LUKENYA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES
LEHS 1202: PRINCIPLES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
COURSE OBJECTIVES
LEC: KIVUVA PhD
BY THE END OF THE SESSION THE LEARNER SHOULD:
 Explain the meaning of archaeology and explain why it should be studied
 Describe the types of archaeology
 Highlight the various types of archaeological data
 Illustrate the process of excavation and dating
 Illustrate the origin of archaeology
 Describe the various theories of archaeology

WEEK ONE-TWO
 Explain the meaning of archaeology and explain why it should be studied
 Describe the types of archaeology
WEEK THREE-SEVEN
 Highlight the various types of archaeological data
 Illustrate the origin of archaeology
 Describe the various theories of archaeology
WEEK EIGHT-TWELVE
 Archaeological Theories
 Concept of culture in archaeology
 Illustrate the process of excavation and dating
 The Interdisciplinary Approach in Archaeology

References
Fagan, M.B. (1985). In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology. Boston: Little Brown
and Company.
Hiscock, P. (1996). “The New Age of alternative Archaeology in Australia”.
Hole, F. $ Heizer, R.F. (1973) An Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology. New
York: HoltRinehart $Winston, Inc.
Hyden, B (1993). Archaeology. The Science of Once and Future Things. New York:
Freeman and Company.
Kisiangani, K.N.W. (2000). Demystifying postmodernism in the EAJHSSR Vol 2 No 2.
Sharer, R.J.$ Ashmore, W. (1979). Fundamentals of Archaeology. Munlo park,California:
The Benjamin Publishing Company Inc.
Stiebirg, W.H. (1987). Uncovering the Past. New York: Facts on file press.

Trigger, B (1995). A History of Archaeology Thought. Cambridge: University Press

 CHAPTER ONE
DEFINE ARCHAEOLOGY AND WHY IT SHOULD BE STUDIED
Archaeology
It comes from two Greek words, “Archios” meaning ancient or old and “logos” meaning
word or study. Archaeology can be defined as the study of the past, the old or antiquities as
a means of reconstructing the past. Archaeology can comprehensively be defined as a
science discipline, which aims at systematically s t u d y i n g t h e h u m a n c u l t u r
a l a n d s o c i a l p a s t t h r o u g h excavation, description, explanation, and analysis
of humans‟ past artifacts in the content in which they are found. The word artifact is a
Latin word derived from “ante” meaning skill or art and “facere” meaning to make. It thus
means items of material culture made with skill. Excavation has its origin from a Latin
word “excavatus”, which means to dig from the ground, today the word excavation
means digging the ground in a deliberate attempt to uncover or expose by digging the
ground. Archaeology has always been confused with prehistory. What is the difference?

Why study archaeology?

Archaeology b r i n g s to e veryo n e , laymen and scholars

t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d opportunity to see reconstructed ancient site and thus to
understand history better. It thus helps us in understanding the present through carrying out
researches about human behaviour in general. Archaeology is key to understanding our
civilization. In the absence of writte records, archaeology is very important in historical
reconstruction since it is able to go back at least four million years when humanity
began. It‟s thus the most profitable inquiry in the search on the origin of things in order to
understand the history of civilization.

“ A nation without a past has no soul” according to the first president of Botswana.
It‟s through the study of archaeology that we have been able to honor the achievements of
our people. This is because the concern of the past is basic to humanity since the traditional
fabric shared by members of a particular society was the source of their solidarity and
pride. If we take an example from Zimbabwe, Ghana, Egypt, Kenya and Israel, we note
that: on attainment of independence Southern Rhodesia changed her name to Zimbabwe
after its largest archaeological monument; - Gold Coast changed to Ghana –after the ruins of
one Jewish defenders held Masada during the revolt of A.D 66-73 (Bahn, 1996).
Rather than surrender to the mighty of Rome, 960 defenders committed suicide. In this
respect therefore, archaeology help emerging nations establish a cultural heritage.

Archaeology has much to offer in assisting historians and other specialists working
from written sources or records particularly those interested in oral traditions. The use of
archaeology in establishing architectural history, settlement sites, industry, trade and
everyday life of the Muslim towns of East Africa or the West African town is too obvious
to detail. In other words, archaeology is vital in collaborating or criticizing other evidence
for knowledge reconstruction. Archaeology is studied because individuals want to pursue a
career in such areas as r e s e a r c h scientists, teacher or s c h o l a r s , c o m pa ny
executives, journalism , publisher, cultural resource officer and business advisors.

Archaeology is also studied for its intrinsic value where it‟s learned for its own sake.
Graham
Clarke confirms this when he wrote “the study of prehistory stands in no more need of
justification than the exploration of physical nature and mathematical properties of the
universe…” In this case archaeology enlarges the range of human experience and enriches
the quality of life.

TYPES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
Archaeology is an academic discipline that deals with the study of past human life, in terms
of behavior and culture. Those people who practice in the field of archaeology are known as
archaeologists. Archaeology aims in correlating human culture, starting from the origin to
the present. The past human societies are studied on the basis of material remnants (fossils)
and human artifacts (jewelry and crafts) that are lying on or under the earth's surface. Most
of these archaeological information is collected through human impacts on the environment.
By examining and analyzing such past evidences, the archaeologists try to reconstruct and
interpret what had happened in the past human life.

The Variety of Archaeology

The sheer variety that encompasses the rich subject of archaeology is often underestimated.
Digging in the sand looking for the stone walls of a lost city, pulling on a wetsuit and diving
into the dark oceans with SCUBA gear, or sitting for weeks with primitive Indians high on a
lonely Peruvian plateau are all working types of the archaeologist.

Classical Archaeology
The examination of ancient Greek and Roman civilisations is known as classical
archaeology. The two ancient cultures of Greece and Italy form the basis of classical
investigation. The Grecian Empire, the Roman Empire and the transitional period between
the two, the Greco-Roman Period, together permit a 2000-year era of classical history. The
period between around 500 BC to 300 BC was known as the Classical period or Golden age
of Greece. These short years have given us the great monuments, philosophy, art, literature
and architecture that are now the building blocks of western civilisation. Certainly, the most
famous sites of classical archaeology are found in Athens and Rome. Who can argue the
grandeur of the Colosseum or the Parthenon? Yet classical archaeology is not confined to
only the centres of these two great empires but even to the very extremities of their
conquests. Heinrich Schliemann, a German born, American archaeologist, conducted
expeditions near the coasts of the Aegean Sea, in the late part of the 1800's. Schliemann's
first excavation was in Turkey, and he claims he had revealed the legendary city of Troy.
Unfortunately, his excavations were quick and destroyed large areas of his sites. Many other
archaeologists followed, conducting more methodical and scientific excavations. Recent
archaeology of the classic civilisations has tended to concentrate less on the popular heroes
and more on the lives of common citizens.

Historical Archaeology
Historical archaeology pays great attention to the everyday world of all people. It is a
conjunction of history and anthropology whereby the archaeologist seeks to understand the
cultural processes and human experiences that produced the world we live in today through
examination of the forms of writing and recording of information by past cultures.Writing in
some form or another was known to have been used thousands of years ago. However,
historical archaeologists study only recent history. Using only written evidence as the
foundation of their research, historical archaeologists often work in partnership with
historians. This type of archaeology developed in Britain and North America,
where it continues to thrive in academic centres. Researchers in this field are particularly
interested in books, manuscripts, seals, engravings, paintings, drawings and the like.
Historical archaeology is therefore the study of the material remains of past societies that
also left behind historical documentary evidence. An interesting sub field of archaeology, it
studies the emergence, transformation and nature of our modern world.

Underwater Archaeology
Underwater archaeology employs special techniques to study shipwrecks and other
submerged archaeological sites such as water-buried cities. Archaeologists who work under
water rely on sophisticated diving and excavating equipment and employ special methods to
preserve perishable materials that have been waterlogged for long periods. There is
significant danger involved when working at low depths and with little visibility. The use of
robotic divers, armed with strong lights and cameras, helps greatly in the safety of
underwater archaeology. Much like today, ships were the primary mode of transport for
international trade in ancient times. Many a full cargo, along with the entire crew, was lost
at sea never to arrive at its destination. Yet more often than not, it is the rocky, shallow
waters that mostly took their toll. Underwater archaeologists find lucrative bounty in these
shallow water shipwrecks. These archaeologists are not searching for gold and sunken
treasure chests but instead are trying to discover more about the society that lived at the
time of the sinking. Cups, plates, weapons, food items and cargos will all piece together to
bring the shattered jigsaw of past cultures to life again.

