ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Total Marks: 100

CIE Marks: 50 (30 Marks Theory IA+ 20 Marks for Practical)
SEE Marks: 50
Hours/ Week: 03(L)+02(T)+02(P)=7 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours: 40 Credit for the Course: 04

Module – 2

Electrical Properties of Solids:

Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals: Assumptions, Fermi-energy, Fermi factor, Variation
of Fermi Factor with Temperature and Energy, Mention of expression for electrical
conductivity.
Dielectric Properties: Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Electrical Polarization Mechanisms,
Internal fields in solid, Clausius- Mossotti equation (Derivation), Solid, Liquid and Gaseous
dielectrics. Application of dielectrics in transformers, Capacitors, Electrical Insulation.
Numerical Problems.
Superconductivity:
Introduction to Superconductors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner’s Effect,
Critical Field, Temperature dependence of Critical field, Types of Super Conductors, BCS
theory (Qualitative), High Temperature superconductivity, SQUID, MAGLEV, Numerical
problems.
08 Hours

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
1
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Electrical Properties of Solids

Introduction:
To understand the electrical properties of solids, we need to understand free electron theory.
The free electron theory was proposed by Drude and Lorentz, soon after the discovery of the
electron by J J Thomson. They explained by considering a crystal in terms of a gas of free
electrons and then treating this gas for the properties of crystal.
In metals the valence electrons are loosely bond to their individual atoms. These electrons move
randomly in different directions and are called free electrons. Hence, the valence electrons of
the atoms become the conductors of electricity in metals and they are known as conduction
electrons.
For Ex: Consider a sodium crystal (Na11) each sodium atom contains 11 electrons. Also, it is
known that in a free Na atom 10 of the electrons are in states which are tightly bound to the
nucleus to form an ion of net positive charge +|e|, and the eleventh electron moves in an orbital
around this ion. But, when the atoms are brought together to form a solid, the orbital of different
atoms overlap and interact.
Also, it is showed that this overlap is so extensive that the quantization of energy takes place
in which each electron is localized on its own atom must break down. i.e., the valence electron
of a particular atom is no more associated with that atom. These electrons move freely in
between the ion cores of the crystals.
Before the implementing quantum mechanics to interpret the metallic properties in terms of
motion of free electrons was developed by classical theory.
Assumptions of the classical free electron theory
1. All metals contain a large number of free electrons which move freely through the positive
ionic core of the metals.
2. The free electrons are treated equivalent to gas molecules, & thus assumed to obey the
laws of kinetic theory of gases.
3. i.e., In the absence of field, as per laws of kinetic theory of gases, the energy associated
with each electron at a temperature T will be (3/2) KT, where K is the Boltzmann constant.
It is related to kinetic energy through the relation.
3KT = 1 m𝑉2
2 2 𝑡ℎ

where V is the thermal velocity with which is the same as r.m.s velocity.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

4. The electric field due to positive ionic cores is considered to be constant.

5. The repulsion between the free electrons is considered to be negligible.
6. The electric current flow in a metal due to an externally applied electric field is a
consequence of the drift velocity of the electron is a direction opposite to the direction of
field.
Drift velocity (vd): The velocity of electrons in the steady state in an
applied electric field is called drift velocity.
𝑒𝐸
The drift velocity vd = τ
𝑚

Relaxation time (r): From the instant of sudden disappearance of an

electric field across a metal, the average velocity of the conduction electrons decays
exponentially to zero, and the time required in this process for the average velocity to reduce
to (1/e) times its value is known as Relaxation time.
Mean free path (): The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between
successive collisions with lattice ions.
Mean collision time (τ): The average time that elapses between two consecutive collisions of
an electron with the lattice points is called mean collision time.
τ = λ/v
where ‘λ’ is the mean free path, v≈vth is velocity same as combined effect of thermal &
drift velocities.
MOBILITY OF ELECTRONS: The magnitude of the 'Vd' acquired by the electrons in unit
electric field is called the mobility of the electrons.
If E be the electric field &Vd be the drift velocity of electrons then the mobility of electrons is
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸

It is measured in m2/vs;
for small electric fields the value of 𝜇 is independent of value of E.
* Mobilities of 1.8 x 10-1 m2/vs for semiconductors.
* Mobilities of 1.8 x 10-3 m2/vs for (conductors) metals.
Failures of classical free electron theory: The classical free electron theory successfully
explained the phenomenon like electrical & thermal conductivity in metals. It failed to account
for some experimental facts like specific heat, temperature dependence of electrical
conductivity & dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY: -

