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Memory As An Active Process

The document is an examination paper focused on the topic of memory, consisting of various questions related to memory theories, experiments, and evaluations. It includes multiple-choice questions, descriptive tasks, and evaluation prompts, covering concepts such as reconstructive memory, false memories, and the effects of context and interference on memory recall. The paper is structured to assess students' understanding of memory processes and their ability to apply psychological theories to real-life scenarios.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

62 views43 pages

Memory As An Active Process

Uploaded by

quetzalliboother

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as RTF, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

_______________________

Name:
_
memory as an active
process _______________________
Class:
_

_______________________
Date:
_

Time: 129 minutes

Marks: 129 marks

Comments:

Page 1 of 43
Q1.
Which of the following is the correct definition of a ‘false memory’?

Shade one box.

A A feeling that we have experienced something similar

before
B A memory for something that didn’t happen but feels
true
C Not being able to remember the correct answer to a
question
D The confusion between two similar memories

(Total 1 mark)

Q2.
A researcher wanted to investigate the effect of context on the accuracy of memory.

Describe how she could design a laboratory experiment to do this.

You need to include the following information in your answer:

• a task that she could ask participants to carry out and a description of the data she
would collect
• what the conditions of the independent variable would be
• one extraneous variable that could affect the results and how the researcher could
control this variable.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 2 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q3.
Describe the method used by Bartlett in his ‘War of the Ghosts’ study.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q4.
Which two of the following statements about the reconstructive theory of memory are
correct?

Shade two boxes.

A Cultural and social expectations will not affect recall.

B Information flows through sensory, short-term and long-term

memory.
C Memory involves effort after meaning.

D Memory is like a video recording.

E The way we store and recall information is an active process.

(Total 2 marks)

Page 3 of 43
Q5.
Look at the following statements about memory.

Memory is influenced by our own beliefs.

We cannot hold information in short term

memory unless we can rehearse it.

From the following list of terms, choose the one that matches each statement about
memory and write either A, B or C in the box next to it. Use any letter only once.

A Multi-store
B Levels of processing
C Reconstructive
(Total 2 marks)

Q6.
(a) Describe one study in which the constructive explanation of memory was
investigated. Include in your answer the method used, the results obtained and the
conclusion drawn.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

(b) Evaluate the study that you have described in your answer to part (a).

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

Page 4 of 43
Q7.
The following table contains two explanations of memory.

Information passes through three stores,

each of which has different characteristics.

Memory is an active process. We use existing

knowledge to understand new information.

Tick the box which describes the constructive explanation of memory.

(Total 1 mark)

Q8.
(a) Describe one study in which reconstructive memory was investigated. Include in
your answer the reason why the study was conducted, the method used, the results
obtained and the conclusion drawn.

Reason ____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Method ____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Results ____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Conclusion _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

(b) Evaluate the study that you have described in your answer to part (a).

___________________________________________________________________

Page 5 of 43
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

Q9.
Read the following article.

The Exam System is Unfair!

(says an upset mum)
A mother, defending her daughter’s poor GCSE results, has attacked
the examination system. ‘It is not fair,' she told our reporter. ‘She
spends hours in her bedroom revising and when I test her there, she
knows all the answers. As soon as she gets into the exam room, she
seems to forget everything.'

Explain how the ability to recall information might be affected by context. Refer to the
article in your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q10.
Read the following conversation between Nicola and her teacher.

Teacher: “Why did you not learn your French vocabulary last night,
Nicola?”

Nicola: “I did, Sir, but right after I did that, I had to do my German
homework and then I forgot all the French I had learned.”

Explain how the ability to recall information might be affected by interference.

Refer to the conversation in your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 6 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Q11.
Describe and evaluate one study in which the reconstructive explanation of memory was
investigated.

Include in your answer the method used, the results obtained and the conclusion drawn.
Evaluate the study you have described.
(Answer in continuous prose.)

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q12.
Two students described how they prepared for History examinations. This is what they
said to each other:

Peter: “I keep repeating information over and over. I hope that if I do this enough
times, the information will get into my long-term memory and stay there.”

Bart: “I prefer trying to put myself into the scene. I imagine myself being there
at the time the events happened.”

There are three explanations of memory (multi-store, levels of processing and

reconstructive). Identify the explanation that matches each student’s description.
Refer to the conversation to support each part of your answer.

Page 7 of 43
Peter: _________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Bart: __________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q13.
The following conversation took place between two friends.

Izzy: “I went upstairs to get something this morning and when I got there, I
forgot what I wanted. I came back down and then I remembered. Has
that ever happened to you?”

Liz: “Yes it has. My psychology teacher says that a change of context can
cause you to forget like that.”

Design an experiment to investigate whether or not a change of context can cause people
to forget. Use your knowledge of psychology to describe what you would do to carry out
your experiment, the way you would measure how much people forget, and the results
you would expect to find in your experiment.
(Answer in continuous prose.)

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 8 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q14.
Briefly discuss two criticisms of research into factors that affect the accuracy of memory.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q15.
James finds that rehearsing information over and over helps him to recall it later.
Which explanation of memory supports this idea?
Tick (✓) the correct box.

Levels of Processing

Multi-store

Reconstructive

(Total 1 mark)

Q16.
Read the following information.

A police officer is reading the statements of two eyewitnesses. Both

statements describe the same robbery committed by one person in
a local shop.
The first eyewitness described the robber as being a male, in his
late teens, wearing a red hoodie and not carrying a weapon.
The second eyewitness described the robber as being a male with
a facial scar, in his late-twenties, wearing a red T-shirt and carrying
a knife.

Page 9 of 43
Use your knowledge of the theory of reconstructive memory to explain why each
eyewitness gave different descriptions of the same robber.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q17.
Tim came home from school and said to his Mum:

‘In our lesson today, the teacher read out a story called the War of the Ghosts. Then we all
had to write down what we could remember of the story. It was very difficult. I wrote that
the two boys went fishing in a fishing boat, but really one of them went to a battle in a
canoe!!’