Ethno-Archaeology
Artefacts such as weapons and tools along with human and animal fossils indicates that past
cultures lived by hunting and gathering until relatively recently. A branch of archaeology
has sought to understand these activities by studying today's living groups of hunter-
gatherers in Australia, Central Africa and even in the Arctic. Observing these living
cultures in their natural environment and cautiously making deductions about the
characteristics and behaviour of their ancestors is a sub- domain of anthropology known as
ethno-archaeology. Archaeologists believe that present-day hunter-gatherers such as the
Australian Aborigine or the North American Eskimo, as well as people who lived during the
Neolithic period share some aspects of each other's ways of life. These archaeologists spend
much time among the people they are studying, keeping detailed records of their daily
activities and behaviours. They attempt to make accurate records of any abandoned
settlements, including rubbish pits, discarded food and artefacts including tools for hunting,
trapping, or food preparation. These are compared with patterns observed in excavated
archaeological sites. Ethno-archaeologists can provide an important angle for interpreting
the accumulations of artefacts and other remains found at excavation locations. They
become particularly helpful in recognising associations between activities such as tool
making or animal slaughtering.

Egyptology: As the name suggests this is the investigation of ancient Egyptian culture
including its hieroglyphic language, history, art, trade and religion. It covers six time
periods from the Stone Age up to the end of the Roman Period around AD 324. In 1822 the
famous Rosetta Stone was deciphered and permitted Egypt's ancient writings to be
understood fuelling an insatiable hunger for the study of ancient Egypt.
Biblical Archaeology: This special study selects the material remains of the Holy Lands
that relate to the biblical period and its narratives. Analysis of the remains of buildings and
art, down to every tiny piece of papyri helps in the understanding of the life and culture of
the Hebrew people and their neighbours. These discoveries have done much to assist,
illustrate and often corroborate the biblical texts.

Household Archaeology
Household archaeology is a comparatively recent development in archaeology that
happened between the late 1970s and early 1980s. It involves a small-scale excavation
within a given area on an archaeological site. It considers every single household as a unit
that not only portrays the social, cultural, economic, and political sensibilities of the people
of a particular household/family, but also throws light on the affiliations of the society on
the whole. Household archaeology is also helpful in studying aspects of secular art and
architecture, food habits of the people, their religious beliefs, and so on. Gender
classification in the social order is an interesting aspect that can be studied by this kind of
archaeological method. Varieties of evidences are taken into consideration in the study of
household archaeology, which include vegetal and faunal remains, pottery and processes of
site formation.

Aviation Archaeology
Aviation archaeology deals with finding historical remains of aircraft, air-borne weaponry,
abandoned air bases or runways, and the like. In short, it deals with everything that has to
do with the history of aviation. Sometimes, remains from aircraft crashes are found under
the sea, which are eventually recovered, recorded and studied. It is due to this reason that
many people consider aviation archaeology as a branch of marine archaeology, but this may
only be true to a limited extent. This is because there are also a number of aviation
archaeological remains found on land, in which case, it becomes a separate division in itself.
Crash sites differ largely in magnitude and remains. The remains range from military
remains to civil remnants. Instances of ancient air bases found by aviation archaeologists
have also been recorded. As far as the actual professional practice of aviation archaeology is
concerned, there may be some legal constraints, which can be overcome through adequate
paperwork and permissions.

Battlefield Archaeology
Battlefield archaeology, also known as military archaeology, is one of the most intriguing
types of archaeologies. It deals with digging up battlefields of the past and recovering
evidences relating to military activities, which may have been responsible for subsequent
changes in the social, political and economic spheres of the society. Archaeological
evidences recovered from battlefields have the capability to alter those historical viewpoints
which have been widely accepted and acknowledged. Evidences on such sites include
remains of implements of war, skeletal remains, and various artifacts related to military
history. These so-called war sites give valuable evidences to events, which took place not
only during a given war, but also before and after it, because not only actual battlefields but
even military camp sites provide valuable evidences. Also, just as all other sites tell us about
how and when people lived, war sites tell us how and when they died. All in all, battlefield
archaeology is an engrossing case-study of how written historical accounts can undergo
changes when actual material remains relating to the recorded events are uncovered.
Commercial Archaeology
Commercial archaeology is actually a sub-discipline of archaeology, which deals with
everything that is related to commerce and trade. This includes evidences with respect to the
commodities that were traded and bartered, numismatic finds, ancient forms of
transportation that were used for commercial purposes, and so on. The study of ancient
trade routes and sea ports, harbors and marketplaces, is also included in commercial
archaeology. This is a very gripping study, as it
answers questions such as which countries had trade relations and in what commodities,
what were the media of exchange between them, how the commodities were transported,
who and what all was involved, how they coordinated, etc. Many a time, at commercial
sites, ancient inscriptions are found, which are obviously very valuable resources that are
used for recording economic histories.

Forensic Archaeology
Forensic archaeology is a newly developed stream and a very interesting one. It pertains to
the use of archaeological techniques in finding evidences on crime scenes. Forensic
archaeologists are generally employed by the security services in order to investigate crimes
and catch the culprits. Duties of archaeologists in this field of archaeology include
collecting evidences like human burials, artifacts, footprints, tool-marks, etc., and trying to
figure out the situation in which a particular crime might have happened; and to ascertain
the influences on the remains of external factors that may have disturbed the crime scene.
They also try to find whether all the remains are in site, and if not, how and when they
landed up where they currently lie. The findings of forensic archaeologists prove to be very
effective in the court of law, and help the police to a great extent in the investigation of the
occurred crime.

Relationship between archaeology and other disciplines

Archaeology is a sub branch of anthropology, which is the study of life ways of people
from the past through excavating, analyzing and interpreting the things left behind by these
people. These things include artifacts (tools and pottery), features (e.g. buildings and
graves), and Eco facts that are non-artifactual materials including food remains and
sediments. Since archaeology concentrates on study of the past, they are limited to working
with one of the basic components of culture: - Material culture- since the other two
components are not preserved in the absence of people for thousands and in some cases
millions of years. These other aspects of culture are ideas and behaviour patterns.
Archaeology is considered a scientific subject since the process of cultural formation can be
understood better through hypothetical framework, which can be tested against
existing artifact for an easy drawing of conclusions or principles about the subject.
Archaeology also borrows heavily from the natural sciences e.g. physics, chemistry,
biology etc that operate purely on scientific principles. Archaeology can also be considered
as an autonomous subject because it has its own methodology, which constitutes a
set of specialized technology for gathering or production of cultural information.

Archaeology and anthropology share many similarities. Archaeology is the branch of

science dedicated to the search, discovery and interpretation of material remains left behind
by humans. Anthropology is the study of all aspects of human beings, including their
evolution and relationship to other animals, especially primates. The former often informs
the latter by revealing cultural, physical and social components of prehistoric cultures. In
this respect, archaeology can be considered a sub-discipline of anthropology. In a really
broad sense, you could look at it as anthropology being all about us and archaeology being
all about our stuff. So it's natural that the two disciplines will often complement each other
and cross-pollinate. It would be hard to understand a people without any knowledge of their
stuff, and vice versa. Anthropology also is often broken out into areas such as cultural
anthropology, physical anthropology and linguistics.
What is archaeology and why should it be studied?
Examine different types of archeological fields
 CHAPTER TWO
THE EVOLUTION OF ARCHAEOLOGY FROM ITS REMOTE BEGINNING
UNTIL THE 19TH CENTURY

The field/discipline was started in the earliest known archaeological probing or investigations
are reckoned to be those of King Nabonidus of Babylon who in the 6th century B.C
excavated a
temple floor down to a foundation laid nearly 2000years earlier. He was concerned with
tracing
the floor plans of ruined temples and collecting artifacts from this excavation. His efforts
were directed towards the correct restoration of these temples in line with his reforms and
his emphasis
on the linear descent of kings. Nabonidus was not an early archaeologist; however, much of
his techniques may have resembled those of the 19th century excavators. However, his
interest in the
past is clear, his daughters‟ house had a special room to house her collections of local
antiquities.
In other words, he may be regarded as the first archaeologist in the sense that he carried
out systematic excavations, recorded them and displayed to the public in what was to
become a museum.