After the development of quantum mechanics, the free electron theory was proposed by
Sommerfeld and he treated electrons quantum mechanically and included the effects of Pauli’s
exclusion principle. He proposed a new theory known as quantum free electron theory, which
is based on the following assumptions.
1) The energy levels of the free electrons are quantized.
2) The free electrons obey the Pauli's exclusion principle.
3) The distribution of electrons in various energy levels obeys the fermi-dirac quantum statics.
4) Free electrons have the same P-energy within the metal because the pot-field due to the ion
cores is uniform throughout the metal.
5) Both the attraction between the electrons and the lattice points. And the repulsion between
the electrons themselves are neglected is therefore electrons are treated free.

Concept of Energy levels: [Energy level diagram]

The electrons in the matter do have severe restrictions on their energy
values.
For example: Consider a hydrogen atom.
It consists of single electron revolving round the proton. The total energy
of the electron is contributed by 1) Potential energy of electron which
depends upon its distance from the proton. 2) Kinetic energy due to it revolves round the proton.
When the electron absorbs some energy given to it,
it moves to a larger distance from the proton and
finds itself in a larger orbit, due to which there will
be an increase in the total energy.
The total energy of the electron in each of these orbits
is calculated and the values are represented as a plot.
The nearest possible orbit to the proton is known as
the ground level. The resultant diagram is known as
energy level diagram.
All the energy levels except the ground level are known as excited energy levels or excited
state. The electrons of hydrogen atom can present at particular energy level at particular time.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Quantization of energy:
The electron can never be found in an orbit, in which its energy is of any value between -
1.51 eV and -3.40 eV. This kind of restriction on the energy value is called quantization of
energy. This quantization of energy occurs due to the reason that the electron is in the influence
of the field due to proton.

Energy level of an atom and formation of energy bands in the solid state matter:
The electrons in an atom are distributed in various shells and sub-shells. The total picture of all
the energy levels corresponding to all the electrons in a given atom is referred to as the energy
levels of the atom.
The energy of electrons in different
sub-shells are different, the energy
values of all the electrons in a given
sub-shell are approximately equal.
Since there are limited numbers of
sub-shells, there are limited numbers
of energy levels for an atom.

The energy level diagram of an atom consists of discrete

lines and the energy levels carry the same designation as the
corresponding sub-shells. For example: 3p level signifies the
energy of an electron in 3p sub-shell. This energy level
scheme is for an atom which is in an isolated state, such as
those of a gas. When a solid material such as sodium or
copper is vaporized, its atoms become free like those in a
gas. In this free state the atom will be discrete. Since the
atom is isolated, the electrons in the atom are in the influence
of only the field due to the nucleus and of the other electrons in the parent atom.
In case of sodium crystal there will be N no of sodium atoms packed together, because of which
N becomes an externally large number. Hence it has N energy levels which are formed in the
place of each energy level, and are placed very closely spaced that it looks partially continuous.
Such a branch of quasi-continuous energy levels is called an energy band. Thus each energy
levels of an isolated sodium atom becomes a band in solid sodium as shown in image.
Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy
Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Energy band gap:

As we studied above each band consists of large number of energy levels which correspond to
a range of energy values. The bands are separated by certain gaps called forbidden bands or
energy band gap.
In this there will be a band called valence band below which all the bands are occupied above
which all the bands are empty. The valence band may be either filled or partially filled but never
be empty. The empty band above the valence band is called the conduction band. The gap
between the valence band and conduction band is known as forbidden band or energy band gap.

Density of states:
In a solid conductor there are large number of allowed
energy levels placed close to each other is called as energy
band. Each energy band consists of large number of energy
levels. For instance 1mm3 volume of material consists of
more than 1012 energy levels. “The number of energy levels present in the energy band E
between the energy range E and E+dE per unit volume is known as density of states”.
Consider an energy band present between energy interval E 1 and
E2. Below E1 and above E2 there are large energy levels. The
density of energy levels in any band depends on energy band E
and density of states function is defined by g (E). As E changes
density of states function g (E) also changes.
If dE is small, it is assumed that g (E) is constant between E and
E+dE is defined by g (E) dE.
 2m 32  1
gE dE  8 E dE
2

 h3 

Where m if mass of electron and g(E) varies with E shown in above figure. Also this equation

clears that the number of energy states in an energy interval dE is proportional to E . The
shape of the curve is a parabola.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Fermi energy:
According to classical free electron theory, there is no restriction on
the allowed energy levels of an electron. In quantum free electron
theory, the energy of the electron in a metal is quantized. Hence due
to the quantization the number of allowed energy levels in a metal
containing N electrons is equal to N/2.
According to Pouli’s exclusion principle, the energy level can
accommodate at most two electrons one with up spin and the other with spin down. Thus in
filling the energy levels, two electrons occupy the lowest level, two more next level and so on,
until the electrons in the metal have been accommodated as shown in figure.