Discuss what Bartlett’s theory and research into reconstructive memory and at least one
theory of language and thought tell us about the possible relationship between language
and thought. Refer to Tim’s conversation with his mother as part of your answer.
(Total 9 marks)

Q18.
(a) Identify one factor that has been shown to affect the accuracy of memory.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Use your knowledge of psychology to describe how the factor you have identified in
part (a) affects the accuracy of memory.

___________________________________________________________________

Page 10 of 43
(3)
(Total 4 marks)

Q19.
Seema is moving house. She is filling in an application form for a course and is struggling
to accurately remember her new address.

Identify and explain two factors that might have affected the accuracy of Seema’s
memory.

Benefit 1 _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Benefit 2 _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q20.
Research into memory often uses laboratory experiments.

Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using laboratory experiments to

investigate factors affecting memory.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q21.
Describe the theory of reconstructive memory.

Page 11 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q22.
What is a false memory?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 1 mark)

Q23.
Evaluate the theory of reconstructive memory.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 12 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 5 marks)

Q24.
Read the following information.

Samir is in his bedroom packing a suitcase to go on holiday to Spain. He

realises he has not packed his toothpaste. He goes to the bathroom but when
he gets there, he forgets what he needs.

Explain how context can affect the accuracy of memory. Refer to Samir’s experience in
your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q25.
Read the following information.

At home, Samir drives on the left hand side of the road. Samir hires a car in
Spain where people drive on the right hand side of the road. He finds he keeps
driving towards the left hand side of the road instead of staying on the right.

Use your knowledge of interference to explain Samir’s behaviour.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 13 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q26.
You have been asked to investigate the effect of context on the accuracy of memory.

Describe how you would design an experiment to do this.

You need to include the following information in your answer:

• what you would ask participants to do and what data you would collect
• one extraneous variable that could affect your results and how you could control it
• the results you would expect to find from your experiment.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q27.
Explain one weakness of the reconstructive theory of memory.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 14 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Q28.
Describe Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q29.
Oscar is learning both French and Spanish at school. Sometimes he gets confused and
uses French words when he is speaking Spanish.

Which of the following factors best explains the problem Oscar is experiencing?

Shade one box.

A Context

B False memory

C Interference

D Serial position

(Total 1 mark)

Q30.
Bartlett investigated the idea that memory is an active process. He gave each participant
a Native American Indian story called ‘War of the Ghosts’. He then asked each participant
to retell this story several times. He found that participants changed parts of the story
when they retold it.

Page 15 of 43
Evaluate Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 5 marks)

Q31.
Read the following information.

Dan and his Uncle Bill are chatting about the day Dan was born.

Dan: “Uncle Bill, what day of the week was I born on?”

Uncle Bill: “I think you were born on a Tuesday. Or maybe it was

your older sister who was born on a Tuesday. I get mixed up.”

Use your knowledge of interference to explain why Uncle Bill cannot accurately remember
what day of the week Dan was born on.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 16 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Q32.
You have been asked to investigate the effect of interference on the accuracy of memory.

Describe how you would design an experiment to do this.

You need to include:

• what participants would be asked to do

• a suitable hypothesis for your experiment
• the results that you expect to find.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q33.
Briefly evaluate the reconstructive theory of memory.

_______________________________________________________________________

Page 17 of 43
_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Page 18 of 43
Mark schemes

Q1.

[AO1 = 1 mark]

Answer – B (A memory for something that didn’t happen but feels true)
[1]

Q2.

[AO2 = 6 marks]

Up to 2 marks for a description of an appropriate task and a description of the data that
would be collected.

2 marks for a clear and accurate description.

1 mark for a limited or muddled description.

PLUS

Up to 2 marks for an outline of the conditions of the independent variable.

2 marks: a clear and accurate outline with both conditions of the independent variable.
1 mark: a limited or muddled outline.

Example

• Whether the students recalled the words in the same or different environment to
where the learning took place. (2 marks)
• Environment. (1 mark)

NOTE: To be considered clear and accurate, reference must be made to more than one
condition of the independent variable.

PLUS

Up to 2 marks for a description of one relevant extraneous variable and how the
researcher could control this variable.

2 marks for a clear and accurate description.

1 mark for a limited or muddled description.

Credit other relevant content.

NOTE: If the candidate has written about more than one extraneous variable, award
marks to the one that is clearest and most effective.
[6]

Q3.

[AO1 = 3 marks]

Page 19 of 43
Up to 3 marks for a description of Bartlett’s method.

3 marks: a clear and detailed description.

2 marks: a limited description.
1 mark: a very limited/muddled description.

Possible content

• British participants were asked to read/listen to a Native American story called the
‘War of the Ghosts’.
• Bartlett then used different techniques to measure the accuracy of recall.
• In one method, participants were asked to retell the story to another person. This
person then retold the story to another person, and so on.
• Bartlett made a record of the version of the story that each person told.
• In another method, participants were asked to recall the story after a 15-minute
delay. They were then asked to recall the story again on several occasions over
different time periods.
• Bartlett made a record of the version that was told each time.

Credit other relevant content.

NOTE: To be considered clear and detailed, reference to a record being made of each
version of the story after each retelling must be made.
[3]

Q4.
[AO1 = 2]

C (Memory involves effort after meaning)

E (The way we store and recall information is an active process)
[2]

Q5.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 2]

Memory is influenced by our own beliefs. C

We cannot hold information in short term

A
memory unless we can rehearse it.
[2]

Q6.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

(a) [AO1 = 4]

Any relevant study can be awarded credit but it is expected that candidates

Page 20 of 43
will describe Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study. Bartlett read a Native
American folk story to native Americans and white Americans. It contained
ideas that the white Americans were unfamiliar with. Participants were then
asked to recall the story. The results showed that the white Americans altered
the details of the story. Bartlett therefore concluded that these participants
made ‘effort after meaning’.

4 – 3 marks The study is clearly recognisable and the

description contains all three elements required
by the question. At the top end the description is
detailed.

2 – 1 marks The outline of a recognisable study is given but it

does not contain all the elements required by the
question or the description is muddled.
4

(b) [AO2 = 3]

Evaluative comments can be positive and/or negative. For example:

Bartlett’s study supports his theory (1 mark) that schemas affect recall (1
mark). This can be applied to real life events e.g. eye-witness testimony (1
mark).