In the Eastern Balkans a 5th century Thracian princess had a collection of stone axes in
her
grave. Even divine emperors were not immune to the attraction of archaeology. The
historian Suetonus informs us that the Roman Emperors from Augustus in the 1st
century B.C had
collected huge skeletons of extinct sea and land monsters popularly known as giant bones
and the weapons of ancient heroes. These interests in ancient heroes can be traced back to
Homer often considered the father of archaeology. It was Homer who was instrumental in
turning peoples eyes to the past through his descriptions of the Trojan war in the Iliad, and
of people‟s from different lands in the Odyssey. Generally, there were groups of people
who were instrumental to the development of archaeology. These include: the
antiquarians, catastrophists, uniformitarianists, evolutionist, e.t.c.

ANTIQUARIANISM
The term antiquarianism was applied to those people who were interested in recovering
ancient remains so that they could preserve the past. This practice began about the
13thcentury A.D after society had developed an interest in knowledge again. During this
period, which is popularly known as the renaissance or rebirth of knowledge, scholars
started to read the works of Greek and Roman philosophers like Plato, Aristotle,
Lucretius and Julius Caesar. Those with wealth traveled in the classical world to search and
collect the material culture of the past for their cabinets in their houses. During this period,
the main aim was to collect treasures and arts for private purposes especially among the
rich, (nobles, clergy, and the rulers). In Italy for example, these group of people was
known as dilettanti meaning those delighted in the arts. During the search for the past,
material culture, some small-scale excavations were conducted but with the intention of
collecting and preserving ancient antiquities for their own sake. Popes like Sixtus IV and
Julius II and III and Alexander IV, sponsored people to make collections of antiquities for
their parishes. There were other antiquarians who wanted economic gains
from ancient antiquities. Such antiquarians include Giovanni Batista Belzoni who was a
thief and grave robber. He raided Egyptian pharaonic treasures and sold them to the
highest bidders. During the same period, it was also fashionable for politicians to furnish
their houses with abandoned statues and artifacts. Therefore, the churchmen, politicians and
the nobility competed with each other on the amount of ancient collections one had. The
collections of antiquities also spread to other parts of Europe especially France and
Britain, where collectors started going round all over Europe and other parts to collect
objects. Most objects collected during this time became the nucleus of the objects found in
the modern museums e.g. Ashmolean and Victorian museums in Britain. The treasure
hunters, who were the founders of these museums, stole these antiquities. Apart from the
collections, serious works on archaeology began to emerge, William Camden in 1586, was
able to produce a book Britannia that was a comprehensive directory of British
antiquities. The antiquarians were however, not the founders of the field of archaeology.
By 18th century many developments had been made in what was to become archaeology
and geology. These developments were based on several theories.
CATASTROPHISM
During the first half of the 19th century many discoveries were made of artifacts and
human
bones in association with extinct animals suggesting man‟s antiquity going beyond
6000 years. These created anxiety and curiosity for an explanation in a hitherto dogmatic
Christian Europe. To e x p l a i n s o m e o f t h e mass extinctions of animals in
the past, some t h e o l o g i a n s a n d religious m i n d e d s c i e n t i s t s (
geologists) a r g u e d t h a t widespread flooding and other catastrophes had taken place
on earth before the creation of man. In fact, they stated that the last of these floods was the
one in which Noah and his ark was involved. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, such as
those described by Plato in his story of Atlantis were almost as popular as the flood
among people who sought to account for strange observations. The geologist behind this
flooding theory was called Georges Cuvier and his theory known as catastrophism. If
catastrophism were to be given credence, the history of the world would have to be
seen as full of catastrophes one disaster after the other, everywhere and all the time. Yet,
the biggest catastrophe recorded since the flood. The eruption of Volcano Krakatoa in
Indonesia in 1870s did not create beaches high on land or significantly affect the area of
more than a few hundred miles. Indeed, only one ship was carried by tidal waves generated
by eruption to 2.5km inland.

Surely there was something amiss in the theory (Hyden, 1993). Nevertheless, Georges
Cuvier is credited with the transformation of paleontology into a complex science; indeed
his theory got a lot of support from many geologists and scientists of the time. From the
17th and 19th century, ideas about evolution were rudimentary and sporadic, and a few
people believed that the world was created before 4004 B.C. a date calculated by a Bishop
on the basis of the genealogies recorded in the Bible. Genesis chapter 1:1stated that
God had created the world and its inhabitants in six days. The story of Adam and Eve
provided an entirely consistent explanation of the creation of humankind and world
populations. Prior to the 19th century, most Europeans derived their knowledge from the
Bible and the accounts of classical Greeks and the Romans. Because of these
prehistory. Most scholars agreed that the world was only about 6000years old though
there was considerable disagreement over the exact time and date of creation.
UNIFORMITARIANISM
James Hutton (1726-1777) in his book “Theory of the earth” proposed that natural and
gradual processes, which were still going on at the time, formed the earth. He saw the
geological processes as being erosion, accumulation, weathering and earthquake and
argued that these processes were more likely to bring about geological change than
successive catastrophes. Many geologists including those who had favoured Ussharian
chronology accepted Hutton‟s theory. This theory was later popularized and published by
the famous geologist Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) in his three volume „principles of
geology‟ as the doctrine or theory „uniformitarianism‟. Sir Charles Lyell summarized
the layering up of the earth‟s crust with such simplicity that those specialized and
the general public understood clearly. He for instance, demonstrated that in any part of
the earth‟s crust, the layers lying below were laid down earlier and are therefore older
than those above, which were laid down later. He thus proved that life on earth was
much older than 6000years; he called this the theory of superimposition (Sharer and
Atmore 1979). He qualified this with a condition of their having been no previous
disturbance due to faulting or earthquakes.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION AND NATURAL SELECTION

The theory of biological evolution was greatly influenced by the theory of cultural
evolution. One of the most famous proponents of this theory was Charles Darwin. In
1859, this theory found more support with the concept of biological evolution by Darwin
in his book “The Origin of Species”. Darwin theory of evolution supported the long
geologic history of the earth as interpreted by Charles Lyell. This theory also showed that
a process of natural selection in which better-adapted forms produce more offspring and
multiplied while those that were less fitted died out. (Survival of the fittest) and thus was
able to explain mass extinctions as well as diversity of life on earth (Glyn 1975, Sharer
and Atmore 1979). Generally, by the beginning of the 19th century, most governments
had realized the importance of preserving antiquities therefore they started to support
people to go to various places to collect and excavate various antiquities. It‟s during
this period that the principles of archaeology were established.

 Discuss the contribution of antiquarianism, uniformitarianism and

catastrophism in the Development of archaeology.
CHAPTER THREE
TYPES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA
Archaeologists attempt to study the archaeological record in order to understand the human
interaction at a particular location across the history of time. There are two sources of
information that the archaeologist uses from a digging site with the aim of making
conclusions about past human behaviour. What data does an archaeologist look for?
Material Data
These are the physical items located such as artifacts and include objects like jewellery,
pottery, stoneware, tools, weapons, clothing, and architectural items like walls, floors,
columns, pillars, lintels, doors, gates, roads, wells, and even holes in the ground for rubbish
pits.
Intangible Data
This is solely information based. Unlike the tangible objects that are classed as „material
remains‟ descriptive data is an intangible factual reality that helps to lock the artifact in a
location with context. Examples of archaeological data are measurements, direction,
perhaps orientation, and/or associations.
Measurement
This not only includes the obvious need to quantify the artifact as to height, width, and
length, but also weight, mass, and density can be determined along with measuring colour
and texture against known registers. Measurements within the archaeological site itself
would include calculating its area, the areas of separate fields, strata heights according to
sea level (HASL) and attributing HASL to excavated artifacts.
Direction
Artifacts collected or described without providing directions is not nearly as useful.
Basically, compass bearings are used that provide the analyst with north, south, east and
west alignments. For example, gates or entrances to settlements will be noted as facing NE
or some other direction. Roads, streets, and walls will be stated to run N-S or perhaps SE –
NW. For large items the usual 360 degrees of the standard compass will normally suffice,
however, for more exacting calculations the mils compass with 6400 increments delivers
greatest accuracy. Direction for smaller objects is usually confined to recording its
orientation. That is; was the object standing up or lying down, etc. In the case of human
remains the record will show the posture, orientation, and direction.
Association
This information seeks to position the artifact in relation to its surroundings. This might
include noting other similar or dissimilar artifacts found together and will also include the
artifacts‟ relationship to walls, human remains, and any other objects that are in the vicinity.
On a wider scale, association may mean the relationship of one field site to another or even
one or more settlements to each other.
Artifacts
Artifacts are material remains but they differ from the larger architectural remains often
better called „features‟. The non-movable objects, such as buildings, that have been
constructed or modified by people, must be left in situ. Remnants of objects such as the
remains of decayed organic materials are sometimes referred to as „stains‟ in the
archaeological record. These, too, must usually be left in situ. The remains of significant
objects that were built on location poses few problems to the archaeological data collector
as to its original measurement, direction, and association. It is the smaller, portable objects
that, although easy to first quantify in the field, pose the greater difficulties when it comes
to interpretation.