Statement of Fermi energy (EF):

The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature is called the fermi energy
and the corresponding energy level is known as the fermi level. (or) At absolute zero
temperature, the maximum kinetic energy that a free electron can have been known as the fermi
energy (EF).
At T=0, the metals do not receive any energy, all the energy levels up to fermi level are
completely occupied, above this E f are vacant. If there are N electrons, the highest occupied
energy level will be (N/2) level and is called fermi level and corresponding energy is fermi
energy.

Fermi factor:
When the temperature is greater than OK, the materials will receive thermal energy from its
surroundings. At room temperature, the available thermal energy is small and therefore the
electrons occupying energy levels below the E F level can’t absorb the thermal energy due to
non-availability of higher energy levels. But this energy can be absorbed by the electrons
occupying energy levels which are just below the fermi level. Because there are large numbers
of unoccupied energy levels just above the fermi level to which electrons can get excited.
Though these excitations seem to be random, the occupation of various energy levels obeys a
statistical distribution law called fermi-Dirac distribution law.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

The probability of finding an electron having any particular

value me energy E at a temperature T is given by fermi-Dirac
probability distribution function.
∴ f(E) = 1
𝑒(𝐸−𝐸𝑓)/𝐾𝑇+1

where f(E) is called fermi factor, (and the expression

describes how energy is distributed among the electrons).
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given
energy state for a material in a thermal equilibrium.
Case 1) Probability of occupation at T>0 and E<EF

We know that 𝑒(𝐸−𝐸𝑓)/𝐾𝑇 + 1 = 0--------------- (1)

Substitute the above condition in (1) we get,
1
f(E) = =1=1
1 + 𝑒−∞ 1
∴ f(E) = 1 for E<EF.
i.e, all the energy levels between zero is E f are occupied.
Case 2) Probability of occupation at T>0 and E>Ef
1 1 1
f(E) = = = =0
1 + 𝑒∞ 1+∞ ∞
.'. f(E) = 0.
i.e. There are no electrons having energy greater than Ef. i.e, all the energy levels above Ef are
vacant.
Case 3) The probability of occupation, for T>0 and E=Ef
1 1
𝑒(𝐸−𝐸𝑓)/𝐾𝑇 = 1 f(E) = = = 1 = 0.5
1+ 𝑒0 1+1 2
i.e, At any temperature above absolute zero, the fermi-dirac distribution function is continuous.
The probability of occupancy of fermi level at any temperature other than OK is 0.5. This fact
may be used for de fining fermi level.

Expression for Electrical Conductivity:

ne2
 
m*vf

Where ‘n’ is number of electron concentration

‘λ’ is mean free path

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Dielectric materials
Fundamentals of dielectrics
So for, we have been largely concerned with the properties of charge carriers in metals and
semiconductors. However, there are many other materials with very few or no free electrons to
take part in normal electrical conductivity. Such materials have dielectric properties and so
ideally considered as insulators.
Examples: Glass, Porcelain, Wood, Rubber, Paper etc.,
These materials provide electrical insulation between two conductors which are at different
potentials and also serve as an electrical charge storage aid under certain circumstances. If the
materials used for charge storage are generally called dielectric materials.
Almost all capacitors have one or the other type of dielectric materials. The introduction of a
dielectric material between two plates or electrodes of the capacitor results in increase in
capacitance of a capacitor and also increases in the maximum operating voltage of the
capacitor.
Polarization:
A dielectric material has interesting electrical charge storage property because of the ability of
an electric field to polarize the material to create electric dipoles. If we consider a pair of equal
charge having opposite charges whose distance of separation is
very small is called as electric dipole. It is a vector quantity and
its unit is Debye (1debaye = 3.331030 C  m ). The product of the magnitude of one of the
charges and the distance of separation is called the dipole moment. That is   ql .
The polarisation is a most important property of dielectric material when they have
under the influence of an external electric field. The atoms or molecules of dielectrics are
placed in a external electric field due to which the positive particles are pushed in the direction
of field while the negative particles in the opposite direction from their equilibrium position.
Hence dipoles are developed and they produce a field of their own. The process of producing
electric dipoles out of neutral atoms and molecules is referred to as polarization. The charges
appearing separated are called polarization charges.
Dielectric materials: on the basis of concept of polarization the dielectric materials are defined
as “the materials which have the ability to get electrically polarized and in which electric field
can exist. Also, they do not allow an electric current to flow thorough when they subjected to