3 marks Evaluative comment is clearly explained.

2 – 1 marks Evaluation is brief but accurate at the top end. At

the bottom end evaluative comment is merely
identified or explanation is muddled.

Credit can be awarded for (b) if the evaluation is relevant to the study
described in (a) even if that study is not related to the constructive explanation
of memory.
3
[7]

Q7.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1]

Information passes through three stores,

each of which has different characteristics.

Memory is an active process. We use existing

✓
knowledge to understand new information.
[1]

Q8.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and

Page 21 of 43
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

(a) [AO1 = 4]

Any relevant study can receive credit, the most likely being Bartlett.

Possible answer: Bartlett wanted to see if people, when given something unfamiliar
to remember, would alter the information. Participants read a story called ‘The War
of the Ghosts’.Later they were asked to re-tell the story as accurately as possible.
Bartlett found that his participants found it difficult to remember parts of the story
and changed other parts so that it made more sense to them. Bartlett concluded that
our memory is influenced by our own beliefs.

Also allow Loftus & Allport.

4 marks: A clear description of a relevant study containing all four required

elements.
3 marks: A reasonable description of a recognisable study containing all four
elements or a description with one element missing.
2 marks: A description of a recognisable study that is either very brief/inaccurate
or has more than one element missing.
1 mark: A muddled description of a study with some relevance.
4

(b) [AO3 = 3]

If part (a) is blank, award no marks.

Evaluation marks can be earned in several ways: Candidates could state three
criticisms about the study described in part (a) (positive and/or negative) or they
could focus on one or two criticisms with appropriate elaboration.

Possible answer: The reconstructive explanation is important because it emphasises

the influence of people’s previous knowledge when they remember things (1 mark).
However, the study has been criticised because it is difficult to measure the
accuracy of the stories told (1 mark) and ‘War of the Ghosts’ is a confusing story (1
mark).

Credit may be given for appropriate evaluation of a study of memory described in

part (a).

“Artificial as it is a lab experiment” – maximum 1 mark.

3
[7]

Q9.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 3]

AO2 marks for application of knowledge to the situation described in the article.

Possible answer: Information is more likely to be forgotten (1 mark) when the place of
recall does not match the place of learning (1 mark). In the article the mother has said that

Page 22 of 43
her daughter forgets information when she is in the exam room but knows it in her
bedroom. (1 mark).
[3]

Q10.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 2 AO2 = 1]

AO1: Up to 2 marks can be earned for a clear explanation of how interference can affect
recall.

Possible points:
New things that we learn can hinder/worsen/impair our ability to recall information that we
have learned before (2 marks).
Note: For affect, interfere, forget (max 1 for AO1).
New information gets in the way of old information (1 mark).
Interference causes confusion in recall (1 mark).
Reference to retroactive interference (1 mark).
Interference is caused by having no break (1 mark).
Having a break would reduce/prevent interference (1 mark).
Do not accept ‘recency effect’.

AO2: 1 mark for appropriate reference to the article:

Possible reference: Immediately after doing her French homework, Nicola did her German
homework and that interfered with her ability to recall French vocabulary (1 mark).
Nicola’s German homework hindered her recall of French (1 mark).
[3]

Q11.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 3 AO3 = 3]

The most likely study will be Bartlett.

AO1: up to 3 marks for a clear description of a correct study.

Possible points of description: A method in which participants are required to reconstruct
information they have received. Results which indicate how the information was changed
during recall. A valid conclusion.

3 marks: A clear description of a relevant study containing all three required elements.
2 marks: A reasonable description of a recognisable study although one element may
be missing.
1 mark: A description of a recognisable study that either has more than one element
missing or is muddled.

AO3: up to 3 marks for appropriate evaluation.

Evaluation marks can be earned in several ways: Candidates could state three evaluation

Page 23 of 43
points (positive and/or negative) or they could focus on one or two evaluation points with
appropriate elaboration. The evaluation should clearly relate to the study described.
Possible evaluative points: The artificiality of the experimental situation. The specific focus
of the task that could lead to demand characteristics. Difficulties involved in analysing data
in this type of task. Possible sampling issues. Usefulness of knowledge gained.
Other appropriate evaluation points will receive credit.
NOTE: An explicit reference to the study that is described must be included in the
evaluation for more than one AO3 mark. A list of generic evaluations should receive a
maximum of 1 AO3 mark.

Marks awarded for this answer will be determined by the quality of written communication.

6 or 5 marks For 6 marks, there is a clear description and evaluation

of a relevant study reflecting the detail of the possible
points in the mark scheme.
For 5 marks, both description and evaluation are
present but one of these features is slightly lacking in
detail.
The answer is well-structured with effective use of
sentences and/or paragraphs. There are few spelling
and punctuation errors.

4 or 3 marks For 4 marks, both description and evaluation of a

relevant study have been attempted but lack some
details of the possible points in the mark scheme.
For 3 marks, either clear description or clear
evaluation is present that reflects the detail of the
possible points in the mark scheme, or there is a brief
description and/or evaluation of a relevant study.
The answer has some structure with appropriate use of
sentences. There are some spelling and punctuation
errors.

2 or 1 mark For 2 marks, there are fewer than 3 descriptive and/or

evaluative points relating to a relevant study.
For 1 mark the answer is muddled.
There is little evidence of structure in terms of
correct use of sentences.
There are frequent spelling and punctuation errors.

0 marks No relevant content

[6]

Q12.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 4]

AO2: One mark for each stated explanation and one mark for each appropriate reference
to conversation.

Creditworthy points:
Peter: the multi-store model explains his comment (1 mark) as he says he 'repeats info

Page 24 of 43
over and over' and this explanation states that information moves from STM to LTM by
rehearsal/repeating. (1 mark)
Bart: the reconstructive explanation explains his comment (1 mark). Reference to putting
information into the relevant context (1 mark).