Describe the various archeological data that interests a historian

 CHAPTER FOUR
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
What is a THEORIES
theory?

A theory is a statement of the relationship between abstract concepts. It‟s substantially

Separated from every day‟s observations of things and events by at least one level of
Generalization and often by many levels.
Characteristics of a good
theory Predictive
Theories that generate hypothesis that accurately predict what would be observed are
obviously desirable thus, if hypotheses derived from the theory of evolution predict that
transitional forms of fossils between apes and humans should be found.

Simple
A theory is also considered to be good if it‟s relatively simple. The more complex the
theory, the greater the likelihood that some of it would be wrong. Good theories explain
exceptions away easily, such as why some objects fly up instead of falling to the earth
as the theory of gravity leads one to expect. Poor theories must rely on cumbersome and
complex explanations to account for exceptions.

Powerful
A good theory must be relatively powerful. Theories that explain a broad range of
phenomena in the universe are much more powerful than theories that deal with a very
narrow range of things thus the theory of gravity and the theory of relativity are very
powerful theories in the realm of science today. In contrast, a theory that explains a taboo
on eating cows (Hindus) by reference to particular culture‟s values system is less
powerful because it accounts for only a very limited range of phenomena in a single
culture. Some of the theories include:

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY AND RACISM

Towards the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century, there was a
shared commitment by European archaeologists towards an evolutionary approach to various
cultures, which led to a close relationship between ethnology and archaeology. In Europe, this
alignment was based on a belief in unilinear cultural evolution. It was accepted that modern
cultures could be arranged in series, which ranged from the simplest to the complex
groups. The realization that there were groups of people different from Europeans encouraged
intellectuals to explain that the differences were as result of biological differences and not
due to the different environments where these cultures were developed. Different races were
thus not equal. These intellectuals even tried to justify Charles Darwin‟s theory of different
natural selection processes which culminated to these differences, for examples a group which
was culturally developed (European‟s) were thought to be both culturally and biologically
more developed than Africans and other colored people of the earth. Those groups that were
culturally advanced were the same as those who natural selection had produced superior
individuals with self-control. Those who were less advanced were like children. According to
Darwin, cultural evolution was an extension of biological evolution and this spheres of
evolution went hand in hand. The view that cultural evolution and biological evolution go
hand in hand was introduced in archaeology by John Lubbock (1237-1913) when he argued
that both views of Darwin could be applied to archaeology.
He further argued that if extinct elephants could provide information about the behaviour
of modern elephants therefore looking at modern people, you could get behaviour of the
past people. He continued to argue that because of natural selection, human groups differed
from one another not only culturally but also in their biological capacities as well. Modern
Europeans were seen as products of intensive cultural and biological evolution while
African and other less technologically advanced societies were seen to be both culturally,
intellectually and emotionally more primitive than the civilized people.

RACISM IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

By the beginning of the 19th century archaeological work in Africa was carried out
haphazardly by European amateurs and professionals whose aim was to advance the view
that there was nothing good among Africans. The earliest recorded excavations were
carried out by a Swiss named Andrew Sparman (1876) who dug a number of holes
in present South Africa where without getting anything substantive concluded that there
was irrefutable evidence that a more powerful and numerous population had lived in
South Africa before they were downgraded to present day Hottentots and savages. When
serious research in archaeology started in 1890s archaeologist regarded human beings as
living museums of the human past for instance, cultures that had not changed much from
the stones to the hunters and gatherers. This was the start of what was called ethno
archaeology. Ethno archaeology is the explanation of archaeological materials using
modern societies. It was argued that most societies encountered had technology based
on stone tools and generally rudimentary social and political organizations. However, the
truth is that in Africa there were highly developed societies with kingdoms and cities akin
to those of Europe during the same time. Unfortunately, these centers of civilization
were associated by these Euro centric scholars to diffusion from the North e.g. Great
Zimbabwe where there were massive stones structures, Ethiopia and elsewhere, where
there was evidence of advanced civilization were said to have been established by
Hamites who were supposed to have been a light skinned people who had migrated via
Egypt to the South. These hamites alleged brought civilization to the black people.

HISTORICAL PARTICULARISM
Around the turn of the 19th century, the founder of North America anthropology, Franz
Boas advanced this theory. It gained prominence in the mid 20th century. It viewed
culture to be
very complex which many varied forces affect. Because of this, historical particularism
treated each c ult ure as u n i q u e . A c u l t u r e was v i e w e d as an e n t i t y
understable only in its own terms- an approach called cultural relativism. Boas,
maintained that cultures were subject to so many influences e.g. history,
environments, contact with other cultures, individual innovations, the mental makeup the
varying concepts embodied in the words of a language and that it was extremely unlikely
that any useful generalization could be made about cultures. He considered archaeology to
be a branch of anthropology and historical particularism was the nearest thing to a
theoretical orientation that archaeology or anthropology ever produced. Operationally, it
heavily emphasized the story of mental life of cultures, since mental activity is less
amenable to evolutionist sequences of ranking than any other factor. He further argues
that all cultures should be understood in their own terms and no culture was inferior
to any other. Offering their own version of diffusionism, the historical particularists argue
that ideas changed largely as a result of contact between peoples, in the same way that
diseases arespread.
This approach was also called the normative approach.
Why did particularists shun generalization?
One reason was that Franz Boas was a European Jew and had bitter experiences with anti-
Semitism. He h a d f e l t s t r o n g l y t h a t the expertise of s c i e n t i s t s
particularly, anthropologists should be used to demonstrate that all races and cultures
are of equal worth. He saw any generalization about culture or any evolutionary model
as a threat. Unfortunately, their Historical Particularism was to banish all generalization
from Social Science. When Historical Particularism was tested, it failed miserably and left
a residue of patterned cultural change and evolution. Indeed, most archaeologists now
feel that Historical Particularism was an extreme and somewhat misdirected approach.

