Slide 2: Goals and Applications of Networks

•Goals: Efficient communication, resource sharing,

reliability, security.

•Applications: Internet browsing, email, online

gaming, e-commerce, cloud computing.
Categories of Networks
•LAN (Local Area Network) – Small area
like home, office.
•MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) –
City-wide coverage.
•WAN (Wide Area Network) – Covers
large distances (Internet).
•PAN (Personal Area Network) –
Bluetooth, wireless peripherals.
Organization of the Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISP) –
Provide access to the internet.
Network hierarchy: Backbone networks,
regional ISPs, local ISPs.
Role of IP addressing and DNS.
Network Structure and Architecture
•Layering Principles – Division of
communication into layers.
•Services, Protocols, and Standards –
Define network communication.
•Common Standards: IEEE, ITU, IETF.
 OSI Reference Model

[Link] Layer :- Hardware transmission.

[Link] Link Layer :- Error detection, MAC.
[Link] Layer :- IP addressing, routing.
[Link] Layer :- TCP, UDP.
[Link] Layer :- Communication sessions.
[Link] Layer :- Data formatting, encryption.
[Link] Layer :- HTTP, FTP, email.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• Layers: Application, Transport, Internet, Network Access.

• Key Protocols: HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP, ARP.
• Comparison with OSI Model.
OSI MODEL & TCP/IP PROTOCOL
Network Devices and Components
•Devices: Router, switch, modem, firewall, gateway.
•Components: Cables, antennas, network cards.
Network Devices:
Router:
•Directs data packets between different networks, essentially routing traffic between your
local network and the internet.
Switch:
•Manages data flow within a local network, efficiently sending data packets only to the
intended recipient device.
Modem:
•Converts digital signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission over a phone
line, and vice versa.
Firewall:
•Acts as a security barrier, monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic
to protect against unauthorized access.
Gateway:
•The entry point to a network, allowing devices within the network to access external
networks like the internet.
Network Components:
Cables: Physical wires used to connect network devices, such
as Ethernet cables for wired connections.
Antennas: Used in wireless networks to transmit and receive
radio signals.
Network Cards (NIC): A hardware component installed in a
computer to enable it to connect to a network.
 Physical Layer
•Network Topology Design: Star, Bus, Ring, Mesh.

•Types of Connections: Wired (Ethernet), Wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

Mesh Topology
• Every device in a mesh topology is connected
MESH to every other device over a specific
channel.
• Dedicated channels are used to connect each device to the others.
• We refer to these channels as connections. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol), AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), and other protocols are utilized in
mesh topology.
Advantages &
Disadvantages
of Mesh Topology

Advantages: Communication is very

fast
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages: Installation and
configuration are difficult.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
• he cost of cables is high as bulk
wiring is required , hence suitable for
less number of devices.
 Star Topology
In a star topology, a cable connects each device to a single hub.

Every other node is connected to this hub, which serves as the center node.

Broadcasting devices are examples of passive hubs, which are not intelligent; on the other hand, active hubs, which
are intelligent, are also possible. Repeaters are found within active hubs.

The PCs are connected via coaxial or RJ-45 wires.

Numerous widely used Ethernet LAN protocols, such as CD (Collision Detection) and CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access), are employed in Star Topology.
 Advantages &
Disadvantages
of Star Topology
Advantages: If N devices are connected to each
other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set
up.
Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to
the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect
and not other than that.
Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
Disadvantages: If the concentrator (hub) on which
the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
The cost of installation is high.
Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e.
hub.
 Bus Topology
A network type known as bus topology uses a single connection to connect each computer and network device.

It works both ways. Because the topology collapses in the event of a backbone failure, it is a multi-point
connection with a non-robust topology.

LAN Ethernet connections in Bus Topology adhere to a number of MAC (Media Access Control) protocols,
including TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, and others.
 Disadvantages
Advantages of Bus Topology
of Bus Topology
• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still,
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly it requires a lot of cabling.
used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps. • If the common cable fails, then the
whole system will crash down.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to
other topologies, but it is used to build • If the network traffic is heavy, it
small networks. increases collisions in the network. To
avoid this, various protocols are used in
• Bus topology is familiar technology as the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha,
installation and troubleshooting Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
techniques are well known.
• Adding new devices to the network
• CSMA is the most common method for would slow down networks.
this type of topology.
• Security is very low.
•
RING: When there are two connections connecting each network node, the data flows in a single
direction, or unidirectionally.
This is known as dual ring topology.
The workstations in a ring topology send data using the Token Ring Passing protocol.
 The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Disadvantages: The failure of a
Advantages: The data transmission is single node in the network can
high-speed. cause the entire network to fail.
• The possibility of collision is minimum • Troubleshooting is difficult in
in this type of topology. this topology.
• Cheap to install and expand. • The addition of stations in
• It is less costly than a star topology. between or the removal of
stations can disturb the whole
topology.
• Less secure.
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.
• In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the
central hub which contains the repeater.
• This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices
to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if
the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:It allows the network to get isolated and also
prioritize from different computers.
We can add new devices to the existing network.
Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
Disadvantages: If the central hub gets fails the entire system
fails.
The cost is high because of the cabling.
If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a
large organization.
At the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the
different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with
managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The
team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the
hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and
departments.
Hybrid Topology

