DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

College of Agriculture, GKVK, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore- 560 065

Degree prog.: III BSc. (Agri.); II Semester ‘B’ Section : 2019-2020 (24/01/2020 to 05/06/2020)

Course Number: SST 321(1+1)

Course Title: Post Harvest Seed Technology and Quality Assurance
Course Teacher: Dr. SOWMYA, K.J. Technical Assistant, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)
Lecture outline
Class Syllabus/Topics
No.
1 Introduction and importance of seed quality regulations- seed legislations and regulatory
measures, Seed Act (1966), Seed Rules (1968)
2 Seed Control Order (1983), Central Seed Committee, Central Seed Certification Board,
State Seed Certification Agency
3 Seed certification- history, phases and procedures, field inspection, field counts, field and
seed standards , OECD Seed Certification Schemes
4 Central and State Seed Testing Laboratories and their functions, New Seed policy (1988)
5 The Plants fruits and Seeds order (1989) (regulations of import into India)
6 DUS testing principles and applications, PPV and FR Act 2001 & 2003
7 National Seed Policy (2002) & Seed Bill (2004)
8 Seed Drying- importance, principles and methods.
9 Psychrometric chart and its use in seed drying process.
10 Seed processing – objectives and principles, Air screen cleaner and its working principles
11 Different upgrading equipments and their use
12 Seed treatment – importance and types, equipments used for seed treatment
13 Seed testing- objectives, history, sampling procedure, testing for moisture, physical purity,
germination, viability, vigour and seed health
14 Seed quality regulation systems (Grow out tests and molecular markers), GM crop testing
15 Post harvest inspections and seed quality assurance, Varietal release and notification
16 Seed packaging- principles, procedures and types of containers
17 Seed storage- general principles, stages, factors affecting seed longevity, conditions
required for safer storage, measures for humidity, moisture and temperature control
18 Mid storage corrections and seed quality enhancement techniques
Eval. Midterm Examination (30.00 Marks)
Practical Examination (10.00 Marks)
Practical Record (5.00 Marks)
Attendance (5.00 Marks)
External (50.00 Marks)
Total 100 Marks

Professor & Head (SOWMYA, K.J.)

DSS&T, CoA, GKVK Technical Assistant
DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)

Copy submitted to:

1. The Dean (Agri.), CoA, GKVK, Bangalore for kind information
2. The Controller of Examinations, UEC, GKVK, for information.
 Practical Schedule
Sl. No. Particulars
1 Instruments used in seed testing laboratory
2 Visit to seed testing laboratory
3 Visit to seed processing unit
4 Air screen cleaner and upgrading machines/ seed cleaning equipments
5 Seed sampling techniques and equipments
6 Physical purity test
7 Estimation of seed moisture content
8 Seed germination test
9 Seed viability test
10 Seed vigour tests
11 Seed health tests
12 Grow-out test
13 Cultivar purity tests
14 Seed treatment
15 Seed dormancy and breaking methods
16 Seed packaging
17 Visit to seed godowns and cold storage units
18 Visit to public and private seed companies
APPENDIX-I: Terminologies used in seed technology
APPENDIX-II: Abbreviations related to seed technology
References related to this course