FUNCTIONALISM IN ARCHAEOLOGY
This idea emerged when scholars realized that ethnicity would not be known from
archaeological data. Functionalism shifted archaeological eye from focusing on the origin
of the artifacts to what it was used for. The main idea of this approach was to understand
human behaviour. Scholars from United Kingdom and France rejected the idea of
diffusion of origin from Egypt and adopted a structural approach which was propagated by
scholars like Branslaw Malinowski and Radcliffe Brown who argued that human
behaviour can be understood in relation to social system conceived to be made up of
functionally interdependent elements. Malinowski argued that institutions that
comprised social systems were grounded on biological needs, which c o m p l i m e n t
each o t h er . This approach was called social anthropology to distinguish it from
ethnology, which was associated with unilinear evolution. Social anthropology was
grounded on the work of a French socialist E. Durkheim who saw society as made up
of systems of interdependent parts. He viewed individual aspects of culture to be
significant in terms of their functional relationships to specific social systems. He rejected
the cultural historical view that social systems and cultural norms that were associated
with them could be understood as mechanical collection of traits that diffusion had brought
largely as a result of operation of chance. He argued that societies constituted integrated
systems whose institutions were interrelated like parts of a living organism. Thus
according to him, no change could occur in any parts of a social system without bringing
about varying degree of change in other parts of a social system. This approach
encouraged archaeologists to investigate how societies had functioned as systems.
People asked questions why artifacts were made and why they were made in particular
environments. This growing interest in the relation of human societies and environment
setups encouraged the functional view of human behaviour, which in turn stimulated the
analysis of past environment and ecological adaptations of cultures in their environment.
CULTURE HISTORY THEORY
It means, quite simply, the description of human cultures as they extend back thousands of
years into the past. Culture history is discerned from the study of sites and the artifacts and
structures in them in a vertical (temporal) and horizontal (spatial) context. Most of this
activity is descriptive, but this is an essential preliminary to any work on life ways or
culture process. Culture process is in the arena of processual archaeology. It means
understanding how culture changes. This is because; every cultural system is in a constant
state of change. By examining the relationship between technological and political
subsystems we can understand the processes by which culture changes. The word
process implies a patterned sequence of events, one event leading to the other.
 PROCESSUAL ARCHAEOLOGY OR NEW ARCHAEOLOGY
It was proclaimed to the world in an article by an American archaeologist Lewis Binford in
1962. British archaeologist, David Clarke and Colin Renfrew, soon joined him. It‟s
based on deductive research methodology that employs a research design, formulation of
research hypothesis, testing of these against basic data. These hypotheses are tested against
basic data and some are discarded, while others are refined again and again until the factors
that affect cultural change are isolated in a highly specific form. New archaeology, rooted
in cultural anthropology renounced the historical orientation of the traditional archaeology.
It supported and accepted the concept of cultural evolution and the use of systems
theory. System model or theory sees each society operating through the
interrelationships of its individual components say, the natural environments, population
density or available technology and that a change in one lead to a change in others-say
religious practices.They strove to emulate the sciences by seeking to explain cultural
process. They were very optimistic that they could deduce valid laws of cultural
development and change. To accomplish this as we have stated, they adopted the scientific
method –formulating hypothesis or models, deducing how they would work then testing
them by carefully designing projects. Their search for objective demonstrable explanation,
also led new archaeologists to stress quantitative analysis of data, using computers for
random sampling, significant testing and other types of statistical analysis. There were
heated debates concerning new archaeology between its opponents and propagators.
Fortunately, the rhetoric on both sides has become more moderate over the years and its
contribution (new archaeology) to the study of archaeology remains enormous.

POST-MODERNISM
The word derives from modernity. Modern age officially began at the end of the 15th
century. This is when science and reason replaced religion as pillars of societal growth and
development. Some of the leading moral and civic notions of the age of racism
included such pronouncement as universal humanity, justice and equality, government by
consent, the free market, toleration and sanctity of the private sphere. To operate within the
confines of these pillars was to be modern. Postmodernism is therefore a rebellion against
rationalism of western civilization. It is a rebellion against all magnificent “m e t a -
narrative” (Grand theories). This is because human life is more complex and enriching
than narrow western approaches. In other words, postmodernism (as used in archaeology)
is not a specific school of thought, but a persistent challenge to the assumptions of
western European culture. Its impact is not clear, for most recent philosophical influences
upon archaeology have generalized an attitude that resembles modernism challenging itself,
rather than fully- fledged postmodernism.

REVISION QUESTIONS
What are the characteristics of a good archaeological theory?
Discuss racism and show how it has influenced the interpretation of archaeology.
Analyze the key features on any three of the following approaches to the study of
archaeology.
a) Diffusionism
b) Historical particularism
c) Functionalism
d) System theory
e) New archaeology
CHAPTER FIVE
THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE IN ARCHAEOLOGY

What is culture?

Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, defined by everything from

language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. A People‟s culture is synonymous
with their civilization, with all its processes of continuity and change. Culture finds
expression in a people‟s values, beliefs and rituals as well as possession. It is reflected in
people‟s social, economic, judicial, political and value systems. The implication here is that
the cultural identity of a people is based upon, and consists of, the totality of their values,
norms, traditions, language and their inward and outward manifestations. All these combine
and bestow upon a people or ethnic group a particular identity and niche.

Characteristics of Culture
 Culture is an Adaptive Mechanism: Man cannot survive outside of the warmer
regions of our planet without cultural knowledge and technology. What made it
possible for our ancestors to begin living in temperate and ultimately subarctic
regions of the northern hemisphere after half a million years ago was the invention
of efficient hunting skills, fire use, and, ultimately, clothing, warm housing,
agriculture, and commerce.
 Culture is learned: Every human generation potentially can discover new things
and invent better technologies.
 Culture changes: All cultural knowledge does not perpetually accumulate. At the
same time that new cultural traits are added, some old ones are lost because they are
no longer useful
 Culture gives us a Range of Permissible Behavior Patterns: Culture also tells us
how different activities should be conducted.
 Culture does not exist in Isolation: No one can have own culture observations.
 Culture is symbolic
 Culture dies and grows gradually

Determinants of a culture
 Religion, Politics, traditions, Generation, Media/celebrities, Political status of a country
While culture is the dominant factor in determining social behaviour, human society is
the vehicle that carries our culture. Societies are groups of interacting organizers. Insects
and other animals as well as humans have societies. But only humans have culture as well
as a system of habits and customs that we acquire and pass on as our distinctive means of
adapting to the environment.All definitions of culture are theoretical formulations, concepts
that are means of explaining cultures and human behaviour in terms of shared ideas a group
of people may hold. The concept of culture provides anthropological archaeologists with
a means to explain the products of human activity. When archaeologists study the tangible
remains of the past, they see a patterned reflection of the culture that produced them, of the
shared ideas a group of prehistoric people. This patterning of archaeological finds is
critically important for it reflects patterned behaviour in the past.
CULTURAL SYSTEMS
Many of the interacting components of culture are highly perishable. So far, no one
has been able to dig up a religious philosophy or an unwritten language. Archaeologists
have to work with the tangible remains of human activity that still survive in the ground.
But intangible aspects of human culture radically affect these surviving remains of
human activity; every copper ornament found in an excavation is a reflection, not only
of the technology that made it but of the values and uses of which a society placed on
such objects. Ancient tools are patterned in themselves, but they are a patterned reflection
of the culture that produced them. Archaeologists spend much time studying the linkages
between past culture and their archaeological remains which articulate with one another
within a total cultural system. This cultural system is the means where by a human
society adapts to its physical and social environment.

All cultural systems articulate with other systems, which also are made up of interacting
sets of variables. One such system is the natural environment. The links between cultural
and environmental systems are such that a change in one system is linked to challenges in
the other. Thus, a major objective of archaeological data. It follows that archaeologists
concerned with cultural systems are more interested in the relationship between different
activities and tools within a cultural system than they are in the activities or tools
themselves. They are profoundly
interested in cultural systems within their environmental context. To be workable any
human cultural system depends on its ability to adapt to the natural environment. A
cultural system can
be broken into all manner of systems, religious and ritual subsystems, economic
subsystems and so on. Each of these is linked to the others. Changes from cattle herding
to wheat growing, will cause reactions in many others. Such relationships concern the
archaeologist as a measure of the constant changes and variations in human culture,
which can accumulate over long periods of time. These changes accumulate as cultural
systems respond to external and internal stimuli.

Artifacts are found in archaeological sites. Archaeological sites are far more than just a
collection of artifacts, however, they can contain the remains of dwellings, burials,
storage pits, craft activities and sometimes several occupation levels. Each artifact, each
broken bone or tiny seed, every dwellings has a relationship in space and time to all the
other finds made in a site. An artifact can be earlier, contemporary with or later than its
neighbors in the soil. A thousand obsidian flakes and half completed projectile heads
scattered over an area several square feet in diameter are in themselves merely stone
fragments. But the patterning of all the fragments is significant as it tells us something of
the various manufacturing activities carried out by the person who flaked the thousand
fragments from several chunks of obsidian. In this instance, and many others, the context
of artifacts in time and space is vital ( Fagan, 1983). To every archaeologist, an artifact is
worthless without this context. An artifact removed from its context in space and time
in an archaeological site is merely an object. An artifact carefully excavated from a
recorded archaeological context is an integral past of our history and as such has far
more significance. This context of space and time lies at the very foundations of modern
archaeology.