When nodes are allowed to take on any

shape, they can be either individual
topologies, like the Ring or Star topology,
or
they can be a combination of the different
topologies we have already studied, each
of which uses the protocol that was
previously discussed.
This is known as hybrid topology.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• This topology is very flexible . • It is challenging to design the
• The size of the network can be architecture of the Hybrid
easily expanded by adding new Network.
devices. • Hubs used in this topology
are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very
high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices
Transmission Media

Guided Media: Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic.

Unguided Media: Radio waves, infrared, satellite.
Features of Guided Media:
High Speed
Secure
Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic.
Twisted Cable
A cable made up of one or more copper wire pairs is known as a twisted-pair cabling
system.
A dielectric polymeric compound is used to insulate these wires, which are twisted
around and together.
In addition to reducing electromagnetic radiation, twisting helps block outside
disturbance. Additionally, it lessens interference with nearby twisted-pair wires.

Coaxial cables and twisted-pair cables were two of the first directed transmission
media.
These days, twisted-pair cables are utilized in a wide range of networking and
communication applications, such as local area networks, digital subscriber lines, and
Twisted-pair cable categories
Twisted-pair cables are of two types:
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP). These cables generally comprise wires and insulators.
Shielded twisted pair (STP). These cables come with a braided, wired mesh that encases
each pair of insulated copper wires.
• As the name suggests, a UTP cable has no • STP cables include a shielding, usually made
internal shielding. The UTP cable is the most of aluminum foil, around the conductors to
common twisted-pair cable used isolate the conductors and improve the
in Ethernet networks. It also is used for cables' resistance to noise and signal
traditional telephone (UTP-Cat1) systems. interference.
• UTP cables are popular all over the world • One drawback is that STP cables are more
due to their low cost, ease of installation difficult to connect at termination points.
and flexibility. These cables are also easy to Also, STP cables are more expensive than
expand and troubleshoot. UTP cables.
• One crucial drawback of UTP is that it is • Nonetheless, they prevent signal
vulnerable to signal interference, which can interference better than UTP cables, so their
affect output quality. Moreover, it is not additional cost can be worth it, depending
suitable for long-distance transmissions. To on the application.
support distances longer than 100
m, repeaters are required.
 Coaxial & Fiver
Coaxial: Fiver: The idea of 100% internal
Fiver:

Coaxial cables have two parallel reflection of light via a glass core
conductors, each with its own is used in optical fiber cables.
insulated protection cover, and an The coating is a less dense layer
outer plastic covering with an of glass or plastic that envelops
insulating layer of Teflon or PVC. the core. Large amounts of data
Baseband mode (dedicated cable are transmitted using it.
bandwidth) and broadband mode Both unidirectional and
(cable bandwidth divided into distinct bidirectional cables are possible.
ranges) are the two modes in which Both unidirectional and
the coaxial cable transmits data. bidirectional modes are supported
Coaxial cables are commonly used by the Wavelength Division
in cable TVs and analog television Multiplexer (WDM).
networks.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Coaxial &Fiver
• Advantages: Coaxial cables has Advantages: Increased capacity and
high bandwidth bandwidth
• It is easy to install. • Lightweight
• Coaxial cables are more reliable and • Less signal attenuation
durable. • Immunity to electromagnetic
• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or interference
electromagnetic inference. • Resistance to corrosive materials
• Coaxial cables support multiple channels Disadvantages: Difficult to install
• Disadvantages: Coaxial cables are and maintain
expensive. • High cost
• The coaxial cable must be grounded in
order to prevent any crosstalk.
• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is
very bulky.
 Unguided Media:
Features of Unguided Media
•The signal is broadcasted through air
•Less Secure
•Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through
unguided media:
Radio Waves: Buildings can be penetrated by radio waves,
which are simple to produce.
It is not necessary for the sending and receiving antennas to
line up. Range of Frequencies: 3KHz to 1GHz. Radio waves
are used for transmission in cordless phones, AM, and FM
radios.
Types of Radio Waves:
•Short Wave: AM Radio
•VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
•UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV
Radio Wave Components:
•Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
•Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.
Microwaves
Since it's a line of sight communication, the sending and receiving antennas must be
correctly oriented.
The height of the antenna has a direct correlation with the signal's range.
Range of frequencies: 1 GHz to 300 GHz. Microwaves are mostly utilized for television
distribution and cell phone communication.
Advanges:
Cheaper than using cables
Freedom from land acquisition
Ease of communication in difficult terrains
Communication over oceans
Disadvanges:
Insecure communication.
Out-of-phase signal.
Susceptible to weather conditions.
Bandwidth is limited.
High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.
Infrared: Utilized in TV remote controls, wireless mice, keyboards, printers,
and other devices, infrared waves have a frequency range of 300 GHz to
400THz
and are employed for very short-range communication since they cannot pass
through obstructions, preventing interference between systems.
 Signal Transmission and Encoding

Analog vs. Digital Signals.

