Introduction

TraditionalView
Job analysis—theprocess is an important human resource activity for
a
varietyof reasons.Jobs are important to individuals.They help determine standards of living, places of residence
statU-sand even one's sense of self-worth. Jobs are important to organisations because they are the means of
achievingorganisational objectives.Traditionally,jobs are defined in a rigid way—alpng prescribed lines. The
job incumbentsare expectedto carryüÄVFötrictly adheringto a set of rules and regulations.
ésigned to be immutableand unchanging irrespectiveof the various incumbents who carry out work at different
points of_time?In the traditionalview, thus, there is a straightforwardassumption that jobs exist and they need
to be scrupulouslylooked after to obtain results.

Modern View
According to Tom Peters (Thriving on Chaos, London, Pan 1989), the entire concept of job is somewhat
obsolete. In a fast changing environment, "jobs are nothing but rigid solutions to an elastic problem". An
organisationis not a structure of unchanging jobs. It is, in fact, made up of constantly changing activitiesand
projects. In reality,jobs are not static. Technologicaladvancesand competitive pressures may often
force an
organisation to put more emphasis on characteristicsof successfulperformance rather than on
standard job
duties, u.sksetc. The same job, moreover,might be handled differentlyat different times of the year.
The job is
what åe incumbent makesof it. Job tides also need to be designedcarefully.In the modern
world, the fewerthe
job tides, the better. Becauseof certain inherent premium value, they carry lot of meaning. If
everyone has the
same title with no StatUSwalls and rank divisions, then there will be fewer territorial fights
between job
holders.
Jobs, to be useful,ought to move in sync with changingtimes.They are expected to be
flexibleand adaptable.
The modem Job aünction view, therefore,arguesthat jobs no longerexist in modern
organisationsdue to the
dynamic nature of work in rapidly changing businessenvironments. (Fisher et al)

BIX-Il Job Analusis at Motorola

hen Motorola decided to shift its focus from Simply

filling customer orders
w to world-class quality,managers analyzed the nature
of factory jobs under
the new strategy. They found that factory jobs demanded
employees who could
read at the ninth grade level and who possessed
knowledge. This analysis helppd Motorola incorporate
elementary
statistical
HR this information into its
planning process. Sadly, many of Motorola's current
underqualified.Managers had to decide whether employees were
and prepare them fully to meet job demands to train existing employees
or whether to let them go and
replace them with more capable employees who
could handle the new quality
control systems and procedures. Finally, of
course, Motprola decided to train
existing employees so that they can handle
MOTOROLA their Jobs well,
Source; (W.Wiggorfiom, "MotorolaU: When
Tralnlng Becomes an Educatlonb, Harvard Business Review,
July August 1990 pp,71-83
 Chapter 4 Job Analysis 1

Job Analysis?essential and pervasive human resource technique and the starting point
is an for
job analysis statcd, job analysis is a Lrmal and detailed examination of jobs. rt
activitics. Simply rcsponsibilitiesnecessary
and to do a job. A jeb consistsof a
of the tasks
an organisauon to achicvc its goals. A-task is a Untifiablework
that must bc performcdfor
by some sequenceof events) that ar by an individual,for example,
incoming mail. Job responsibilities
and dcliver
. up,
pic
Job Tasks
Job Duties
Job Responsibilities

FIGURE
Nature of Job Analysis
4.1
human resource activity because it identifies what p_sepJgdo in
Jobanalysisis an important the job_satisfactorily.The information about
to do a job is usuallycollected through a
theyrequirein order
questionnaire:
structur