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

ordinary voltage”. These dielectric materials are classified in to two types (1) Polar dielectrics
and (2) Non-polar dielectrics.
(1) Polar dielectrics: in some of dielectric material like water, in which the effective centers of
the negative and positive charges in the molecules do not coincide with each other even in
the absence of external field. Each molecule behaves as though it consists of a pair of
negative and positive charges separated by a small constant distance. Such a pair is referred
as permanent dipole and the materials consisting of such dipoles are called polar dielectrics.
Since in these materials dipoles are oriented randomly results in zero dipole moment for
complete material.
Polar dielectrics in external electric field:
If we place such dielectric material in an applied electric field, the permanent dipoles whose
dipole moments are inclined at an angle to the field. That is the molecules experience a
torque and leads to align along the direction of the field. At the same time, this tendency is
counteracted by the thermal agitation. Due to these two opposing events some alignment is
achieved under the sufficiently strong fields. Once the alignment is established the surface
charges appear at the top and bottom surfaces of the dielectric slab.
(2) Non-polar dielectrics: In some of the dielectric materials the molecules or atoms have the
effective centre of the negative charge distribution coincides with the effective centres of
the positive charges thus neutralizing each other effects. Such materials are known as non-
polar dielectrics.
Non-polar dielectrics in external electric field:
Consider a rectangular slab of a dielectric material. Let the slab be
placed between two electrodes A and B in which a uniform electric
field E0 is applied. Under the influence of the field, the positive and
negative charges of the various molecules or atoms in it experience
pulling forces in opposite directions. As a result, the effective
centres of both charges get separated till the restoring forces balance
the forces due to the applied electric field. These dipoles are created
throughout the material. Even though inside the material the polarization charges appears in
every molecules, opposite charges in the neighbouring molecules appears in every
molecules lie close to each other get neutralizes. Thus the effect of the applied field is to

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

cause the appearance of net uncompensated charges of opposite sign at the end faces of the
slab.
Dielectric constant:
It is a macroscopic quantity of materials that measures how effective an electric field is in
polarizing the material.
For isotropic materials the applied electric field strength E and flux density D are related by
the equation D   0 r E

Where  0  80854 1012 farad m is the dielectric constant of vacuum and  r is the relative
dielectric constant or relative permittivity for material. It is unit less quantity.
In the above relation  0 appears as a necessity of the system of units. Employed and does not

carry any physical meaning. But relative dielectric constant  r is a physical quantity which
depends on the structure of the atoms and material composition.
Also its value varies with the direction in case of anisotropic materials such as crystal, but
remains constant for isotropic materials such as polycrystalline materials.

Further, r value is constant for isotropic material at applied field is static and is frequency
dependent under alternating current field and become complex quantity.
The r varies widely from material to material.
For example:  r for Pyrex glass is 5.6; for water is 80 and for strontium titanate is 233.
Relation between polarization and dielectric constant:
→
The relation between dielectric constant  r and polarization p is represent as
→ → →
p  0 r 1E where E is applied electric field

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Types of polarization:
On the basis of dielectric material as well direction of applied electric field the polarization of
a dielectric has been classified as
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational polarization
1. Electronic polarization  e  : the electronic

polarization occurs due to slight displacement

of electrons in the orbit in presence of applied
electric field. This produces a polarization in
all direction of the materials. In this
phenomenon there is no lag or loss in electrons and occurs at frequencies which are resonant
with electron transition energies.

The relation for electronic polarization  e  for rare gas atom is

 0  r 1
e  where N is number of atoms per unit volume
N
2. Ionic polarization  i  : Ionic polarization occurs in those dielectric materials which
possess ionic bond such as in NaCl. When these ionic
solids are subjected to an external field the adjacent ion
of opposite sign undergo displacement. The
displacement causes an increase or decrease in the
distance of separation between the atoms depending
upon the location of the ion pair in the lattice. As a result the dipole moment due to the
shifting of electron clouds relative to the nuclei. Ionic polarization extremely dependent on
frequency as well according to the charge, mass and inter atomic forces.