DISCUSS THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE IN ARCHAEOLOGY

 CHAPTER SIX
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EXCAVATION

In archaeology, the term excavation simply means the 'dig'. It may sound like an over-
simplification but 'dig' is probably the most concise word to describe the process of
excavation on an archaeological site. Archaeologists seem to have always disagreed on
what is meant by an archaeological site. They however agree that sites are those areas
on the landscape, which show material evidence of human activities in the past. One can
reject as a site an area that does not have enough concentration of cultural remains per
square meter he or she is looking for. Therefore, the decision whether an area is a site
depends on the decision of an archaeologist. Size of site is determined by the extent and
density of visible surface remains. These remains include, stone tools metal remains,
pottery, ruined buildings and abandoned terraces e.t.c.
What are the steps of excavation?
1. Site Identification. An archeological site can be located through:
Primary Source Documents
Ancient books and manuscripts, even cuneiform tablets, can reveal a lot about lost
civilisations. The most important source of information for the Biblical archaeologist is the
Bible itself. Covering a period of more than 6000 years it precisely records the exact
locations of many ruined and forgotten cities. Archaeologists have used the Bible's accuracy
to locate and re-discover ancient towns, cities and once busy ports. Other texts have
recorded trade transactions between neighbours where only one is still in existence. Text
documents are the primary source of information.
Legends
There is often much truth hidden in the tall stories and legends of antiquity and a cautious
study may provide a clue to a missing place. Most traditions and myths are founded on real
people and places. Over time they become exaggerated and unbelievable. Sifting the
embellishment from these traditions often leaves a factual narrative helpful to the
archaeologist.
Ground Survey
Geographysical ground surveys are nearly always performed prior to an excavation
establishing itself. These are conducted by skilled surveyors and provide the data necessary
to conclude the feasibility of a settlement once being established there.
Existing Settlements
Quite obviously, if someone thinks it's good enough to live there now then why not in the
past. Many of the best archaeological sites are buried under present day cities and cannot be
unearthed. Rome, Jerusalem and Athens are prime examples. Most modern cities have
excavation teams working in them usually in pockets throughout the city and often many
metres below present street level.
Natural Features
Ancient sites for settlement were often chosen for reasons of safety and protection from
raiders. Sources of water, rivers for transport and natural harbours were preferred.
Defendable high hills or narrow passes were ideal areas where the occupants had control
over trade routes and transport arteries. Ground survey teams will identify these features.
Aerial Photography
Spying out the lie of the land has never been easier than with aerial mapping. A collage of
photographs can be laid out and the perceptive archaeologist can intuitively identify
prospective buried sites by analysis of every geographic feature in the vicinity.
Archaeologist's first used this technique after acquiring numerous photos from army
recognizance flights during WW1.
Satellites
Topographical radar mapping is the latest tool in the archaeologist's kit bag. It is the
unlikely combination of sketchy, inaccurate, ancient mapping and space-borne images.
NASA initiated the use of sand-penetrating radar images in the Arabian Desert. These
were taken by the space shuttle
Challenger in 1984 and more recently by French satellites. This sky-high technology can
look into the sand to locate the ruins of buried ancient settlements, obscured tracks of old
caravan routes and sand drowned drinking wells. The image analysis is overlaid on to old
maps of the region and land parties guide ground reconnaissance groups to test dig the
location. Technological advances in hardware and software have allowed all manner of
geographic information to be created.

2. Clearing the Ground

After a site is identified clearing the ground follows. On the first day of an excavation
season, after completion of the geological survey and any trial digging, the area must be
cleared of grass and other foliage. Often this is done by mechanical means but in remote
areas everything must be done by hand. Once all organic matter is removed but before the
first spade hits the ground, field supervisors provide instruction in preparation for the
opening of the trenches. An important part of the first day is the tour of the site, headed
usually by the site director and field supervisors. Diggers are introduced to the history and
topography of the site, as well as to excavation methodology and theory. Survey maps and
site diagrams are used to locate the position of trenches to be opened during the new
season. Students and area supervisors get together to identify their areas of responsibility on
the site. Based on the survey maps the field director and the site architect locate the corners
of trenches and cord lines are strung out to mark the edges. These will form large squares
five metres by five meters with a one metre baulk or scarp between each one. The
experienced assistants begin to cut the precisely aligned scarps that will create the vertical
boundaries of the digging area trenches. The trenches are covered with a pole mounted
shade cloths or tarpaulins for protection from the sun and rain. Tools for excavation include
a trowel, shovel, measuring tape, hoe, wheelbarrow, pick, whisk broom, plumb bob and
various small ceramic tools and dental picks, along with hundreds of rubber buckets.
Findings are recorded in the field notebook. Field supervisors record drawings, diagrams
and descriptions of trenches developments, which includes information on architectural
stones, strata and small finds. Potsherds are placed in buckets while other finds are bagged
and labelled, all to be taken elsewhere for cleaning, conservation, cataloguing and storage.

Photographic Records
Significant finds are also photographed in site before removal. Often an artefact protrudes
from the vertical baulk. The sides of the one-metre-thick baulk permit a visual identification
of each stratum layer and cannot be removed. Therefore, any item in the baulk must also
stay. As the digging level gets deeper the surveyor will take fresh readings using laser levels
from predetermined bench marks. Listening to the Experts
The excavation team retires from the site and excavated objects are taken to the
conservation lab where they are cleaned and consolidated. Experts will comment about
findings and answer questions for students‟ archaeologists.
3. Site Survey
Is the simplest way of getting some ideas about the site extent or size? Site surveys are done
by studying the distribution of surviving features and recording and possibly collecting
artifacts from the surface of various areas. The first form of survey is mapping.
Mapping enables you to accurately record the survey data. For service features like
buildings and roads you use topographical maps. These maps enable one to relate the
ancient settlement to the basic features of the natural landscape. There are two main two
main ways of collecting fossils and artifacts from a site: -
i) Collecting everything from the surface of site.
This approach of total collection is used in those areas where little
archaeological research has been done.
ii) Collecting diagnostic artifacts and fossil.
This is done when one is dealing with a well-known area and one just needs these
materials for further survey or study.
4. Site Excavation
It‟s a major understanding in which archaeologists acquire data about the past. Unlike
surveys that recover data from the surface excavation recovers data from beneath the
ground. Sites are chosen for excavation because it‟s hoped that they will provide the
information that will give some guidance about prehistoric past. But it should be noted that
all excavations are destructive and therefore every cautionary measure must be considered
before embarking on any form of excavation. In this regard, those sites chosen for
excavation are chosen only when they are threatened for destruction and the choice of a
site to excavate stem from the research problem. Research problems may include
reasons for evolution of a culture, social organization of a community or environmental
exploitation by prehistoric group e.t.c. Excavation yields two kinds of information:
(i)About human activities at a particular period in the past.
ii) Those activities from period to period.
Contemporary activities take place horizontally in space whereas changes in those
activities occur vertically through time. In horizontal dimension, archaeologists try to
demonstrate contemporary activities i.e. activities did occur at the same time by proving
through e x c a v a t i o n that artifacts and other features are found in association in
undisturbed context. In the vertical profile showing a series of layers constitute a
sequence that has accumulated through time

TYPES OF EXCAVATION
There are several ways to excavate a site. These include keyhole, vertical, open area, step
trenching, and cofferdams. The excavation method of any given site is determined by the
site itself. When choosing your method there are a few things to consider, what is your
scope and ability.
Keyhole Excavation
Keyhole excavation is also known as making test holes. This is not good for total site
analysis but can give you a general idea of artifact distribution. In this kind of excavation
you make uniform test holes throughout your site. You need to make sure that the holes are
equal in depth, diameter and volume to give you an accurate distribution ratio. Also make
sure that you collect and document all the artifacts. It is just as important to know where an
artifact came from.
Vertical Excavation
Vertical Excavation is a form of excavation in which a trench is dug through a site. It allows
for strata to be compared and is good for areas of multiple occupations. It is also good for
sites such as mounds because it allows you to study the mound without totally destroying it.
And it gives you a chance to date the mound because you retrieve thing for carbon testing
from an undisturbed area of the base.
Open Area Excavation
Open area excavation is when the whole site is excavated. This kind of excavation is great
for giving you the total picture. However, it is only good for sites with one or maybe two
occupations because it completely destroys layers that are removed. A great example of an
open area excavation would be Pompeii in Italy.
Step-Trenching and Cofferdams
The last two are step- trenching and cofferdams. Step-trenching is very similar to vertical
excavation. The only real difference is that it is for deeper digging. So, the trenches are dug
stepping down to the bottom strata. This will minimize the likelihood of cave-in, but still
allow for strata to be compared. Cofferdams are used in water logged sites. Basically, walls
are put up so shifting sediment does not cave-in. Places that attracts archaeologists include:
graveyards, pyramids, deserts, caves, trade routes, near water sources.
 5. Recording
Once an artifact has been recovered, it must be given a number, which is entered in
a catalogue in the bag in which it is stored. Your day-to-day progress of excavation
is recorded in your site notebook, e.g. what you did that day, how many centimeters
you dug, which square and what was recovered. Features and structures would not only
be recorded in the site notebook but should be accurately drawn and photographed.
Recording is usually followed by classification of materials found in a site. After
classification, what follows is laboratory analysis and preservation. The final part
constitutes report writing.