4 1 PartialJob Analysis Questionnaire

JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATIONFORMAT

Your Job Title Code Date

Class Title Department

Your Name Facility

Superior's Title Prepared by

Superior'sName Hours Worked toAM

1. What is the general purpose of your job?

2. What was your last job? If it was in another organisation, please name it.
3. To what job would you normally expect to be promoted?
4. If you regularly supervise others, list them by name and job title.
5. If you supervise others, please check those pctiyities that are part of your
supervisory duties:
o Hiring O.- Coaching o Promoting
a Orienting D Counselling o Compensating
a Training O Budgeting a Disciplining
o Scheduling o Directing o Terminating
a Developing Measuring Performances o Other
Contd...
 122 Human ResourceMenagcmcnt
work?
completion and results of your Indicate those
you describe the successful do and, if possible, How you do it.
6. How would describeWHAT you most difficult:
7. Job Duties—Please briefly and/or
be most important
you consider to
quarterly, etc.)
whether weekly, monthly,
indicate
Duties (Please
(b) Periodic for the job, not your
indicates the educational requirements
the blank that
8. Education—Please check
background.
own educational a College degree
education required graduate degree and/or
O NO formal
diploma a Education beyond
D Less than high school professional license.
equivalent
o High school diplomaor
equivalent
o College certificate or license or certificate required.
specified professional
List advanceddegrees or placed on this job
indicatethe educationyou had when you were 98-99
Please Publishing. 1976), pp.
(Reston, Va.: Reston
Management
Sour* RichardI Henderson,Convensajon

uses of Job Analysis clear understandin

demands of both the employee and the employer a
ood human resourcemanagement in this understanding by
to
responsibilities be performed on a job. Job analysis helps job
of the duties and
its linkage with other units of work. More specifically, the uses of
drawingattention €0a unit of work and
analysis may be summarized thus:
planning: Job analysis helps in forecastin%human resource requirements.in terms Of
1. Human resource it facilitates the formulation
vertical relationships between jobs,
knowledge and skills-By showing lateral and human resources
helps in
of a ternatic romotion
need in an organisation.
when to hire people for future job openin . An
_2. Recruitment:Job analysisis
vacant in future helps managers tQQlan and
understandingof the skills_neededand the positions_thac are
way. For example,a company might be traditionally hiring MBA students for
be filled by graduates with an
equity research.A recentjob analysisshowedthat the positions could
analytial bent of mind. Now, this would help the company hire equity analysts from a greater number of
available graduates even by offering a slightly lower salary.
3. Selection:Without a proper understandingof what is to be done on a not-possible to select the
right person. If a Super Bazaarmanagerhas not clearly identified what a clerk is to do, it is diffcult to
ascertainif the person selectedis to position stores items, run a cash register, or keep the account books.
4. Placement and orientation: Afterselecting people, we have to-place them on jobs best to their
interests,activitiesand_apgitgde.If we are not sure about what needs to be donepn a job, it is-not possible
.to identify the right person suited Foae job) Similarly, capnpoe achieved
without*-proper understanding of the needs of each job. To teach a new employee how to handle a job, we
have to clearly define the job,
5. Twining: If there is any cepGon-about what the job is and what is supposed to be done, proper tæpg
efforts cannot beinitiated. Whether_ognot a' current or poteniial job¯h3der requires
can be determined only after the specificneeds of the jobs have been identified through a job analysis.
6. Counselling: Managers employees about their
different jobs _in the organisation. Likewise, employees cari%etter äppreciate their career options. when
 Chapter4 Job Analysis• 123

ific nccds of various other jobs. Job analysis can point out areas that an employee
thc spec
undcrstand to further a career.
thcY nccd to dcvclop associated-with@job. By
Nig ht A stugxinc.how
_takgn job, managers can find unsafe practices This helps in
opcrations arc rectifying
7.
casi y.
things what an empleyee_is supposed to be doing (based on job
appraisaL•By comparing of that person can be assesse&Ultimately, every
analysis)to
has actuaJTiT07c, the
8. the individual pcople based on theit_performance. To achieve this, it is
pay a fair should do (as per performance standards) with what they have actuallydone (as
to
what individuals
analysis).
per job
and once the jobs are understood properly, it is to locate weak spots and
undertake
9. We can eliminate unnecessary movements, simplify certain steps anCiG4Fove
the
remedialsteps.
continuous monitoring: can redesign jobs to match the ment41 existing
onesthrough make-up of
employees.
Job evaluation: Job analysis helps in finding the relative worth on critgria such as
10. done, skills and knowledge needed, etc. This, in turn, assistsin designing_eropet
difficulty,type of work
pay equity-lÉiW€n-jobs.
GöFÖfictes, with Intern

Recruitment
Human Resource
Planning Selection

Job Evaluation Placement

Job Design and

Redesign Training

Performance
Appraisal Counselling
Employee Safety
GUR
Multifaceted Nature'of Job Analysis'

Who should conduct the Job Analysis?