Encoding Methods: NRZ, Manchester encoding.
Modulation Techniques: AM, FM, PM.

Continuous signals that change over time and can have any value within a specified
range are known as analog signals.
Radio waves and sound waves are two examples.
Digital signals are discrete signals that represent information using binary values (0s
and 1s).
Examples include digital communication and computer data.
Encoding Methods
Encoding is the process of converting data into a form suitable for
transmission. Two common methods are:
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
Data is represented directly in binary form.
NRZ-Level (NRZ-L): 1s and 0s are mapped to different voltage levels.
NRZ-Inverted (NRZ-I): A transition happens on a 1, and no transition on a 0
(or vice versa).
Issue: Baseline wandering, synchronization problems.
Manchester Encoding
Each bit has a transition in the middle of its duration.
A 0 is represented as a transition from high to low, and a 1 is represented
as a transition from low to high (or vice versa, depending on convention).
Advantage: Self-clocking, so no separate clock signal is needed.
Disadvantage: Requires more bandwidth.
Modulation Techniques
Modulation allows signals to be transmitted over a medium by modifying a carrier wave.
Amplitude Modulation (AM):
The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the message signal.
Example: AM radio broadcasting.
Disadvantage: Susceptible to noise.
Frequency Modulation (FM):
The frequency of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the message signal.
Example: FM radio.
Advantage: More resistant to noise than AM.
Phase Modulation (PM):
The phase of the carrier wave is varied according to the message signal.
Example: Used in digital communication systems like Wi-Fi.
Closely related to frequency modulation.
 Network Performance & Transmission Impairments

• Performance Factors: Bandwidth, latency, jitter.

• Impairments: Attenuation, noise, distortion.

While "attenuation" refers to the loss of signal strength over distance,

"noise" refers to undesired electrical signals corrupting the data,
"distortion" refers to the alteration of the signal shape during transmission,
"latency" refers to the time it takes for data to travel from one point to another,
"jitter" refers to the irregularity in packet arrival times, and
"bandwidth" refers to the maximum data transfer rate a connection can handle.
Justification:
Bits per second (bps) is the unit of measurement for bandwidth.
Faster data transport is possible with more bandwidth.
The network infrastructure, connection type, and congestion are some of the factors that impact bandwidth.
Milliseconds (ms) are used to measure latency.
shows how long it takes a data packet to go from its starting point to its final destination.
Latency is influenced by a number of factors, including distance, network congestion, and
delays in processing.
Milliseconds (ms) are used to measure jitters.
represents the disparity in packet arrival timings that causes data flow to be uneven.
may have an effect on real-time applications such as video conferences.
Attenuation is the weakening of a signal as it passes through a medium, frequently as a result of distance.
can be lessened by repeaters or amplifiers.
Unwanted electrical signals that obstruct data transmission are known as noise.
Environmental elements such as electromagnetic radiation may be the reason.
Distortion: A change in the signal's form during transmission that results in varying frequencies moving at varying speeds.
may result from flaws in the transmission medium.
Important things to keep in mind: Low latency is essential for real-time applications, even though high bandwidth is preferred for
quick data transfer.
For seamless streaming of audio and video, jitter must be minimized.
When developing and operating networks, network engineers must take into account all of these performance factors and
impairments.
Switching Techniques and Multiplexing

• Switching Techniques: Circuit switching, packet switching, message

switching.

• Multiplexing: FDM, TDM, WDM.

Switching Techniques

In large networks there might be multiple paths

linking sender and receiver. Information may be
switched as it travels through various communication
channels. There are three typical switching
techniques available for digital traffic.

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a
path that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's
telephone by making a physical connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends
until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that
time.
 Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same way

as the telephone system works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
• Once the connection has been initiated and completed to the
destination device, the destination device must acknowledge
that it is ready and willing to carry on a transfer.
 Circuit switching
Advantages:
• The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds,
more on long- distance or international calls.) during which
no data can be transmitted.
• More expensive than any other switching techniques,
because a dedicated path is required for each connection.
• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not
using it.
 Message Switching

• With message switching there is no need to establish a

dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety
on disk, and then transmits the message to the next node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
 Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose computer. The device

needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages,
which could be long. A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to
store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next node in the
transmission path.
 Message Switching
Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-
switched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.
Message Switching

Disadvantages
• Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
• Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they
must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.
 Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
• There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram
and virtual circuit.
 Packet Switching
• In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into
small parts, called packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination
addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they
can be stored in main memory instead of disk, therefore access
delay and cost are minimized.
• Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
• With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto
the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network
becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded
(``dropped'').