References:
TEXT BOOKS:
1. AGARWAL, P. K. AND M. DADLANI, 1987, Techniques in Seed Science and Technology. South
Asian Publishers, New Delhi.
2. AGRAWAL P. K., 1993. Hand Book of Seed Testing Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operation, GOI,
New Delhi.
3. AGRAWAL R. L., 1996, Seed Technology, Oxford and IBH Publicity Company, New Delhi.
4. CHALAM, G. V., AMIRSINGH, C. AND J. E DOUGLAS, 1967. Seed Testing Manual. Pub. ICAR, and
USAID (United States Agency for International Development). New Delhi.
5. JOSHI, A. K. AND SINGH, B. D. 2004. Seed Science and Technology. Kalyani Publishers. Ludhiana.
6. KHARE, D. AND BHALE, M.S. 2007. Seed Technology. Scientific Publishers (India).
7. McDONALD, M.D. AND COPELAND, C.O., 1998. Seed Production Principles and Practices. CBS
Publishers and Distributions, New Delhi.
8. NEMA, N. P. 1986, Principles of Seed Certification and Seed Testing. Pub. Allied Publishers Private
limited, New Delhi.
9. RAMAMOORTHY K., SIVASUBRAMANIAM, K. AND KANNAN, A., 2006. Seed Legislation in
India. Agrobios (India), Jodhur.
10. UMARANI, R., JERLIN, R., NATARAJAN, N., MASILAMANI, P. AND PONNUSWAMY, A.S.,
2008. Experimental Seed Science and Technology. Agrobios (India).
JOURNALS:
1. Asian Seed (bi-monthly), Asia and Pacific Seed Association, Bangkok.
2. Journal of Seed Technology (Yearly) Association of Official Seed Analyst. USA.
3. News Letter of the Association of Official Seed Analyst. Pub. Nebraska Crop Improprement Association
267. Plant Science, Lincoln, Nebraska USA.
4. Seed Abstracts (monthly), Commonwealth Agriculture Bureau UK.
5. Seed and Farms, (monthly), National Seed Corporation and Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi.
6. Seed Research (half yearly), Indian Society of Seed Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi.
7. Seed Science and Technology (Quarterly), International Seed Testing Association, Zurich, Switzerland.
8. Seed Science Research (Quarterly), Cambridge University Press and International Society for Seed
Science, UK
9. Seed Tech News, Bulletin (monthly), Indian Society of Seed Technology, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi.
 Importance of seed quality
regulations – Seed Act 1966,
Seed Rules 1968 &

Dr. Sowmya, K.J

Dept. of Seed Science and Technology

1
 Importance of Seeds
• Seed is the most important and crucial input in
Agriculture.
• A carrier of new Technology.
• Principal means to ensure Crop production.
• Rapid means for rehabilitation of plant and
Agricultural species following natural disaster.
• Farmers in India knew the value of good seed
from time immemorial.

2
 Value of Quality Seeds
• High germination Capacity and vigour in seeds –
help to reduce seed rate
• Enable to establish good crop stand and crop
density
• Reduction in seed rate compensates for the
additional cost needed for production of quality
seed.
• Reduction in the quantity of harvested produce
for seed purpose.
3
 Seed Quality (Thompson, 1979)

Multiple concept
Consists of several components viz.,
* Genetic quality
* Physical quality
* Physiological quality
* Health quality
 Characteristics of Quality Seeds
• High genetic / cultivar purity.
• High germination & vigour.
• Free from disease & weed seeds and inert
matter.
• Should have high analytical purity, free from
seed of other crop.
• Must facilitate uniform size grading.

5
 Factors affecting Seed Quality
• Seed quality will be affected at various stages
right from Sowing to Marketing.
• Factors affecting at growing stage.
• Factors affecting at production stage.
• Factors affecting at processing stage.
• Factors affecting at seed packing.
• Factors affecting during Marketing / distribution

6
 Factors affecting quality during
growing period
 Basic seed used / planted.
 Soil fertility / fertilizer application.
 Quantity and time of irrigation
 Plant protection measures taken
 Isolation distance
 Rouging of seed crop
 Control of weeds
 Method and time of seed harvest
7
 Factors in Seed Production
 Use of only approved seed in seed production.
 Inspection of approval of seed plots / fields
prior to sowing / Planting
 Field inspection at different / appropriate crop
growth stages to verify genetic purity /
detection of crop mixtures weeds and seed
borne diseases.
 Sampling and sealing of cleaned seeds.
 Grow-out test on samples for verifying stock
samples 8
 Factors Affecting Genetic Purity
 Nature of breeding system of species.
 Isolation distance.
 Population density of Cultivar
 Pollinating agent
 Synchronization of parents.
 Problem of Pollen shedders

9
 Seed Processing Stage
 Moisture level to which seed is dried and
temperature used for drying.
 Care in handling seed.
 Thoroughness of cleaning and grading.
 Seed treatment to protect from pathogens,
insects and soil borne organisms.
 Storage condition.
 Seed sampling and testing.

10
 Seed Distribution Stage
 Proper Labelling.
 Records to evaluate the age of seed and
probable conditions.
 Follow up test in samples from seed lots for
germination during validity period.
 Proper storage & handling at retail outlets.