Correct identification (1 mark)

Incorrect identification no marks regardless of explanation

NOTE: If there is no identification of an explanation, credit can still be given for a correct
reference to the conversation.
[4]

Q13.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO2 = 6]

Answers will most likely be based on the work of Godden & Baddeley.

AO2: Up to 3 marks for a description of how the experiment would be carried out.
3 marks: A clear and plausible description of method that contains two or more
conditions, including an appropriate and clearly stated task.
2 marks: A limited description that contains two or more conditions, including a task.
1 mark: A muddled description of condition(s) and / or a task.

AO2: Up to 3 marks for description of appropriate results in line with known

psychological research.
3 marks: A clear description of appropriate results that contains two or more conditions
and a comparison made between them and an indication of what would be measured.
2 marks: A limited description of appropriate results that contains at least one condition
and an indication of what would be measured.
1 mark: A muddled description of appropriate results.

Marks awarded for this answer will be determined by the quality of written communication.

6 or 5 marks There is a clear or reasonable description of both

elements, reflecting the detail of the mark scheme. The
answer is well-structured with effective use of
sentences and / or paragraphs. There are few spelling
and punctuation errors.

4 or 3 marks There is a description of both elements but lacking in

some detail or clarity or the answer is detailed but only
focuses on one element. The answer has some
structure with appropriate use of sentences. There are
some spelling and punctuation errors.

2 or 1 mark The answer is muddled or there is a limited answer for

one element. There is little evidence of structure in
terms of correct use of sentences. There are frequent
spelling and punctuation errors.

0 marks No relevant content

Page 25 of 43
[6]

Q14.
[AO3 = 4]

Level Marks Description

AO3: Relevant discussion of two criticisms of research

2 into factors that affect the accuracy of memory is
3–4 accurate with detail. Although minor detail and/or
Clear elaboration might be lacking, the material selected is
sufficient.
AO3: Relevant discussion of criticism(s) of research
1
into factors that affect the accuracy of memory is
1–2
Basic present, or one criticism is outlined well. There may be
inaccuracies/omissions.
0 No relevant content

Indicative content:

Much of the research (into interference and context for example) involves learning word
lists or similar information under laboratory conditions. This is not what people usually
have to do in everyday life. Therefore the results might lack ecological validity.

Research (into false memory for example) often involves deception, as participants are
not aware that researchers are planting false memories, for example through asking
leading questions. This raises ethical concerns.

Accept other relevant criticisms of research.

[4]

Q15.
This mark scheme is from a question paper that assessed a previous specification and
has not been edited. Click [here] to access a document explaining the differences that
might apply to it.

[AO1 = 1]

Levels of Processing

Multi-store ✓

Reconstructive
[1]

Q16.
[AO1 = 3 AO2 = 3]

Level Marks Description

3 5-6 AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of the

Page 26 of 43
theory of reconstructive memory is accurate with detail.
AO2: Clear application of knowledge and
understanding of reconstructive memory to explain why
each eyewitness gave different descriptions of the
Detailed
same robber.
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning, and is clear, coherent and focused.

AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of the

theory of reconstructive memory is present but there
are occasional inaccuracies/omissions.
AO2: Reasonable application of knowledge and
2 understanding of reconstructive memory to explain why
3-4 each eyewitness gave different descriptions of the
Clear same robber.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

AO1: Knowledge and understanding of the theory of

reconstructive memory is present but limited.
AO2: Limited application of knowledge and
understanding of reconstructive memory to explain why
1 each eyewitness gave different descriptions of the
1-2
Basic same robber.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

0 0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

AO1
• Memory is not like a video recording. This means that memories may not be an
accurate version of events.
• Memory is an active process in which we try to make sense of events and
information using our previous knowledge and experience (effort after meaning).
• We can alter our memories so that they fit in with our social and cultural
expectations/schemas.
• The way we store and recall information can be influenced by stereotypes.

AO2
• The two eyewitnesses gave different descriptions of the same robber because they
made sense of the events they saw in different ways.
• Their own experiences and expectations such as what they have heard in the news
or seen in films will shape how they remember the robber.
• One eyewitness may have expected robbers to carry a weapon which explains why
they remember him as carrying a knife.
• The other eyewitness may have a stereotype that people who commit crimes often

Page 27 of 43
wear hoodies which explains why they remember him as wearing a hoodie.

Accept other relevant content.

[6]

Q17.
[AO1 = 3 AO2 = 3 AO3 = 3]

Level Marks Description

AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of

Bartlett’s theory and research into reconstructive
memory and of theory(ies) of language and thought is
accurate with detail.
AO2: Clear application of knowledge and
understanding of Bartlett’s theory and research and of
3 theory(ies) of language and thought to Tim’s
7–9 comments.
Detailed
AO3: Analysis and discussion of Bartlett’s work and the
possible relationship to language and thought is
effective. Conclusions drawn are sound and fully
expressed.
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning, is clear, coherent and focused.
AO1: Relevant knowledge and understanding of
Bartlett’s theory and/or research into reconstructive
memory and of theory(ies) of language and thought is
present but there are occasional
inaccuracies/omissions.
AO2: There is reasonable application of knowledge
and understanding of Bartlett’s theory and/or research
and of theory(ies) of language and thought to Tim’s
2 comments.
4–6 AO3: There may be some effective analysis and
Clear discussion of Bartlett’s work and a possible relationship
with language and thought. There may be an attempt
to draw conclusions.
Up to 6 marks may be awarded if the answer only
focuses on any two of AO1/AO2/ AO3 skills.
Relevant terminology is usually used. The answer
frequently demonstrates substantiated reasoning, and
is clear, generally coherent and focused although
structure may lack some logic.
1 1–3 AO1: Knowledge and understanding of Bartlett’s work
and/or of theory(ies) of language and thought is
Basic present but limited. There may only be description of a
study.
AO2: Application of knowledge and understanding of
Bartlett’s theory and/or research and/or of theory(ies)
of language and thought to Tim’s comments is limited.