3. Orientation polarization  0  : This type of polarization occurs in those dielectric materials

which possess molecules with permanent dipole
moment either in solid or liquid. The orientation of
those molecules will be random normally due to
thermal agitation. Because of randomness the net
dipole moment is zero. In presence of field the dipole

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Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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undergoes rotation along the direction of electric field. After this rotation the randomness
vanishes hence material itself develops electrical polarization. The orientation polarization
is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increase in temperature.
In case of polar dielectrics, the orientation polarizability 0 is written as
2
 0 
3kT
where  is permanent dipole moment; k is Boltzmann constant; T is temperature
Then the total polarization  of a material is estimated by taking sum of all polarization.
That is   e   i  0
In these polarization  e and  i are not temperature sensitive
Internal field in liquid and solids:
A dielectric material either liquid or solid is subjected to external electric field; each of the
atoms or molecules develops a dipole moment and acts as electric dipole. Hence the resultant
field at any given atom will be sum of applied electric field and the electric field due to
surrounding dipoles. This resultant local field is called the internal field.
Internal field or the local field is the electric field that acts at the site of any given atom of a
solid or a liquid dielectric subjected to an external field, and is the resultant of the applied
field and the field due to surrounding dipoles.

Expression for one dimensional case internal field in the case of liquid and solids:
Consider a dielectric material either liquid or solid, place in an
uniform electric field of strength E. in the material let us
consider an array of equidistant atomic dipoles arranged
parallel to the direction of the field. Let inter atomic distance
is‘d’ and the electronic polarizability of the dipole be e . Then

the expression for the internal field Ei is

E
Ei 
1.2e
1 
 0 d 3
Lorentz field: In the internal field relation the values of  e , E and  0 are positive quantity

therefore Ei  E . It implies that dipole contributes positively to the electric field at X which
enhances its dipole moment.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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In a similar way for any dipole other than X, the dipoles X joins the rest of the dipoles to
contribute positively to the electric field which induces a large dipole moment in the dipole.
This in turn contributes to enhance the dipole moment in X. this kind of co-operative action
becomes more intense with decrease in inter atomic space and with increase of polarization.
But if we consider 3-dimentional case, the general internal field relation will be represent as
  →
Ei  E   p
  0 
→
Where p is the polarization and  is internal field constant.
In 3-dimensional case, if it is a cubic lattice, the  value is found to be
1
. This internal field
3
can also be named as Lorentz field. Therefore the above relation will become
→
p
ELorentz  E  
3 0

It is also known as Lorentz relation.

Clausius-Massotti equation:
(Relation between electronic polarization and dielectric constant)
Consider an elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant r . If N is the no. of
atoms per unit volume of the material,  is the dipole moment, then
𝐷𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑁𝜇
We know that    e Ei ,
Hence, 𝐷𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒𝐸𝑖 − − − − − −(1)
Also 𝐷𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝 the polarization
Then equation (1) becomes
P
p  N E  E       (2)
e i i 
N e
Also, P   0  r 1E
P
E      (3)

0 r 1 
P

The internal field in case of 3-dimensional is given as Ei  E        (4)
3 0
Substituting (2) and (3) in (4),
 P + P 1  1  1 1
N    1 3  N   1 3 
P
e 0 r 0 e 0  r 
1 1 3   r 1 1 1  r  2
   
 


Ne 3 0   r 1  Ne 3 0  r 1 


Ne  r 1
 
3 0 r  2
The equation holds good for crystals of high degree of symmetry.
Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy
Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Solid, liquid and gaseous Dielectrics

