 dB
Receiver Antenna Gain (Gr): 25 dB
Receiver Sensitivity (Pr): -90 dBm
Link Budget Calculation: [ Pr = Pt + Gt – L_{fs} + Gr ] [ Pr = 40 + 25 – 150 + 25 = -60 \
text{ dBm} ]
Since the received power (-60 dBm) is above the receiver sensitivity (-90 dBm), the link is
viable.

QUESTION 37
Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field of an electromagnetic wave.
Types include:
Linear Polarization: Electric field oscillates in a single plane.
Circular Polarization: Electric field rotates in a circular motion.
Elliptical Polarization: Electric field describes an ellipse.

QUESTION 38
Diversity is a technique used to improve the reliability of a signal by using multiple
communication paths.
Types include:
Frequency Diversity: Transmitting the same signal on different frequencies.
Time Diversity: Transmitting the same signal at different times.
Space Diversity: Using multiple antennas at different locations.

QUESTION 39
Frequency Diversity: Involves using multiple frequencies to transmit the same signal, reducing
the impact of frequency-specific fading.
Space Diversity: Involves using multiple antennas spaced apart to receive the same signal,
reducing the impact of spatial fading.

QUESTION 40
The distance between the induction and radiation fields of an antenna is determined by the
wavelength of the transmitted signal. The induction field is close to the antenna and is dominated
by reactive energy, while the radiation field is farther away and carries the propagating energy.

QUESTION 41
A radar system detects objects by transmitting a radio wave and analyzing the reflected signal.
Basic components include:
Transmitter: Generates and amplifies the radio wave.
Antenna: Transmits the radio wave and receives the reflected signal.
Receiver: Detects and amplifies the reflected signal.
Processor: Analyzes the signal to determine the object’s distance, speed, and direction.

QUESTION 42
Frequency Bands in a Frequency Spectrum
i. VLF (Very Low Frequency): 3 to 30 kHz
ii. LF (Low Frequency): 30 to 300 kHz
iii. MF (Medium Frequency): 300 kHz to 3 MHz
iv. HF (High Frequency): 3 to 30 MHz
v. VHF (Very High Frequency): 30 to 300 MHz
vi. UHF (Ultra High Frequency): 300 MHz to 3 GHz
vii. SHF (Super High Frequency): 3 to 30 GHz
viii. EHF (Extremely High Frequency): 30 to 300 GHz
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
DWDM is a technology that increases bandwidth by combining multiple optical carrier signals
on a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (or colors) of laser light. It allows for the
transmission of multiple data streams simultaneously over the same fiber, significantly
increasing the capacity of the network.