a Min the stme Tine and if they are not in tine, then an errr. know s. provided in the analog instruments. But this while parallax error is also a type of human error 4, Measurement of Errors mar “ps aleady explained measurement is an act of comparison between a given quantity and a quantity chosen kind as a unit and any measuring instrument is a device for comparing the unknown quantity of the same jth a standard quantity. F ERROR : 1. Gross errors 2, Systematic error 43, Random errors 1. Gross errors : See pirorsicaused by the operator in reading, 1 ‘his error is dependent on human accuracy’ so it is not possible to analyze this error mathematically, cording and calibration are classified under this group? + This error can be minimized by (1) Keeping utmost care in reading, recording and calibrating (@) Taking more readings and finding the average. {@) Taking the help of more than one experimenters in performing the same measurement ular’ in’ nature + JEWS of this type are considered both in’ magnitude and sign and so can be corrected by calibration, * These errors can be divided in to three types (@) Instrumental errors () Environmental errors {c) Observational, error Instrumental errors “+ Geen errors are inherent in the measuring instruments because of its mechanical SWE * These may be due to friction in bearing, irregular spring tension, imperfect calibration. ee Re Oe eS- " carefully planned. (ii) Correcting factor should be applied after determining such error. iii) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully. (iv) Proper selection of the instrument should be made (b) Environmental errors ing and spring mounting, ir-conditioning, shielding, proper carth To reduce these errors provide ai (©)_Observational error : bove the surface of scale it cat + As the pointer of analog measuring instruments rests slightly 3 parallax error. To minimize parallax error, meters are provided with mirror Incorrect systematic errors are 3.__ Random errors : ‘These are the residue errors due to some unknown cause and occur even when all the | i taken care of. ‘These are accidental and the magnitude and sign fluctuate in unpredicted manner, So the errors due to unknown “Random errors”. easons and disturbances are lumped together and named asneter, Resistance strain gauge, Pirani gauge, Resistance Meio slectric, Thermoelectric, Magnetoelectric, Electron-tube, Radio-active, Ele caethe pressure is converted in to the displacement b Bourdon tube then the displacement is converted ato an analogous voltage by LVDT, ic... the hourdon tube acts as a primary transducer while LVDT acts as secondary transducer. 3:7 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS : These tranducers are classified according to their sources : (a) Active Transducers : : Oa. 5 The transducers which does not require the auxiliary power source for conversion of non-electrical quanti to clectrical quantity is called active transducer x ‘This type of transducer is not dependent on any power source, i =phese\typé Of tranducers are also called self-generating transducers because: they develop their ownyvoltage and current output. 3 «For example : Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cells, Piezoelectric crystals, Tachogenerators, Accelerators elC. «For understanding, here we consider some examples (1) Thermocouple = fMlermocouple is a device in which there are two junctions, one is known as reference junction’ and other is known as measuring junction © The reference junction is kept at the fixed temperature (theoretically 0°C) and the measuring junction is/inserted into the bath whose temperature is to be measured. + Duewto the temperature difference Volumes between two junctions, the current will flow in the closed circuit of le. Measuring thermocouph vomits * In this example, the temperature is itself responsible for producing the junction (cold) current to flow which in turn produce 7 the output voltage (mV signal). Heat source + [he thermocouple does not require any external power source for converting the temperature into the millivolt signal. FIG, 2.2 : THERMOCOUPLE (No power source is required) ‘Two dissimilar ‘metal wes + Therefore this is an active transducer. (2) Piezoelectric crystals : + ‘Phelpiez6electric crystal used for measurement of acceleration’ is shown in the Fig. 23. Y + The crystal is sandwiched between two metallic electrodes and the entire sandwich is 1 a base which may be the floor of a rocket. : “Maes 2021 14 i -called accelerometer” which cc irce to convert a p in this case) and theref aera auxiliary power 8" ae use an} ) to an eal ‘sorput (voltage in this case) potentiometer and LVDT 's shown in Fig. 2-4 auiilary power - ‘source (86) 2.8 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS : : 2 e output of the tranducers. + The output may (a) Analog Transducers : be continuous function of time or it may be in discrete steps. ers conv physical quantit (b) Digital Transducers : . 2 a mae 1 it can be asily represen ‘on a glass scale or non-conducting and conducting areas on a a scale, Soe ae bh aaFIG. 