Many Electrical appliances are made by using suitable dielectrics that have long life, reliable,
trouble free, stores charge and provide electrical insulation. During manufacturing process
insulators are subjected to thermal, mechanical and electrical stress by subjecting to the
respective field. The dielectric material in use has a threshold field beyond which it suffers a
dielectric breakdown beyond which it can no more be an insulator. Organic dielectrics are
sensitive to temperature.
Solid Insulating material: Mica, glass, plastic etc are inorganic; rubber, cloth, paper etc are
organic.
Liquid Insulating material: transformer oil, silicon fluids, viscous Vaseline, fluoro organic
fluids are mainly used in transformers, switches, circuit breakers etc. to cool faster and transmit
the eddy heating and joule heating.
Gaseous Insulating material: air, CO2, hydrogen, inert gas etc. air provides the insulation
between the overhead transmission power lines.
Applications of dielectrics in transformers: A transformer consists of two insulated
conducting coils wounded on insulating core. In case of high voltage transformers, the
insulation is required to provide between individual windings in the coils and also between the
core and the coils. Hence their size grows. The size of the transformer increases also with
operational a.c. frequency. The insulation is provided by using paper, mica or cloth. The paper
is impregnated with varnish or wax to fill the air gaps. If there are air gaps trapped, gets ionises
due to air has less permittivity leading to excessive heating which damage insulation. This
effect is called corona. To avoid corona effect mica will be used. However, when the operating
voltage cross 3kV and above, a kind of oil called transfer oil is used. It is based on mineral oil.
This oil has a capability to guard corona effect up to about 100kV and helps to keep the
transformer cool. Further, in large transformers that are used for high voltage transmission lines
water is circulated round the body of the transformer.
Other applications of dielectrics:
1) In storing the charges and to increase the capacitance of a capacitor.
2) Glass with  r =3.7 to 10 is used in manufacturing electronic valves, X ray tubes and
bulb envelops.
3) Mica is used in electrical machines, switch gears, armature welding and in hot plates.
4) Rubber is used in making electric wires, cables and taps.
5) Asbestos sheet is used in electric iron.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Super Conductivity
Super conductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metal and materials.
Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops
abruptly to zero at about 4.2k. This state is called super conducting state. The material is called
super conductor. The temperature at which they attain super conductivity is called critical
temperature Tc.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:
One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical
resistivity of metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature. This zero resistivity
or infinite conductivity is known as superconductivity. (The temperature depends on the
substance). Temperature at which transition takes place is known as transition temperature or
critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition temperature, the substance is in the normal state
and below it will be in superconducting state.

Dependence of ρ on T
“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold
temperature is called “critical temperature.”
Meissner effect:
A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the
magnetic flux out of its body when it is cooled below the critical
temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnet. This effect is called
Meissner effect.
When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and
completely expelled, as the specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

reversible. When the temperature is raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches T c.
Then the substance will be in the normal state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen
B = µo (H + M)
Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and ‘M’ is the magnetization
produced within the material.
For T < Tc, B=0
µ0 (H + M) = 0
M = -H
M/H = -1= χ
Susceptibility is -1 i.e., it is perfect diamagnetism.
Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the body.
Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a
superconducting material. The primary coil is connected to
a battery and a key. The secondary coil is connected to
ballistic galvanometer (BG). When the key is closed the
current flows through the primary coil and the magnetic field
is produced. This flux is linked with the secondary coil and
the current flows through the secondary coil which makes a
deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current is
steady the magnetic flux and the flux linked with the coil
will become steady. As the temperature of the specimen is
decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a deflection indicating that the
flux linked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the expulsion of the magnetic
flux from the specimen.
Critical Field (Effect of magnetic field):
Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength of the
magnetic field required to destroy the superconductivity below the T c is called critical field. It
is denoted by Hc(T).
If ‘T’ is the temperature of the superconducting material, ‘T c’ is the critical temperature,
‘Hc’ is the critical field and ‘Ho’ is the critical field at 0ok
They are related by
Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy
Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Hc = Ho[1-(T/Tc)2]
By applying magnetic field greater than H o, the material can never become superconductor
whatever may be the low temperature.

Dependence of HC on T
The critical field need not be external but large current flowing in superconducting ring produce
critical field and destroys superconductivity.

Types of superconductors:
There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.
Type-I superconductors:
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it
behaves as perfect diamagnet. If the external magnet field increases beyond Hc the
superconducting specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and
resistance increase from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I
superconductors, they are not used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.

Dependance of Magnetic Moment on H

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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Type-II superconductors
Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states
1) Superconducting state
2) Mixed state
3) Normal state
They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between H c1 and Hc2 the flux starts
penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. H c2 is 100 times higher
than Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II
superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high
magnetic fields above 10 Tesla.