Page 28 of 43
AO3: Analysis and discussion of Bartlett’s work and
possible relationship with language and thought is of
limited effectiveness or may be absent. Any attempts to
draw conclusions are not always successful or present.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.
OR
AO1: Award up to 3 marks for an answer that only
describes relevant theory and/or research.
AO2: Award up to 3 marks for an answer that focuses
only on application skills.
AO3: Award up to 3 marks for an answer that only
attempts to analyse the possible relationship to
language and thought and draws conclusions based on
the work of Bartlett and theory(ies) of language and
thought.
0 No relevant content

Examiners are reminded that AO1, AO2 and AO3 are regarded as interdependent. When
deciding on a mark in instances where there is an attempt at more than one assessment
objective all attempts should be considered together using the best fit approach. In doing
so, examiners should bear in mind the relative weightings of the assessment objectives.

When an answer only contains content related to one of the skills (AO1/AO2/AO3), then
the levels descriptors for the award of marks for the skill attempted should be applied to
the answer, up to the maximum mark available.

Indicative content:

AO1 Knowledge

• Bartlett proposed that human memory is not a literal reproduction of the past, but
instead relies on constructive processes that are sometimes prone to error and
distortion so we change our memories to fit in with what we already know even
though we believe we are thinking accurately.
• Evidence of the War of the Ghost study, including detail of how the story was
passed on and the changes that were noted in different groups.
• There are different theories about the relationship between language and thought –
thinking affects language is the view of Piaget.
• Evidence for Piaget’s view from developmental studies.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is that language determines the structure of thought
processes.
• Evidence for Sapir-Whorf view from cross-cultural studies.

AO2 Application

• The unfamiliar language structures used in War of the Ghosts may have caused
participants to recall the story inaccurately: this might be why Tim did state he found
the task very difficult to do.
• The story was retold/recalled in a way that made sense using existing schemas.
This might be why Tim suggested fishing rather than a battle as the event, or the
boats rather than canoes.

Page 29 of 43
AO3 Analysis and discussion

• Evidence from the Bartlett study might suggest that thinking depends on language.
• The results of the study suggest that only when people changes the words or
actions in the story – i.e. changed the language, could they then think about what
happened and recall anything coherent.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that the relationship between language and thought is
one in which language determines thinking is supported by the Bartlett study results.
• There is virtually no evidence to support Piaget’s view.
• The research of Bartlett and cross-cultural studies have tasks that are more socially
relevant to the way we use memory in everyday life and makes any analysis of the
relationship between language and thought based on this research more sound.
• However, some research has been criticised because it is difficult to accurately
measure participants’ responses; for example, the scoring method for Bartlett’s War
of the Ghosts study may not be reliable.
• The use of an unfamiliar style of story rather than the language used may have
been the reason why language seemed to affect thinking.
• There are contradictory findings from different studies. For example, research has
found that memories for distinctive events can be relatively resistant to change.
• Vygotsky’s view that language and thought develop independently.
[9]

Q18.
(a) [AO1 = 1]

Interference, context, false memory.

Accept other relevant factors.

(b) [AO1 = 3]

Up to 3 marks for a description of how the chosen factor affects memory.

3 marks: a clear and accurate description

2 marks: a clear description, minor inaccuracy may be present
1 mark: a muddled attempt at a description

Interference – for example: new learning will cause people to recall

Context – for example: recall of information will be improved if it occurs in the same
context that learning takes place. When the recall context is different from the
learning context, recall will be less accurate.

False memory – for example: people either remember things that didn't happen
often because these things have been implanted or remember them differently from
the way they really were making the recall less accurate in both cases.

Accept other relevant information such as use of relevant research or examples to

illustrate the effect of the chosen factor.
3
[4]

Q19.
[AO1 = 2 AO2 = 2]

Page 30 of 43
AO1

1 mark for identifying each relevant factor.

• Interference
• Context

PLUS

AO2

1 mark: for each clear explanation

Possible content

Interference

• Seema is experiencing interference because her old address and new address are
different.
• Seema’s old memory of her address is confused with her new learning of her new
address. This makes it hard for Seema to remember her current address.

Context

• Seema may have learned her new address in a different context to where she is
trying to recall her new address

Credit other relevant content.

[4]

Q20.
[AO3 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Analysis and evaluation of one advantage and one

disadvantage of using laboratory experiments to
investigate memory is effective. Any conclusions drawn
2
3-4 are sound and fully expressed.
Clear
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning and is clear, coherent and focused.

1 1-2 Analysis and evaluation of one advantage and one

disadvantage of using laboratory experiments to
Basic investigate memory is of limited effectiveness or
muddled. Any attempts to draw conclusions are not
always successful.
OR
Analysis and evaluation of one advantage OR one
disadvantage of using laboratory experiments to
investigate memory is effective. Any conclusions drawn
are sound and fully expressed.

Page 31 of 43
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

0 No relevant content

Possible content:

• One advantage of using laboratory experiments to investigate memory is that the

experimenter has a high level of control over variables such as extraneous
variables. This means they are able to identify the effect of the independent variable
on the dependent variable. For example, they can establish that the position of an
item in a list affects the likelihood of it being remembered.
• Another advantage is that laboratory experiments looking at memory normally use
standardised procedures. This means that other researchers can replicate memory
research. If the results are the same this increases the reliability of research into
memory.
• One disadvantage is that memory research often involves learning lists of words or
other artificial tasks. This is not similar to how we use our memory in normal
situations which limits the ecological validity of research into memory.
• Another disadvantage of using laboratory experiments to investigate memory, is that
a laboratory setting is not very similar to the environments in which we usually
memorise information. This means participants may not behave as they normally
would when memorising. This limits the ecological validity of research into memory.

Credit other relevant content.

[4]

Q21.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Relevant knowledge and understanding of the theory

2 of reconstructive memory is accurate with detail.
3-4
Clear Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer is clear, coherent and focused.

Relevant knowledge and understanding of the theory

1 of reconstructive memory is present but limited.
1-2
Basic Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical structure.

0 No relevant content

Indicative content:

• We change our memories to fit with what we already know

• We may think we are remembering what happened, but it is reconstructed (active
process)
• Bartlett stated that when we are trying to recall information we may fill in the small
gaps with details that make sense and ‘fit in’ with the rest of the information
• The overall meaning of an event is remembered

Page 32 of 43
• Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts’ study supports reconstructive memory as an active
process

Credit other relevant content.