It is alwaysbetter to use supervisors,job incumbents or some combinatipns of these to obtain
iznfor•glacion
about
jobs in an organisation. The job incumbents offer a clear view of what work is actually done as against
what work
is supposedto be done. Further, involving job incumbents in the job analysis processmight increasetheir
acceptanceof any work changes stemming from the results of analysis. However,on the negativeside,job
incumbents might exaggerate the responsibilities and importance of their work and , in the proces the whole
effort might suffer due to lack of objectivity. External analysts help avoid such biased opinions.They tend to
base their write-ups on a realistic view of the people, jobs and the total organisation sysgemas a whole.To be
effective,external analysts should have considerable knowledge about how work is actuallyprocessedwithinthe
organisationwhile offering a 'snapshot' of the job; present requirementsand expectedchangesin Futuremust
also be taken into account. The chgice of who should analyse a job depends on many factors.includingthe
locationand complexityof the jobs to be analyzed, how receptive incumbents might be to an externalanalyst,
and the ultimate purpose of the results of the analysis.
124 •
Human ResourceMensemcnt

When do you carry out Job Analysis?

Sidener)
Job analysis is carricd out on thrce occasions(Jonathan
the prganiqtion a job analysis programme is taken u for the first time
It is undertaken when
• It is performed eated-
to changes in new technologies, methods rocedurq
It is done when jobs undergo radical-transfomntion-due
or
W'ich Jobs m Analyze?
ne answer is pretty simple. (i) LQEzhat are your reputation is
built
around high qualiy-.pnducts-you need to focus more on quality control jobs. (ii) Next in order would be jobs
that are diffcult bggauserygu_have to give car
out •obswithout committing mistakes. (iii) Jobs where new hires are recruited regularly deman ose attention
ecausejob analysisoffers information on how best to select those employees) (iv) •obs create acilitate
entry of women,disabldpersonnel,
arefully, to of-rulesframed-by-government& this-purpose.(v) jobs that need to be carriedout
differently due to emer ence of (vi) when completely new jobs are added
attention, vii) finally,when some job±arg_eliminatedand their duties distributed to other jobs within a firm,
HR managers need to explain the nature of expanded jobs. (Fisher et al)
 5.8 ('untan Resource
Bf
5.2.3 Process of Job Analysis
The main steps involved in job analysis are as follows :
(l) Organisational Analysis: First of all, an overall view of variou
This is required to
jobs in the organisation is obtained. jud
the linkages between jobs and the organisational goals
interrelationships among jobs, and the contribution of vario
of the organisation. For th
jobs to efficiency and effectiveness
purpose, backgroundinformation is collected in the form is
organisation charts, class specifications, work flow charts, Of
etc
Organisation charts show the relation of the job with other
Class specifications describe jobs
in the organisation. the general
requirements of the job family. Work flow charts indicate th
flow of activities involved in a job.
(2) Organising Job Analysis Programme: It is necessary to plan and
organise the programme of job analysis. The company must
decide who will be in charge of the programme and must assign
responsibilities.A budget and a time schedule should b
developed.
(3) Deciding the Uses of Job Analysis Information: It has been
clarified that information generated byjob analysis can be utilised
for practicallyall functions of human resource management
Nevertheless,it is desirable to focus on a few priority areasin
which the job analysis information is to be used. These areas
can be decided on the basis ofthe need, priorities and constraints
of the particular organisation. How the job information willbe
used and for what purpose will determine the extent to which
jobs are to be analysed.
(4) Selecting Representative Jobs foiAnalysis: It would be highly
time consuming and costly to analyé9 all the jobs. It is, therefore
desirable to select a representative sample of jobs for the purpose
of detailed analysis. Priorities of various jobs needing
analysis
can also be determined.
(5) Understand Job Design: The job analyst should
obtain
information concerning the current design of the representative
job. For this purpose, current job description and
job specification,
procedure manual, systems flow charts, etc. can be
studied.
 5.9
and.Job Design
Job
Analysis
collection of Data: In this step, data on the characteristicsof
(6) and behaviour
qualifications required to do the job
the job, and Data may be collected from the
effectively is collected.
perform the job, or from their
employees who actually
outsiders called tradé job analysts appointed
supervisors or from
employees performing the job. Several techniques are
to watch
job analysis. Care should be taken to use only those
available for
are acceptable and reliable in the given/
techniques which
situation.
Developing a Job Description: The information collected in the
(7) is used in preparing a job description. This is a
previousstep
written statement that describes in brief the tasks, duties and
responsibilitieswhich needs to be discharged for effective job
performance.
a Job Specification: The last step in job analysis is to
(8) Preparing specification or employee specification. This iS a
prepare a job
written statement which specifies the personal attributes in
terms of education, training, experience and aptitude required
process explained above is
to perform the job. The job analysis
summarised in Figure 5.3.
11 111
1
Processing of Selecting the
Collectionof Background Information Representative Jobs
Information
I. Procurement
Charts 2. Development 1. Number of Jobs to be
i. Organisational Analysed
3. Compensation
i. Class Specifications 2. Prionties of different
4. Integration
j. Work Flow Charts
5. Maintenance Job