Dependence of magnetic moment on H

BCS Theory:
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of
superconductivity based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a
quantum mechanical concept.
When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of
lattice, due to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called
lattice distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons. Now an
electron which comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends to reduce
the energy of the electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons through the
lattice. This leads to the formation of cooper pairs. “Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons
Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy
Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon
field”. According to quantum mechanics a cooper pair is treated as single entity. A wave
function is associated with each cooper pair. This holds good over a large volume with finite
value for its amplitude. The wave function of similar cooper pairs overlaps. For one cooper
pair overlapping may extend over 106 other pairs. Thus it covers entire volume of the
superconductor. It leads to union of large number of cooper pairs. The resistance encountered
by any single cooper pair is overcome by combined action of other pairs in the union.
When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter
any scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes
infinity which is called as super conductivity.
In super conducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb
force of attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel
freely without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not possess
any electrical resistivity

Quantum Tunnelling
Quantum tunnelling is a fundamental concept in
quantum mechanics, which describes the
phenomenon of a quantum particle, such as an
electron or a proton, passing through a potential
barrier that it would classically not have enough
energy to overcome. This effect occurs due to the
wave-like nature of quantum particles, which allows them to have a non-zero probability of
being found on the other side of a barrier, even if their energy is less than the height of the
barrier. Quantum tunnelling is often explained using the example of a particle approaching a
potential barrier.
In classical physics, the particle would be reflected by the barrier if its energy is less than the
height of the barrier. However, in quantum mechanics, the particle is described by a wave
function that allows it to penetrate the barrier with a certain probability. This probability is
determined by the amplitude of the wave function and the energy of the par ticle.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
20
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Implications of concept-quantum tunnelling:

Solid-state physics-tunnelling current in semiconductor devices such as tunnel diodes. In
nuclear physics, where it is responsible for alpha decay, a process in which alpha particles
tunnel through the nuclear potential barrier.

Technological applications of quantum tunnelling

1. Scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), which is used to image the surfaces of
materials at the atomic scale.
2. Tunnel field-effect transistors (TFETs), which are being developed as an alternative to
conventional transistors for use in low-power electronic devices.
3. Quantum tunnelling is also a key component of quantum computing, where it is used
to implement quantum gates and perform quantum teleportation.

High temperature superconductors:

The term high-temperature superconductor was first used to designate the new family of
cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials discovered by Bednorz and Müller in 1986. The first
high-temperature superconductor, LaBaCuO, with a transition temperature of 30 K and in the
same year LSCO (La2-xSrxCuO4) discovered with TC of 40K. In 1987 it was shown that
superconductors with Tc greater than 77K could be prepared, this temperature is greater than
the liquid helium temperature. YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered to have a Tc of 92 K.
Bismuth/lead strontium Calcium Copper (Bi Pb)2Sr2 Ca2Cu3Ox (x<0.1) with Tc=105K.
Thallium barium Calcium copper oxide (Tl Ba2 Ca2Cu3O4) of Tc=115K. Mercury barium
calcium copper oxide (Hg Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) with Tc=135K.
All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper, and bear a
particular type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. The number of copper
layers increases the Tc value increases. The current in the high T C materials is direction
dependent. It is strong in parallel to copper-oxygen planes and weak in perpendicular to
copper-oxygen planes.
High Tc materials are Type-II superconductors and they are brittle and don’t carry enough
current. The formation of electron pairs is not due to interaction of electron lattice as in the
BCS theory. Still it is not clear what does cause the formation of pairs. Research is being

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
21
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

conducting in this direction. The high temperature superconductors are useful in high field
applications. It can carry high currents of 105 to 106 amps in moderate magnetic fields. They
are used in military applications, Josephson junction in SQUIDS, under sea communication,
submarines.
Josephson Junction
A Josephson junction is made by sandwiching a thin layer of a non-superconducting material
between two layers of superconducting material
This phenomenon of flow of current between two pieces of superconductor separated by a
normal material is called as Josephson effect and the current is called Josephson current

DC Josephson Effect
The wave nature of moving particles makes the electrons tunnel through the barrier(insulator),
i.e., the electrons can tunnel from one superconductor to the other. As a consequence of the
tunneling of electrons (Cooper pairs) across the insulator, there is net current across the
junction. This is called as D.C. Josephson Effect. The current flows even in the absence of a
potential difference.
The magnitude of the current depends on the thickness of the insulator, the nature of the
material, and the temperature.
The super current through the junction is 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑓0 where, 𝐼𝑐 = critical current at zero
voltage, which depends on the thickness of the junction layer and the temperature, 𝑓0 = Phase
difference between the wave functions of cooper pairs.