[4]

Q22.
[AO1 = 1]

1 mark for a correct definition

Example: a memory of an event that has not actually happened.

Credit other relevant definitions.

[1]

Q23.
[AO3 = 5]

Level Marks Description

Evaluation of the theory of reconstructive memory is

effective. Any conclusions drawn are sound and fully
3 expressed.
4-5
Detailed Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning and is clear, coherent and focused.

There is some effective evaluation of the theory of

reconstructive memory. Any conclusions drawn may
not be fully expressed.
2
2-3 Relevant terminology is used. The answer frequently
Clear
demonstrates substantiated reasoning, is clear,
generally coherent and focused although structure may
lack some logic.

Evaluation of the theory of reconstructive memory is of

1 limited effectiveness.
1
Basic Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
lacks clarity, coherence, focus and logical structure.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

AO3

• There is research evidence to support the idea that people add effort after meaning
when recalling events. For example, in Bartlett’s ‘War of the ghosts’ study,
participants changed parts of the story when they retold it, showing that memories
are reconstructed.
• Not all memories are reconstructed. Research evidence shows that important
personal events such as our first day at school, are often accurately remembered.

Page 33 of 43
• It helps us understand why two different people, such as eyewitnesses, can give
very different versions of the same events. Both have reconstructed the events in
different ways.
• The theory is based on evidence that has higher ecological validity than memory
research in which participants have to learn word lists. This is because retelling a
story is a more familiar use of memory than learning word lists in everyday life.
• The theory is still very popular despite being developed in the early 1900s.

Credit other relevant evaluations.

Note: Evaluation of the war of the ghosts study alone, without reference to how that
impacts on the theory, can get a maximum of 1 mark.
[5]

Q24.
[AO1 = 2 AO2 = 2]

Level Marks Description

AO1: Description of how context can affect the

accuracy of memory is accurate with detail.

2 AO2: There is effective application of how

3-4 context/location affects Samir’s memory.
Clear
Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning and is clear, coherent and focused.

AO1: There is a limited description of how context can

affect the accuracy of memory.
AO2: There is a limited application of how
1 context/location affects Samir’s memory.
1-2
Basic Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

0 No relevant content

Possible content:

AO1

• Recall is more accurate when information is encoded and retrieved in the same
context.
• Recall is less accurate when information is encoded in one context and retrieved in
a different one.
• Cues from the context are encoded and can trigger recall.

AO2

• Samir thought about packing his toothpaste in his bedroom and tried to recall this in
the bathroom. This is why he has forgotten what he needs.
• When Samir returns to his bedroom, he is more likely to remember what he needs

Page 34 of 43
as he will be retrieving information in the same room as where it was encoded.
• The bedroom contains cues that trigger Samir’s memory.

Note: The AO1 may be embedded in the application and can be credited.

Credit other relevant information.

[4]

Q25.
[AO2 = 2]

2 marks: a clear and accurate application of interference theory.

1 mark: a limited or muddled attempt at application of interference theory.

Possible content:

AO2

• Because he drives on different sides of the road at home and on holiday. Samir’s old
memory of driving at home is confused with his new learning of driving in Spain.
• This makes it hard for Samir to remember which side of the road he should be
driving on in Spain.
• Samir’s behaviour is caused by proactive interference.

Credit other relevant application.

Note: To be considered clear and accurate the answer must be correctly applied to
Samir’s behaviour and include a correct use of interference such as old memories
affecting new memories / the memories being mixed up due to being similar.
[2]

Q26.
[AO2 = 4 AO3 = 2]

AO2

1 mark for description of suitable task.

PLUS

1 mark for description of data collected.

PLUS

Up to 2 marks for one relevant extraneous variable and how it would be controlled.

2 marks for a clear and accurate description.

1 mark for a limited or muddled description.

AO3

2 marks: a clear and accurate description of the expected results with both conditions of
the IV.
1 mark: a limited or muddled description of the expected results.

Page 35 of 43
NOTE: if a student only describes a known study rather than basing their design on a
known study (max 1 mark).

NOTE: The extraneous variable and control may be creditworthy even if the study is not.
[6]

Q27.
[AO3 = 2]

Up to 2 marks for an explanation.

2 marks: a clear and accurate explanation.
1 mark: a limited or muddled explanation.

Possible content:

• It does not help us to understand why some memories are not actively
reconstructed and are remembered accurately.
• Some research has found that recall of familiar / personal and unambiguous stories
can be accurate and detailed. This suggests that not all events are changed and
reconstructed when they are recalled.

Credit other relevant weaknesses.

Note: Evaluation of the ‘War of the Ghosts’ study alone, without reference to how that
impacts on the theory, can get a maximum of 1 mark.
[2]

Q28.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Clear and accurate knowledge and understanding of

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study with some detail.
2
3-4 Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
Clear
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning is clear, coherent and focused.

Limited or muddled knowledge and understanding of

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study is present.
1
1-2 Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
Basic occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

0 0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

AO1
• To investigate how memory for an unfamiliar story is affected by cultural
expectations or to see how memory is reconstructed.
• British participants were given a Native American Indian story called ‘The War of the

Page 36 of 43
Ghosts’.
• After a short period of time, they were asked to retell the story. This took place
several times.
• Bartlett found that participants remembered the key themes in the story. However,
the story was shortened when it was retold and some parts were omitted.
• Participants altered some details of the story to fit in with their own cultural
experiences. For example, they changed ‘canoes’ to ‘boats’.
• Bartlett concluded that how stories are remembered depends on existing cultural
knowledge or schemas.

Credit other relevant content.

[4]

Q29.
[AO2 = 1]

Answer – C (Interference)
[1]

Q30.
[AO3 = 5]

Level Marks Description

Analysis and evaluation of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts

study is effective. Conclusions drawn are sound and
3 fully expressed.
4-5
Detailed Relevant terminology is used consistently throughout.
The answer demonstrates a high level of substantiated
reasoning, and is clear, coherent and focused.