6. Dating Techniques in Archaeology

Dating is one of the key essentials in putting sites and fossils into a chronological
framework. Archaeologists, geologists, paleontologists and other scientists date their
evidence using either: -
a) Relative dating - “as old as”
b) Chronometric dating –“absolute”
WHY DATE?
In trying to trace the story about what happened in the long history of the world past, one
of the difficulties is to see just when different events took place. Where there are no
written records to give us dates, other methods have been devised to date the various
things that we know took place.
i) To interpret the archaeological materials by dating various morphological aspects of
human development and his materials. This is important because there can be prove of
theory about bio-cultural process unless time is controlled.
ii) Thorough dating does help in eliminating any falsehood given to find (biological
or cultural). In this case, Piltdown (England) a man who had been given a wrong date of
2.75m years has been redated to 320,000years only.
iii) Archaeological dating has also been used to authentic (prove) dates given by historians.
E.g. a case in point is the biblical date, which have been confirmed or disputed by
archaeological dating.
iv) Dating has helped historians to understand that human development has never been the
same all over the world at the same time. From these dating we learn that man first evolved
in Africa, fire was first used in Kenya and possibly later in China and that there has never
been equal development in the world.
v) Dating itself helps archaeologists to reconstruct history from artifacts. In this, periods
are given to events. It is in dating that archaeologists accomplish the delineation of
synchronic segments. (Stone, bronze and iron) through relative dating of archaeological
materials. This classification is still valid today and is used extensively by archaeologists
and other social scientists.

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the study of strata, or layers. Specifically, stratigraphy refers to the
application of the Law of Superposition to soil and geological strata containing
archaeological materials in order to determine the relative ages of layers. In addition,
stratigraphy can tell us much about the processes affecting the deposition of soils, and the
condition of sites and artifacts.
Cross-Dating
Cross-dating is a technique used to take advantage of consistencies in stratigraphy between
parts of a site or different sites, and objects or strata with a known relative chronology. A
specialized form of cross-dating, using animal and plant fossils, is known as biostratigraphy.
Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology is another traditional technique for establishing the abolute date of
events. This is also called Tree-Ring Dating. Tree-Ring dating is based on the principle that
the growth rings on certain species of trees reflect variations in seasonal and annual rainfall.
Trees from the same species, growing in the same area or environment will be exposed to
the same conditions, and hence their growth rings will match at the point where their
lifecycles overlap.
Limitations of Dendrochronology
There are limitations on dendrochronology. Some of those limitations include:
 In some areas of the world, particularly in the tropics, the species available do not
have sufficiently distinct seasonal patterns that they can be used.
 Where the right species are available, the wood must be well enough preserved that
the rings are readable. In addition, there must be at least 30 intact rings on any one
sample.
 There also must be an existing master strip for that area and species. There is an
absolute limit on how far back in the past we can date things with tree rings.
Although bristle cone pine trees can live to 9,000 years, this is a very rare
phenomenon. As we try to push our matching of archaeological specimens beyond
the range for which we have good control data, our confidence in the derived dates
diminishes.
 Finally, the prehistoric people being studied had to have built fairly substantial
structures using wood timbers. In most of the world that did not begin to happen
until about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago!

Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon, or Carbon-14, dating is probably one of the most widely used and best known
absolute dating methods. It was developed by J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby in 1949, and
has become an indispensable part of the archaeologist's tool kit since. It's development
revolutionized archaeology by providing a means of dating deposits independent of artifacts
and local stratigraphic sequences. This allowed for the establishment of world-wide
chronologies.
Where does C -14 come from?
Radiocarbon dating relies on a simple natural phenomenon. As the Earth's upper
atmosphere is bombarded by cosmic radiation, atmospheric nitrogen is broken down into an
unstable isotope of carbon - carbon 14 (C-14). The unstable isotope is brought to Earth by
atmospheric activity, such as storms, and becomes fixed in the biosphere. Because it reacts
identically to C-12 and C-13, C-14 becomes attached to complex organic molecules through
photosynthesis in plants and becomes part of their molecular makeup. Animals eating those
plants in turn absorb Carbon-14 as well as the stable isotopes. This process of ingesting C-
14 continues as long as the plant or animal remains alive.

C-14 Decay Profile

The C-14 within an organism is continually decaying into stable carbon isotopes, but since
the organism is absorbing more C-14 during its life, the ratio of C-14 to C-12 remains about
the same as the ratio in the atmosphere. When the organism dies, the ratio of C-14 within its
carcass begins to gradually decrease. The rate of decrease is 1/2 the quantity at death every
5,730 years. That is the half-life of C-14. The animation provides an example of how this
logarithmic decay occurs. Click on the "Show Movie" button below to view this animation.
The Limitations of Carbon 14 Dating
Using this technique, almost any sample of organic material can be directly dated. There are
a number of limitations, however. First, the size of the archaeological sample is important.
Larger samples are better, because purification and distillation remove some matter.
Although new
techniques for working with very small samples have been developed, like accelerator
dating, these are very expensive and still somewhat experimental.
Second, great care must be taken in collecting and packing samples to avoid contamination
by more recent carbon. For each sample, clean trowels should be used, to avoid cross
contamination between samples. The samples should be packaged in chemically neutral
materials to avoid picking up new C-14 from the packaging. The packaging should also be
airtight to avoid contact with atmospheric C-14. Also, the stratigraphy should be carefully
examined to determine that a carbon sample location was not contaminated by carbon from
a later or an earlier period.

Third, because the decay rate is logarithmic, radiocarbon dating has significant upper and
lower limits. It is not very accurate for fairly recent deposits. In recent deposits so little
decay has occurred that the error factor (the standard deviation) may be larger than the date
obtained. The practical upper limit is about 50,000 years, because so little C-14 remains
after almost 9 half-lives that it may be hard to detect and obtain an accurate reading,
regardless of the size of the sample.

Fourth, the ratio of C-14 to C-12 in the atmosphere is not constant. Although it was
originally thought that there has always been about the same ratio, radiocarbon samples
taken and cross dated using other techniques like dendrochronology have shown that the
ratio of C-14 to C-12 has varied significantly during the history of the Earth. This variation
is due to changes in the intensity of the cosmic radation bombardment of the Earth, and
changes in the effectiveness of the Van Allen belts and the upper atmosphere to deflect that
bombardment. For example, because of the recent depletion of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere, we can expect there to be more C-14 in the atmosphere today than there was
20-30 years ago. To compensate for this variation, dates obtained from radiocarbon
laboratories are now corrected using standard calibration tables developed in the past 15-20
years. When reading archaeological reports, be sure to check if the carbon-14 dates reported
have been calibrated or not.

Finally, although radiocarbon dating is the most common and widely used chronometric
technique in archaeology today, it is not infallable. In general, single dates should not be
trusted. Whenever possible multiple samples should be collected and dated from associated
strata. The trend of the samples will provide a ball park estimate of the actual date of
deposition. The trade-off between radiocarbon dating and other techniques, like
dendrochronology, is that we exchange precision for a wider geographical and temporal
range. That is the true benefit of radicarbon dating, that it can be employed anywhere in the
world, and does have a 50,000-year range. Using radicarbon dating, archaeologists during
the past 30 years have been able to obtain a much needed global perspective on the timing
of major prehistoric events such as the development of agriculture in various parts of the
world.