AC Josephson Effect
The AC Josephson effect arises from the fact that the supercurrent flowing through a Josephson
junction is not only dependent on the voltage across the junction, but also on the time derivative
of the phase difference between the superconducting wave functions on either side of the

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

junction. When an external AC current is applied to the junction, it induces a time-varying

phase difference across the junction, which in turn produces an AC voltage across the junction.
The energy difference of cooper pairs on both sides is of the order of 2eV. Thus, the current
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑓0 + ∆𝑓) where ∆𝑓 = phase difference, 𝐼𝑐 is the critical current.
2𝑒𝑉
The frequency of the generated AC is 𝑓 = Where, 2eV is the energy difference between
ℎ

the cooper pairs on either side of the Junction Thus if a voltage of about 1mV is applied, and
AC frequency of about 484 MHz can be obtained.
The Josephson junctions have a number of important applications, including as high-frequency
oscillators, superconducting digital circuits, and in quantum computing. They are also used in
superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs).
SQUIDS
The term stands for Super conducting Quantum Interference Device. It is an instrument used
to measure extremely weak magnetic field of the order of 10-13 T. Hence it is a sensitive
magnetometer. Heart of the SQUID is a super conducting ring containing one or more
Josephson junctions. Two types of SQUIDS are available namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID.
It works on the principle of Josephson effect.
DC SQUID
When current I flows through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2 Cross Sectional. Hence the
wave function due to these super currents (cooper pairs) experience a phase shift at P and Q. It
has two Josephson junctions connected in parallel and works on the interference of current
from two junctions. It works on the principle of DC Josephson effect which is the phenomenon
of flow of super current through the junction even in the absence of external emf. In the absence
of applied magnetic field, the phase difference between the wave functions is zero. If the
magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current loop, then phase difference between the
wave functions will not be zero. This is identified by the sum of the currents I1’ and I2’. The

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
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 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

magnitude of phase difference is proportional to applied magnetic field. Hence, even if there
is a weak magnetic field in the region will be detected. DC SQUIDs are widely used for a
variety of applications, including in geophysics, biomagnetism, and materials science.
RF SQUID
It works on the principle of AC Josephson effect -
When dc voltage is applied across the Josephson
junction, it leads to the development of oscillating
current. It has single Josephson Junction. Magnetic
field is applied perpendicular to the plane of the
current loop.
The flux is coupled into a loop containing a single
Josephson Junction through an input coil and an RF
source. Hence when the RF current changes, there is corresponding change in the flux linked
with the coil. This variation is very sensitive and is measured. It is also used in the detection
of low magnetic field. It is less sensitive compared to DC Squid. Due to its low-cost
manufacturing, it is commonly used SQUID in many applications. RF SQUIDs are used in
applications that require high-frequency measurements, such as in magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
The Construction and working of Magnetically Levitated Vehicles (Maglev vehicles):
Magnetically levitated vehicles are
called Maglev vehicles. The magnetic
levitation is based on the principle of
Meissner effect. The magnetic field is
produced by the superconducting
magnet and electric current. The super
conducting magnet is kept inside the vehicle and the electric current is in the Aluminium guide
way. The vehicle is on the Aluminium guide way. The vehicle is provided with retractable
wheels. The vehicle runs on the guide way, once it is levitated in air the wheels are retracted
into the body. The height to which the vehicle is levitated above guideway is about 10 to 15cm.
While stopping, the wheels are drawn out and the vehicle slowly settles on the guide way by
running a distance.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
24
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Difference between normal conductor and superconductor:

Normal Conductor Superconductor

1) In normal conductor, conductivity is 1) In superconductor, conductivity is due
due to flow of electrons. to flow of cooper pairs.
2) A potential difference is to be 2) Potential difference is not required to
applied for a conductor to make the make the cooper pairs to flow.
flow of current.
3) Magnetic lines of forces penetrate 3) Magnetic lines of forces are expelled
the specimen in the normal out of the conductor in the
conductor. superconducting state.
4) No effect of magnetic field produced 4) Magnetic field produced due to current
by the conductor on conductivity. can destroys superconductivity.
5) The loss of energy is due to heating 5) There is no loss of energy due to flow of
during the flow of current. current.
6) τ is large. 6) τ is infinite.
7)  is large. 7)  is infinite.
8)  increases with temperature. 8)  is not affected below Tc.
9) Free electron theory which explains. 9) BCS theory which explains.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Satapathy

Dept of Physics, AIT, Bangalore.
25