There may be some effective analysis and evaluation

of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study. Any attempt to
draw conclusions may be limited.
2
2-3 Relevant terminology is usually used. The answer
Clear
frequently demonstrates substantiated reasoning and
is clear, generally coherent and focused although
structure may lack some logic.

Analysis and evaluation of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts

study is of limited effectiveness. Any attempts to draw
conclusions are very limited or muddled.
1
1 Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The answer
Basic
occasionally demonstrates substantiated reasoning,
but may lack clarity, coherence, focus and logical
structure.

0 0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

• The ‘War of the Ghosts’ was an unfamiliar and confusing story which may have
caused participants to recall it inaccurately. Other research studies have shown that

Page 37 of 43
people often retell familiar events accurately.
• Bartlett’s method in which he asked participants to retell a story is a more
meaningful way of testing memory than asking participants to learn word lists. This
is because retelling stories is something we do in everyday life. This increases the
validity of his findings.
• Bartlett’s results have helped us to understand that memories are reconstructed
because people try to add meaning when they recall events. This explains why eye
witnesses’ accounts may be inaccurate because recall can be affected by beliefs
and expectations.
• Bartlett analysed the recalled stories so the findings of the study may have been
affected by researcher bias.
• The sample was limited to students of English at Cambridge University so it may not
be appropriate to generalise the findings to a wider group of people.

Accept other relevant content.

[5]

Q31.

[AO1 = 2 marks AO2 = 2 marks]

Level Marks Description

2 Clear 3–4 AO1: Clear and accurate knowledge of interference

as a factor affecting the accuracy of memory with
some detail.
AO2: Clear and accurate application of knowledge
and understanding of interference as a factor
affecting the accuracy of memory to Uncle Bill’s
confusion.
Relevant terminology is used consistently
throughout. The answer demonstrates a high level
of substantiated reasoning, and is clear, coherent
and focused.

1 Basic 1–2 AO1: Limited or muddled knowledge of interference

as a factor affecting the accuracy of memory is
present.
AO2: Limited or muddled application of knowledge
and understanding of interference as a factor
affecting the accuracy of memory to Uncle Bill’s
confusion.
Relevant terminology is occasionally used. The
answer occasionally demonstrates substantiated
reasoning, but may lack clarity, coherence, focus
and logical structure.

0 0 No relevant content

Possible content

AO1
• Interference is when we have difficulty recalling information due to other information

Page 38 of 43
getting in the way.
• It is more likely to happen when the two memories are similar.
• This competing of information results in reduced accuracy of what we remember.
• Interference can be proactive (old information disrupts the recall of new information),
or retroactive (new information disrupts the recall of old information).

AO2
• Uncle Bill cannot remember the day of the week that Dan was born because that
information is being confused with the day of the week Dan’s sister was born.
• The two pieces of information that Uncle Bill is trying to remember are very similar –
they are both days of the week and birthdays.
• This may be explained by proactive interference. Dan’s sister was born first, so this
earlier information is disrupting the more recent information of Dan’s birthday.

Credit other relevant content.

[4]

Q32.
[AO2 = 4 AO3 = 2]

AO2
Up to 2 marks for describing a method that would investigate the effect of interference on
the accuracy of memory.

2 marks: a clear and accurate description where participants do a similar thing with
similar material.
1 mark: a limited or muddled description.

PLUS

Up to 2 marks for a suitable hypothesis for the experiment that has been described.

2 marks: there must be both conditions of the independent variable and a clear
dependent variable which makes the statement operational.
1 mark: the hypothesis lacks some clarity.

AO3
Up to 2 marks for the results you expect to find.

2 marks: a clear and accurate description of the expected results with both conditions of
the independent variable.
1 mark: a limited or muddled description of the expected results.

NOTE: The ‘description’ and the ‘results’ marks can only be awarded if the described
experiment investigates the effect of interference on the accuracy of memory.

NOTE: Distraction is a distinct process (preventing encoding) and not the same as
interference (a failure to retrieve). An experiment that focuses on distraction is therefore
not likely to be creditworthy.

NOTE: If a student only describes a known study rather than basing their design on a
known study (max 1 mark).
[6]

Q33.

Page 39 of 43
[AO3 = 2]

Up to 2 marks for evaluation of the reconstructive theory of memory.

2 marks: a clear and detailed evaluation.

1 mark: a limited or muddled evaluation.

Possible content:

AO3
• There is research evidence to support the idea that people add effort after meaning
when recalling events. For example, in Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study,
participants changed parts of the story when they retold it, showing that memories
are reconstructed.
• Not all memories are reconstructed. Research evidence shows that important
personal events, such as our first day at school, are often accurately remembered.
• The theory can be applied to everyday situations. It helps us understand why two
different people, such as eyewitnesses, can give very different versions of the same
events. Both have reconstructed the events in different ways.
• The theory is based on evidence that has higher ecological validity than memory
research in which participants have to learn word lists. This is because retelling a
story is a more familiar use of memory in everyday life than learning word lists.
• The theory is still very popular despite being developed in the early 1900s.

Credit other relevant evaluation.

NOTE: No credit for evaluation of the ‘War of the Ghosts’ study alone, without reference to
how it impacts on the theory.
[2]

Page 40 of 43
Examiner reports

Q1.
This question was answered well, with most students gaining the one mark available,

Q2.
This proved to be one of the most challenging questions on the paper and many students
failed to get the first two marks as the task described did not investigate ‘context’. It was
common to see answers based on the War of the Ghosts study, or primacy/recency effect.
Students who did describe a suitable task often based their experiment on the deep-sea
divers study, or possibly something they had carried out during their lessons
(learning/recalling in different classrooms). Although only just over 15% gained 5 or 6
marks, the opportunity was there for students to gain marks for identifying the
independent variable, and for the third part of the question (identifying an extraneous
variable and how it could be controlled), and over 50% of responses gained at least one
mark.

This type of question is one for teachers to focus on with their students prior to the
examinations. One of the main issues with this style of question is that students don’t
seem to read exactly what the question is asking of them. Each question in this style
tends to ask for slightly different information, and students seem to want to write
everything they know about designing a study, whether they need to or not. It would help if
teachers encouraged students to tick each bullet point when they had answered it; the
students who did this provided answers that were clear and accurate.