Potassium-Argon Dating
Potassium-Argon Dating Potassium-Argon dating is the only viable technique for dating
very old archaeological materials. Geologists have used this method to date rocks as much
as 4 billion years old. It is based on the fact that some of the radioactive isotope of
Potassium, Potassium-40 (K-40)
,decays to the gas Argon as Argon-40 (Ar-40). By comparing the proportion of K-40 to Ar-
40 in a sample of volcanic rock, and knowing the decay rate of K-40, the date that the rock
formed can be determined.
How Does the Reaction Work?
Potassium (K) is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust (2.4% by mass).
One out of every 100 Potassium atoms is radioactive Potassium-40 (K-40). These each have
19 protons and 21 neutrons in their nucleus. If one of these protons is hit by a beta particle,
it can be converted into a neutron. With 18 protons and 22 neutrons, the atom has become
Argon-40 (Ar-40), an inert gas. For every 100 K-40 atoms that decay, 11 become Ar-40.
How is the Atomic Clock Set?
When rocks are heated to the melting point, any Ar-40 contained in them is released into the
atmosphere. When the rock recrystallizes it becomes impermeable to gasses again. As the
K-40 in the rock decays into Ar-40, the gas is trapped in the rock.
Limitations on K-Ar Dating
The Potassium-Argon dating method is an invaluable tool for those archaeologists and
paleoanthropologists studying the earliest evidence for human evolution. As with any dating
technique, there are some significant limitations.
 The technique works well for almost any igneous or volcanic rock, provided that the
rock gives no evidence of having gone through a heating-recrystallization process
after its initial formation. For this reason, only trained geologists should collect the
samples in the field. This technique is most useful to archaeologists and
paleoanthropologists when lava flows or volcanic tuffs form strata that overlie strata
bearing the evidence of human activity. Dates obtained with this method then
indicate that the archaeological materials cannot be younger than the tuff or lava
stratum. Because the materials dated using this method are NOT the direct result of
human activity, unlike radiocarbon dates for example, it is critical that the
association between the igneous/volcanic beds being dated and the strata containing
human evidence is very carefully established.
 As the simulation of the processing of potassium-argon samples showed, the
standard deviations for K-Argon dates are so large that resolution higher than about
a million years is almost impossible to achieve. By comparison, radiocarbon dates
seem almost as precise as a cesium clock! Potassium-argon dating is accurate from
4.3 billion years (the age of the Earth) to about 100,000 years before the present. At
100,000 years, only 0.0053% of the potassium-40 in a rock would have decayed to
argon-40, pushing the limits of present detection devices. Eventually, potassium-
argon dating may be able to provide dates as recent as 20,000 years before present.

Describe the Dating Methods in Archaeology and Challenges in Each Method

CHAPTER SEVEN

THE INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN ARCHAEOLOGY

In the previous lesson, we looked at dating methods used in archaeology. This is
important because there cannot be prove of cultural and biological evolution unless time is
controlled.
ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY
Archaeology is related to history because they both study the human past. The difference
between the two disciplines, however, lies in the methodology and techniques by which the past
is studied. While history relies on textual sources, oral tradition, linguistic evidence and
so on, archaeology deals with the physical remains of the past, which are recovered by means
of systematic archaeological excavations. Second, historians study records or oral traditions of
specific past events in order to compare them, judge their validity, place them in a
chronological sequence and interpret them in light of preceding contemporary or subsequent
events. The results of such detailed studies are sometimes used to develop generalizations or
descriptions of larger historical trends and processes.

Archaeologists on the other hand, study the way of life of a broad cross-section of ancient and
extinct peoples, including a full range of human activities as reflected in the recovered
archaeological remains. Archaeologists differ from historians because they are concerned
with aspects of the past that cannot be directly supplemented by historical sources. That is,
history deals with a relatively recent era of human development, a period less than 5000
years, while archaeology covers the entire span of human existence from its remote beginning
to the present. This implies that archaeological data are not historical data and consequently
archaeology is not history.

INTERDISCPLINARY APPROACH IN ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeologists deal with multiplicity of data when reconstructing past human culture. An
archaeologist is for example concerned with the natural background to prehistoric human
existence. They must therefore study such things as the long-term changes of climate in the
Pleistocene period, which produced various glaciations and the warm periods, which separated
them. These climatic events had a profound effect on the vegetation of the vast areas, on the
animal populations and on the relative distribution of land and sea over the whole earth. Such
matters naturally dictate what areas were available for human habitation, what were the
sources of food and hence what kind of life was to be lived; these things in turn are, of
course, reflected in the distribution and nature of human artifacts belonging to the period
concerned. All these matters are bound up very closely; and therefore, the archaeologists must
concern themselves with them all. In studying human past, they are merely one of a number
of specialists all working together, among the o t h e r s will b e geologists, physicists,
botanists, physical anthropologists, metallurgists, paleontologists, and many more. An
archaeologist would also rely on written sources to confirm certain things- historic archaeology.

Paleontology – it gives us evidence of fossilized and extinct animal bones. These may
include fish, turtle, crocodile, pigs, giraffes, hairs, birds, rodents, antelopes, and even hominids.
The presence of such
provides an archaeologist with voluminous information concerning the ecological conditions of
early hominids habitats. In addition, precise analysis of bones associated with artifacts can
sometimes tell us something about the diets and hunting capability of early hominids. This
has been done for some sites like Olduvai George in Tanzania and Koobi Fora in Kenya.
Geology- Geoarchaeology deals with sediments and human activity using methods and
concepts of earth sciences. It combines natural geomorphic processes as well as those caused
by human agents. Human populations carry organic and inorganic materials accidentally or
deliberately to their homes.

Geoarcheaology is involved with archaeological investigations from the very beginning and
is concerned not only with the formation of sites and with the changes they underwent during
occupation, but also with what happened to them after abandonment. In fact, it is not only
interested in the process of site formation but is the cornerstone to environmental reconstruction.
Geological sequences as represented by stratigraphic sequences help us to give relative ages
of beds where archaeological materials are found. Therefore, analysis of physical conditions of a
site may tell how they were formed, how long they may have been occupied and perhaps what
they contained if visual traces are gone.

Botany- Analysis of plant vestiges in the form of pollen grains, carbonized vegetable elements
may give information on prehistoric diet, climate, land use and chronology.

Physical anthropology- Examination of human skeletons recorded in archaeological sites is

the work of physical anthropologists. They normally attempt to reveal signs of diseases,
wounds or fractures that might have been the cause of death, ethnicity (Caucasoid or African and
so on), age, sex, and height, among other aspects. In general, this examination provides the
basis for racial classification in prehistory; bear witness to burial patterns and thus give evidence
of culture and worldview of the people studied.

 Can you state and explain other disciplines that can be used during
archaeological reconstruction?
 What is the relationship between history and archaeology?
 Explain the role of other disciplines in archaeological reconstruction

SAMPLE REVISION QUESTIONS

PRINCIPLES OF ARCHEOLOGY SUPPLEMENTARY

Instruction

1. Answer Question One and any other Two questions

2. Do not write on this Question Paper

Question One

Describe the contributions of the following in the field of archeology (30 Marks)

a. Gordon Childe

b. Sir Alexander Cunningham

c. Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia

d. Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler

e. Raymond Allchin and Bridget Allchin

f. David Leonard Clarke

Question Two

Assess the absolute dating methods used in archeology (20marks) Question

Three.

Discuss classification of archeological materials according to form/formation (20marks)

Question Four

Does archeology prove historicity of the Old Testament (20 Marks) Question

Five

Discuss Scientific archeology

1. a) Define the following concepts:

i) Archeology. (2mks)

ii) Archeological site (2mks)

iii) Artifacts 2mks

iv) Culture (1mks)

b) Outline five reasons for studying archeology. (5mks)

c) Analyze the central features of investigating an archeological site. (8mks)

d) Explain other disciplines that can be used during archeological reconstruction (10mks)

SECTION B

2. Critically examine how archeological sites are identified, discovered, surveyed,

excavated and data gathered from the field analyzed. (20mks).

3. a) Discuss the importance of dating in archeology. (10mks)

b) Discuss relative dating methods used in dating artifacts and features in archeology. ( 10mks)

4. Discuss racism and show how it has influenced the interpretation of archeology. (20mks)

5 .a) Mention any five characteristics of culture as used in archeology. (5mks)

b) Discuss the concept of culture in archeology.