lob Tecbniques or Data

Description Collection
Collectionof Job •1. Direct Observation
Information 2. Inten•iews
3. Questionnaire
Job 4. Past Records
Specificatiog 5. Critical Incidents

Fig. 5.3 : Job Analysis Process

 126 Human

riticisms
There is. of to competencyapproach« Schippmannet al argued that they are
widespreadoppcx«ition
broad and ill defined as to be of practical usc in guiding performanceof job duties. Another criticismso
is
that mmrctency models on bchavioursthan results,and as such focus on how individuals are expected
to
Perform and not their demonstratedachievements.Further, thc word competencyitselfis often looselyinterpreted
to include many things. Research shows that managers and workers \havc different perceptions about the
COmpetenci« and skills resociatcdwith various jobs in organisations.The main discrepanciesbetWeenmanagers
and workersexist in thcir perceptionsof •workplaceautonomi and 'level of required skills'.
required t is
perßrmance in a job is also open to doubt and remains unexplained. HR practitioners
audemiß and even tradc unions do not cxpect the so-called ill-defined approachesto have a long life in
practice. (F. Green; J. Sandbcrg)

Methods,of Collecting Job Analysis Data

varietyof methods, aie used to collect information about jobs. None of them, however, is perfect. In actual
ractice, therefore, a combination of several methods is used for obtaining job analysisdata. These are
discussed below (Bernardin):
Job performance In this method, the job analystactually The analystthus
rec.=ÉEEhæ1dgperience of on. the job including physical hazards, social
emooonal prosurs and mental requirements.This method is usefill for jobs that can be easily learned.It
is not suitable for jobs that are haza.rdous e.g.) fire fighters)or for jobs that training (e.g.,
doctors, pharmacists).
2. Personal observaßon.•The analyst observesthe worker(s) doing the job. The tasks performed, the pace at
which activities are done the working conditions, etc., are observed during a complete work cycle.
During
o servation, certain precautions¯shouldbe taken:
+ The analyst must observe averageworkers.during averageconditions.
+ The observe without getting directly i_nyolvedin the job.
+ The analyst must make note ofthe specificjob needsand not the behavioursspggific_to
+ The analyst.must _makesure that he obtains a proper sample for generalization.
This method allows for a deep understanding of job duties. It is pgiod job
acti_yities.On the negative side, the method fails to take note of the mental aspegg of_jobs.
3. Critical incidenm• The critical incident technique (CIT) is a qualitativeapproach to job analysis_usedto
obtain specific, behaviourally focused descriptions of werk other activigies)Here the job holders
are
asked to describe Severzalincidena bå'éd¯on their past experiepce.-Theincidents so collected are analfiéd
aFd¯ElGffiÄGrding to the job areas they describe. The job requirementswill become clear once the
analyst draws the line between effective and ineffectivebehaviours pf workerson the_job. For example,
if a
shoe salesman comments on e size of a customer's feet and the customer leavesthe store in a huff, the
be judged ineffectivein terms of the result it produced.The critical
incidents are the events have already taken plaée —both routine and non-routines—The