Q3.
This was generally answered very well, with most students able to provide accurate and
detailed knowledge of Bartlett’s methodology with over 85% gaining at least one mark.
However, many responses were limited to 2 marks as they did not refer to a record being
made of each version of the story. Several students also included the findings and
conclusions of the study; again, students need reminding that marks can only be awarded
when answers address the question – additional information, even when accurate and
detailed, is not creditworthy.

Q4.
This question was answered well, with almost all students gaining at least one of the two
marks available. However, many struggled with the instructions about how to indicate their
choice of response in the appropriate mark box and even more with how to correctly
amend their choices.

Q6.
Very few candidates were able to describe a study to support the constructive explanation
of memory. Those that did, provided an accurate description of Bartlett’s ‘War of the
Ghosts’ study. Most, however, described Murdock’s primacy and recency effect or Tulving
and Pearlstone’s study of organisation and memory. Nonetheless, many of these
candidates were still able to access full marks for (b) by providing an appropriate
evaluation of the study they had described.

Q8.

Page 41 of 43
(a) There were some excellent answers to this item. Many described the work of
Bartlett, whilst others described the work of Loftus. Where candidates were awarded
no marks they provided descriptions of investigations that could not be regarded as
studies of reconstructive memory. Many described Baddeley’s study of the effect of
context on memory. Others described studies relating to STM.
These studies were not relevant to the question.

(b) Evaluations tended to be weak. It is clear in the specification where evaluations of

studies are required. It is recommended that more attention should be given to this
in schemes of work. Candidates who simply say ‘The study lacks ecological validity’
will not earn any marks. For any credit, they must also give a valid reason why the
study lacks ecological validity.

Q9.
This was very well answered. Some candidates did not refer to the article in their answers,
which limited the number of marks they could earn to a maximum of 2 marks.

Q10.
Many students did understand how recall might be affected by interference. However, a
large number confused interference with other explanations of memory. Some referred to
the capacity of short-term memory and this did not gain marks.

Q11.
Many students could describe a study in which the reconstructive explanation of memory
was investigated. The majority described Bartlett’s study, with varying degrees of
accuracy. Those who described studies for other explanations earned no marks. Some
students described Loftus’ study of eyewitness testimony. Most attempts at this did not
earn marks unless they referred to the reconstructive nature of recalling events.
Examiners noticed an improvement in the quality of evaluations this year. Many schools
and colleges heeded advice given last year about ‘generic’ evaluations. However, there
were still some students who resorted to generic only evaluations and they were limited in
the number of AO3 marks that they could earn. For full credit, a direct unambiguous
reference to the study described must be part of the evaluation to earn more than 1 AO3
mark.

Q12.
This item was well answered by a large number of students. Clearly, they were helped by
the choice of explanations contained in the question and many chose well, particularly
with the multi-store part of their answer. However, in both parts, some students failed to
earn the second mark by not identifying the appropriate part of the conversation that
related to the explanation. For example many simply described the multi-store model
without any reference to ‘repetition.’

Q13.
This question was generally well answered with many students basing their responses on
the work of Godden and Baddeley (deep sea divers). Some students were confused
however and thought ‘context’ meant ‘interference’, therefore designing a study involving
an interference task as opposed to a change in context. There are now generally fewer
students using bullet points in the continuous prose questions but it is still important that
students are advised to avoid this as it will result in answers receiving a maximum mark of
4.

Page 42 of 43
Q23.
This question proved to be a good discriminator between those students who were able to
evaluate the theory and those who were only able to describe a study. Stronger answers
referred to the reconstruction of memories in eyewitness testimony, and the supporting
evidence from ‘War of the Ghosts’. Unfortunately, many students chose to evaluate − or
simply describe − Bartlett’s study, and thus received few, if any, marks.

Q24.
Most students engaged with the stem, with a few demonstrating detailed understanding of
how context can affect memory, often mentioning cues/triggers. However, many could not
grasp what the question was asking, often answering in terms of ‘STM only lasts 8
seconds so the memory of toothpaste had disappeared by the time Samir arrived at the
bathroom’ or ‘Samir had not rehearsed the information because he was too busy thinking
about his holiday’. Over a third of responses gained no marks, with a small percentage
gaining full marks.

Q25.
Many students knew that there was a link between Samir’s old memory of driving on the
left and his new learning of driving on the right, but fewer students could explain this in
terms of the two memories causing confusion. Sadly, there was often no reference to the
stem, with nearly half of students accessing just one of the two available marks; around a
quarter of responses gained full marks. A few students were able to correctly refer to
Samir experiencing proactive interference which, despite not being on the specification, is
still relevant and could still be given full credit.

Q31.
This question provided a lot of mixed responses. Several answers correctly referred to
retroactive and proactive interference, but the definitions were sometimes reversed.
Approximately 30% achieved a mark in Level 2; several students focused their answer
solely on Uncle Bill and Dan, apparently forgetting that the question required them to use
their knowledge of interference. These answers struggled to achieve the marks available
for AO1.

Q32.
Several students tried to design interesting and unique experiments, but regrettably many
described a distractor task rather than an interference task, so were limited to a maximum
of 2 marks for the hypothesis. This was unfortunate as many students clearly knew how to
design an experiment. Very few answers gained 5 or 6 marks, and over one-third gained
no marks at all. Several responses involved designing studies that used an interview or a
questionnaire, having missed the part of the question that said ‘Design an experiment’.
Many hypotheses only received one mark due to not being operationalised. A large
number of answers provided very detailed descriptions of interference studies, but failed
to include the hypothesis or results, thus limiting achievable marks. It might benefit
students if they are encouraged to tick each bullet point as they answer it; some students
did this and their answers were clear and accurate.

Q33.
Whilst this question was answered extremely well by many students, who demonstrated
good skills of evaluation, many students seemed to have misread the question and either
described or evaluated the ‘War of the Ghosts’ study, or described the theory. Almost half
of all answers gained no marks.

Page 43 of 43

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