2.14 : CONSTRUCTION OF LYDT Principle of LVDT + Principle of LVDT “The LYDT works upon the principle of transformer, i. primary winding throug! |tage is induced in the secondary winding: ‘mutual induction principle. This principle States|that han ac. excitation source then an alternating sienai'aic! Current flows through the magnetic field is generated due to which an Working of LVDT Working + When the primary winding is excited by induction, alternating current voltages is induce ‘an altemating current source, then due to the principle of mutual .d into the two secondary windings of LVDT. | and S, be E,, and E,, respectively. In order to obtain the + Let the output voltage of secondary windings S, are connected in series opposition as shown in ‘overall output voltage E,, these two secondaries S, and S, Fig. 2.16. «Ths the output voltage of LVD1' is the difference of two voltages E,, and E,, induced in respective windings: +. The differential output voltage B=5,- + Inthe LVDT there are three possibilities of motion of the core. + Case-l_: When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings: is equal (@,, = ¢,,) and hence equal emfs are induced in both secondaries (E,, =F) ‘Thus at null position : E,, = E,,. ie., Ep is zero at null position ~O + Case-Il = When the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, more flux links with windings 3 aa Jess with winding S, (9, > ,,). from E,, > E,, ‘The magnitude of output voltage is thus Ey = E,, ~ E,, and the output voltage is positive ‘and we can say that the voltage Ey is im the phase = with the primary voltage. - ansFIG. 2.15 : OPERATION OF LYDT e : The LVD1s have a very high range fro measurement of displacement they can used. “of displacement ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm. ‘Losses : As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of displacemel | High Sensitivity ~ The output LYDT is so high that it doesn’t need any amplificat ‘Posses a high sensitivity which is typically about 40 V/mm. }~ LYDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all condi P me sumption — The power is about 1 W which is very as compared to other transducet ‘to Electrical Signals — They convert the linear displacement to electrical voltas are easy to process.din gauge is essentially a fine w when mechanically straioe in Fig. 2.36. pe ae coefficient of resistance A, B and CFIG. 237 : RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR he material which is being used in making the resistive element of RTD should have some im h are as follows : “The change in the resistance of the material per unit change in temperature should be as large as po ‘The material should have a high value of resistivity so that the minimum volume of material is for the construction of RTD. (©) The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship with temperature. ‘+ The most common RTDs are made of either platinum, nickel or nickel allows. The characteristics ‘the resistance and temperature for nickel, copper and platinum is shown in Fig. 2.38 in which platinum be more linear characteristics, 4 _ Platinum is especially suited for RTD as it can withstand high temperature while maintaining excellentWH meter. of electrical energy is known as Energy meter or k) ri gle phase circuit are ich meas ‘ion of electrical energy in a sins en aca cau ae Sue crey noel phase Energy meters anc energy meters, in Enc Meter Energy ff Electrical Energy in A.C. eigg used for the measurement of Er aati ie ae ie of induction watt meters. Constructionally, the two are simitgy © a tei oi f the watt meter are replaced, in the case of energy meter by the control spring and the pointer ot ) pas and counting mechanism of the meter. 1¢ oa Ac. supply V u>or 5 FIG. 3.13 : CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGYMETER Spindle 1 6 Aluminium di 2. Shunt magnet 7. Permanent magnet (break magnet) 3. Series magnet 8. Copper shading band 4, Pressure coil (PC) 9. Registering mechanism 5. Current coil (CC) 10 Jeweled bearingclosed circuit and under no of the C:T. should be left open Siffers slightly from power transformer. In case of ct ery small load impedance or “burden”. So the current tranphasor Diagram “The phasor diagram of a C-T. is shown in Fig. 3.21. «Taking flux @, a8 the reference vector, the induced e.m.s in the primary and secondary windings E, and E, lagging behind the flux by 90° are drawn. ‘The magnitude of the induced emf. E, and E, are proportional to their respective number of turns, + The no load current (exciting current) I, drawn by the primary has two ‘components, magnetising component I,, and working component I, as shown. +The secondary current I; lags behind the voltage V, by an Y. The angle ‘is the sum of ot and 8 i.e. (y= a + 5). The angle ois the angle produced by burden connected on the secondary and 0. is the angle due to secondary winding resistance and reactance, + The secondary current I, is now transferred to the primary by reversing hx, Ba I, and multiplied by K ie. 1 =KI, (where K is a turns ratio). The total FIG. 321 primary current I, is the vector sum of 1, and I, 38.2 Potent ‘Transformer (PT. + ffeSe are used to measure alternating high voltages by means of low range voltmeters or for energising the potential coils of wattmeters and energy meters + These type of transformers are also sed in relays and Secondary protection system poy + The Fig. 3.22 shows the connection diagram offP-T. The high voltage which is to be measured is fed to the Ac Primary > 13 primary of P-T. which is stepped down and is measured spply winding bya low ran ggittllinicteat Gait eaeeeaians + The primary winding has large number or tums where as the secondary has less number of turns. The turn ratio of the transformer is so designed and adjusted that the secondary voltage is 110 V, when full rated voltage is FIG, 322 applied to the primary. * The principle of operation of potential transformer is same as that of the Power ‘Transformer: Construction of Potential Transformer * Basically a potential transformer is a two winding transformer as shown in Fig. 3.22. The primary is! with the high voltage and the secondary steps down the voltage between 110 V to 120 ¥.‘Supply FIG, 3.27 : WESTON FREQUENCY METER Working + + When the frequency is normal, the two sets of coils carry equal currents, so the fields produced by them are equal in magnitude. The resultant field is at 45°. The soft iron piece positions its axis parallel to the field. The pointer shows normal frequency (Fig. 3.28), Oa % nee oe FIG. 328