Chapter.

1 Matrices and Systems of Equations

1.3 Matrix Arithmetic

1. Matrix Notation 8. A linear combination

2. Types of a matrices 9. Consistency Theorem for Linear Systems
3. Vectors 10. Matrix Multiplication
4. Scalar Multiplication 11. The Transpose of a Matrix
5. Matrix Addition 12. Application. 1: Production Costs
6. Matrix Subtraction 13. Assignment
7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear
Systems
(a). Case 1. One Equation in Several
Unknowns.
(b). Case 2. M Equations in N
Unknowns 1
 Matrix Arithmetic
In this section, we will introduce the standard notations used for matrices and
vectors and define arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, and multiplication)
with matrices.
We will also introduce two additional operations: scalar multiplication and
transposition. We will see how to represent linear systems as equations involving
matrices and vectors and then derive a theorem characterizing when a linear
system is consistent.
The entries of a matrix are called scalars. They are usually either real or complex
numbers. For the most part, we will be working with matrices whose entries are
real numbers. Throughout the first five chapters of the book, the reader may
assume that the term scalar refers to a real number. However, in Chapter 6 there
will be occasions when we will use the set of complex numbers as our scalar field.
2
 1. Matrix Notation
Definition of a matrix
A rectangular array of numbers is called a matrix.
➢The numbers are called the elements, or entries, of the matrix.
➢The plural of matrix is called matrices.
➢The horizontal lines are called rows while the vertical lines are called columns.

Or

3
 1. Matrix Notation
A matrix can be represented with capital letters A, B, C, etc.
It can be enclosed in “parentheses” or “square brackets”

A= A=

4
 1. Matrix Notation
Order of a matrix:
The number of rows and columns in a matrix is called an order of a matrix.

Order of A= 2 × 3, Order of B= 4 × 3,
Note: It means that there are Note: It means that there are
two rows and three columns four rows and three columns

5
 2. Types of matrices

1. Row Matrix 9. Scalar Matrix

2. Column Matrix 10. Identity (Unit) Matrix
3. Zero or Null Matrix 11. Singular Matrix
4. Singleton Matrix 12. Non-Singular Matrix
5. Horizontal Matrix 13. Equal Matrices
6. Vertical Matrix 14. Triangular Matrix
(a). Upper Triangular Matrix
7. Square Matrix
(b). Lower Triangular Matrix
8. Diagonal Matrix
6
 2. Types of matrices
1. Row Matrix
A matrix that has only one row is called a row matrix.
Examples:
A = aij
1×𝑛

B= 2 4, Order of B = 1 × 2

C= 3 4 5, Order of C = 1 × 3

D= 1 3 5 7 , Order of D = 1 × 4 7
 2. Types of matrices
2. Column Matrix
A matrix that has only one column is called a column matrix.
Example:

1
2
1
A = aij B= , C= 4 , D= 3
𝑚×1 2 5
6
9
Order of B = 2 × 1, Order of C = 3 × 1, Order of D= 4 × 1

8
 2. Types of matrices
3. Zero or Null Matrix
A matrix having all elements/entries zero is called a zero or null matrix. Denote by “O”.
Example:

9
 2. Types of matrices
4. Singleton Matrix
A Matrix that contains only one element is called Singleton Matrix.
Or, a Matrix that contains one row and one column is called Singleton Matrix.

A= 1, Order of A = 1 × 1,

B= 5 Order of B = 1 × 1,

C= 9 Order of C = 1 × 1,

Generally we can say, A= 𝑎𝑖𝑗

1×1

10
 2. Types of matrices
5. Horizontal Matrix
A matrix in which number of columns exceeded the number of rows is called horizontal matrix.
i.e. 𝑚 < 𝑛.
Example:
aij
𝑚×𝑛,∀ 𝑚<𝑛
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
P= 𝑎 Q = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24
21 𝑎22 𝑎23 2×3
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎34 3×4

11
 2. Types of matrices
6. Vertical Matrix
A matrix in which number of rows exceeded the number of columns a is called vertical matrix.
i.e. 𝑚 > 𝑛.
Example:

aij
𝑚×𝑛,∀ 𝑚>𝑛
𝑎11 𝑎12 2 4 6
R = 𝑎21 𝑎22 S= 1 3 5
𝑎31 𝑎32 3 9 8
3×2 5 7 3 4×3

12
 2. Types of matrices
7. Square Matrix
A matrix that has an equal number of rows and columns. i.e. 𝑚 = 𝑛.
Example:

aij
𝑚×𝑛,∀ 𝑚=𝑛

13
 2. Types of matrices
8. Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix whose all elements are zero except the main diagonal is called a diagonal
matrix.
Example:

14
 2. Types of matrices
9. Scalar Matrix
A square matrix having equal elements (other than 1) on the principal diagonal and all other
elements are zero is called a scalar matrix.
Example:

15
 2. Types of matrices
10. Identity (Unit) Matrix
A square matrix in which all the elements of principal diagonals are one, and all other elements
are zeros is called an identity matrix.
Example:

16
 2. Types of matrices
11. Singular Matrix
A square matrix whose determinant is zero is called singular matrix. i.e. A = 0.
Example:
Matrix A is a singular matrix because its determinant is equal to zero.

How to find determinants?

1 1
A=
2 2 Suppose we have a matrix A
𝑎1 𝑎2
A= 𝑏 𝑏
A = 1 2 − 1 2 =0 1 2
Determinant of A=> A =(𝑎1 )(𝑏2 )-(𝑎2 )(𝑏1 )

17
 2. Types of matrices
12. Non-Singular Matrix
A square matrix whose determinant is unequal to zero is called non-singular matrix. i.e. A ≠ 0.
Example:
Matrix B is a non-singular matrix because the determinant of B is unequal to zero.

3 5
B=
2 2

B = 3 2 − 5 2 = 6 − 10 = −4 ≠ 0

18
 2. Types of matrices
13. Equal Matrices
Two matrices A= 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , B= 𝑏𝑖𝑗 are said to be equal if;
𝑚×𝑛 𝑝×𝑞
i. An equal number of rows. i.e. m=p.
ii. An equal number of columns. i.e. n=q.
iii. The corresponding elements are equal. i.e. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 , for all i and j.

19
 2. Types of a matrices
13. Equal Matrices
Example:
If

The 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = −8

20
 2. Types of matrices
14. Triangular Matrix
A square matrix is said to be a triangular matrix if the elements above or below the principal
diagonal are zero. They have two types,
(a) Upper triangular: A square matrix whose elements below the principal diagonal are zero.
(b) Lower triangular: A square matrix whose elements above the principal diagonal are zero.
Example:

21
 3. Vectors
Background
Matrices that have only one row or one column are of special interest, since they are used to represent
solutions of linear systems. A solution of a system of 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛 unknowns is an 𝑛-tuple of
real numbers. We will refer to an 𝑛-tuple of real numbers as a vector. If an 𝑛-tuple is represented in terms
of a 1 × 𝑛 matrix, then we will refer to it as a row vector. Alternatively, if the 𝑛-tuple is represented by
an 𝑛 × 1 matrix, then we will refer to it as a column vector. For example, the solution of the linear
system
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 3
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 1
2
can be represented by the row vector (2, 1) or the column vector .
1
In working with matrix equations, it is generally more convenient to represent the solutions in terms of
column vectors (𝑛 × 1 matrices). The set of all 𝑛 × 1 matrices of real numbers is called Euclidean 𝑛-
space and is usually denoted by ℝ𝑛 . Since we will be working almost exclusively with column vectors in
the future, we will generally omit the word “column” and refer to the elements of ℝ𝑛 as simply vectors,
rather than as column vectors. The standard notation for a column vector is a boldface lowercase letter, as
in the next slide.
22
 3. Vectors
Background (Continued)
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝐱= ⋮
𝑥𝑛

For row vectors, there is no universal standard notation. In this book, we will represent both row
and column vectors with boldface lowercase letters and to distinguish a row vector from a
column vector we will place a horizontal arrow above the letter. Thus, the horizontal arrow
indicates a horizontal array (row vector) rather than a vertical array (column vector). For
example, the following are row and column vectors, respectively, with four entries each,
𝑦1
𝑦2
𝐱 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ) and y= 𝑦
3
𝑦4
23
 3. Vectors
Example:

24
 4. Scalar Multiplication
Background
If A is a matrix and ∝ is a scalar, then ∝ A is the matrix formed by multiplying each of the entries of A
by ∝.
Definition:
If A is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and ∝ is a scalar, then ∝ A is the 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix whose (𝑖, 𝑗) entry is ∝ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .
Example:
4 8 2
If A = ,
6 8 10
4 8 2
1 1 4 8 2 2 2 2 2 4 1 12 24 6
then A = = 6 8 10 = Similarly, 3A = .
2 2 6 8 10 3 4 5 18 24 30
2 2 2
1
Here and 3 are scalers.
2
25
 5. Matrix Addition
Background
Two matrices with the same dimensions/order can be added by adding their corresponding entries.
Definition:
If A = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) and b = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) are both 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices, then the sum A +B is the 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix whose (𝑖, 𝑗)
entry is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for each ordered pair (𝑖, 𝑗).
Example:

3 2 1 2 2 2
If A = and B = , as we see that the dimension of matrix A2×3 and B2×3 are equal.
4 5 6 1 2 3

3+2 2+2 1+2 5 4 3

The, A + B = =
4+1 5+2 6+3 5 7 9
26
 6. Matrix Subtraction
Background
Two matrices with the same dimensions/order can be subtracted from each other by subtracting their
corresponding entries.
Definition:
If A = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) and b = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) are both 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices, then the A −B is the 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix whose (𝑖, 𝑗) entry
is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for each ordered pair (𝑖, 𝑗).
Example:

3 2 1 2 2 2
If A = and B = , as we see that the dimension of matrix A2×3 and B2×3 are equal.
4 5 6 1 2 3

3 2 1 2 2 2 3−2 2−2 1−2 1 0 −1

The, A − B = − = =
4 5 6 1 2 3 4−1 5−2 6−3 3 3 3 27
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
Background
We have yet to define the most important operation: the multiplication of two matrices. Much of the
motivation behind the definition comes from the applications to linear systems of equations. If we have a
system of one linear equation in one unknown, it can be written in the form
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 (1)
We generally think of 𝑎, 𝑥 and 𝑏 as being scalars; however, they could also be treated as 1 × 1 matrices.
Our goal now is to generalize the above equation (1) so that we can represent an 𝑚 × 𝑛 linear system by
a single matrix equation of the form
A𝐱 = 𝐛
where A is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, 𝐱 is an unknown vector in ℝ𝑛 , and 𝐛 is in ℝ𝑚 . We consider first the case of
one equation in several unknowns.

28
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
(a). Case 1. One Equation in Several Unknowns.

29
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
(a). Case 1. One Equation in Several Unknowns.

30
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
(a). Case 1. One Equation in Several Unknowns.
Example:

If

31
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
(b). Case 2. M Equations in N Unknowns

32
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
(b). Case 2. M Equations in N Unknowns

33
 7. Matrix Multiplication and Linear Systems
(b). Case 2. M Equations in N Unknowns

34
 8. A linear combination
Definition

If 𝒂1 , 𝒂2 , … , 𝒂𝑛 are vectors in ℝ𝑚 and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are scalars, then a sum of

𝑐1 𝒂1 + 𝑐2 𝒂2 , + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝒂𝑛
is said to be a linear combination of the vectors 𝒂1 , 𝒂2 , … , 𝒂𝑛 .

35
 8. A linear combination
Example:

Linear combination

36
 8. A linear combination
Example: (continued)

Thus, the vector is a linear combination of the three column vectors of the coefficient
matrix. It follows that this linear system is consistent and
𝐱 = (2,3,4) is the solution of the system.

37
9. Consistency Theorem for Linear Systems

38
 9. Consistency Theorem for Linear Systems

Example:

39
 10. Matrix Multiplication
Definition
If A = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and B = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) is an 𝑛 × 𝑟 matrix, then the product
AB = C = (𝑐𝑖𝑗 ) is the 𝑚 × 𝑟 matrix whose entries are defined by

𝑛 Example:
𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝒂𝑖 𝒃𝑗 = ෍ 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗
𝑘=1
Note:
AB is possible if,
Number of columns of A=
Number of rows of B
Or, A: 𝑖×𝑘
40
B: 𝑘×𝑗
 10. Matrix Multiplication
Example:

∴ 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

41
 10. Matrix Multiplication
Example:

(i) AB=

(ii) CD=

42
 10. Matrix Multiplication
Example:

∴ 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
∴ 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

43
 11. The Transpose of a Matrix
Definition
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its rows into columns or columns into rows.

Or

The transpose of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is the 𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix 𝐵 defined by

𝑏𝑗𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗
for 𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑛 and 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑚. The transpose of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴𝑇 .

44
 11. The Transpose of a Matrix
Examples:

45
12. Application. 1: Production Costs
Question

46
 12. Application. 1: Production Costs
Solution

47
 12. Application. 1: Production Costs
Solution

48
 12. Application. 1: Production Costs
Solution

49
 13. Assignment
Practice the following

Application.2-Page.54
Application.3-Page.57

50