procos of collecting a fairly good number of incidents is a lengthy one. Since incidents of behaviourcan be
quite dissimilar, the process of classifring data into usable job descriptionscan be difficult.The analysts
overseeing rhe wqrk must. have analytical skills and ability to translatethe.content of des?riptionsinto
meaningful statements. (Ghorpade)
 Chapter4 Job Analysis

of.asking questions to both incumbents and supervisorsin either

rrview: Thc intcrvicw mcthod consists
4. In Thc rcason bchind the use of this ÄähGJG¯tfiÄt joT%GÄre most
n the information obtained through observation?
and can_supplcmcnt Workersknow
6 miliar with thc job job and supervisorsarc awarcof the ptiörelationship to the rest of the organisation.
specificdüiics W the
be cxcrciscd whilc using thc interview method. The interviewer must be trained in
Duc diligcncc must a standard format so as interview the
intcrvicwingtechniques. It is advisable to
aGlyst.
purpose of¯tfic

3 Guidelines101'ConducÜllUJob halosis Interviews

Put the workerat ease; establish rapport.

Make the purpose of the interview clear.
Encourage the worker to talk by using empathy creativity.
Help the worker to think and talk according to the bgical sequence of the
duties performed.
Ask the worker only one question at a time.
Phrase questions carefully so that the answers will be more than just
'Yes" or "no".
Avoid asking leading questions.
Secure specified and complete information pertaining to the work
performedand the workers traits.
Conduct the interviewin plain, easy language.
Consider the relationship of the present job to other jobs in the depar%nent.
Control the time and subject matterof the interview.
Be patient and considerate to t•teworker.
Summarise the informationobtainedbefore closing the interview.
Close. the inter•/iewpromptly.

to elicit information sometimes not availablethrough

Although the interview method provides opportunities
consuming and hence costly. Second, the value of dan
other methods, it has its limitations. First, it is time
is primarily dependent on the interviewers'•skills
and may be faulty if they put ambiguousqustions to
motives and may distort the information they
workers. Last, interviewees may be suspicious about the
such as to increasetheir wages,workersmay
provide. If seen as an opportunity to Improve their positions
positions.
exaggeratetheir job duties to add greater weightage to their
incumbents and superiors with extensiveknowledgeof
5. panel of exper#.•This method utilises senior job interaction
Üg_conducts an
the job. To get the job analysis information, the
that the analyst might get-Eam•
öf¯tve members during-the interview can add insight and detail
individualinte
or 10 of 0b activities —according
6. Diary method: Severaljob incumbents are asked to kee diaries
e amount on each activity. By analysing these activitiesover
to this method. and recor it is a
the job's essential
a specified period of time, a job analyst is able*to record
tl%neconsuming and cöStlyexercise in that the analyst has to
work Here job holders
7. quotionnaire is a widely used method of analysing jobs and completions
relevantjokyrelatedinformarion.After
are given a properly dßigned questionnaire aimed at eliciting by
to supervisors. supervisors an seek further clarifietions on variousiterrs
the qustionnaires are handed over
the data is givento the job analyst,
ulking to the job holders diredy. After everything is finalised,