11
Seed Quality Control System / Programme
• Responsibility of the Government to enforce
measures for regulating the quality of seed being
marketed.
• To provide quality assurance to farmers – through
legislation in the form of Act.
• 2 components in seed quality control system :
- Seed certification is voluntary &
- Labelling is compulsory
• 3 Essential components in seed quality control
programme:
- Quality control of Breeder seed
- Quality control mechanism in seed production /
marketing.
- Seed law enforcement/ seed regulations 12
 Seed Regulations
• Seed are Regulated from at least three
different perspectives:
1) Regulating the quality of seed sold in the
market for planting purpose (to ensure
conformity to prescribed standards)
2) Regulating safety of the seeds through bio-
safety measures

3) Regulating the high technical product seed

under IPR
 Seed Regulations
Indian Seed Industry is governed by :
1. Seeds Act (1966), Seed Rules (1968)
2. Seeds Control Order (1983)
3. Package Commodities Act (1986)
4. Standards Weights And Measures Act (1976)
5. Consumer Protection Act (1986)
6. The Environment Protection Act (1986)
7. Export Regulation and Quarantine- Plants,
Fruits and Seeds (Regulation of import into
India) Order (1989)
 Seed Regulations
8. The Destructive Insects and Pests Act (1914)
9. State Acts for the control movement of crops
and seeds (1976)
10.Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’
Rights Act (2001)
11.Biological Diversity Act (2002)
12.Plant Quarantine Order (2003)
13.Proposed New Seeds Bill (2004)
14.Patents (Third Amendment)Act (2005)
15.Agricultural Produce Marketing Law
(Amendment, 2009)
 Policy initiatives in Seed Sector
The important policy initiatives taken by the GOI in
seed sector are :
1. Seed Review Team (1968)
2. National Commission on Agriculture’s Seed group
(1972)
3. National Seeds Programme in three phases
(1974-1991)
4. Creation of the Technology Mission on oil seeds
and pulses (TMOP-1986) now called as ISOPOM
(Integrated scheme of oil seeds, pulses, oil palm
and maize)
5. New Policy on Seed Development (1988)
Policy initiatives in Seed Sector

6. Seed Bank Scheme (2000)

7. National Seed Policy (2002)

8. Seed Import And Export Policy (EXIM policy,

2002/2007)

9. Formulation of National Seed Plan (2005)

10. National Food Security Mission (2007)

11. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (2007)

Implications of Policy initiatives in Seed
Sector
These Acts and Policies formed the basis
for promotion and regulation of the Seed
Sector
Changes in National Economy &
Agriculture Scenario
 Accession of India to WTO
Changes in National Intellectual Property
Regime
Acts and Rules Relating to Quality Control of Seeds
 Seed Act 1966 and
 Seed Rules 1968
 Seed Control order 1983
 New Seed Policy 1988
 Consumer Act 1986
 Environmental Protection Act 1986
 Plants, Fruits and Seeds order 1989 (Regulation of
Import into India)
 The Protection of Plants varieties and Farmer’s Rights
Act 2001
 Essential Commodity Act 1955 19
Acts and Rules Relating to Quality Control of Seeds

• The Seeds Bill (2004)

• National Seed plan-2005-06.
• National Food Security Mission (2007)
• Export-Import policy 2002-07
• Seed Bank Scheme (2000)

20
 STATUS OF INDIAN SEED INDUSTRY

Consists of :
 Two Central Seed Producing Organizations
(NSC, SFCI)
 13 State Seeds Corporations
 23 State Seeds Certification Agencies
 200 Private Seed Producing Agencies
 101 Notified Seed Testing Laboratories
(3 private STL accredited to ISTA)
 The seed is an important agricultural input and it plays vital
role in increasing production and productivity. There is a
need to safeguard the farmers with the supply of genetically
pure and quality seeds.

 Any new variety produced by the Scientist has to be

multiplied many times to meet the needs of the farmers.

 In order to ensure the availability of quality seeds,

Government of India has enacted Seeds Act, 1966 and Seed
rules, 1968.
 The seed (Control) order, 1983 was promulgated under
essential commodities act, 1955 in order to ensure the
production, marketing and equal distribution of the seeds.
22
 Seeds Act, 1966
The object of Seed Act is to regulate the quality of certain
notified kind / varieties of seeds for sale and for matters
connected therewith.

The seed act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966 was

designed to create a 'Climate' in which the seeds man could
operate effectively and to make good quality seed available
to cultivators.

 Seeds rule under the act was notified in September 1968

and the act was implemented entirely in October, 1969.

This act extent to the whole of India and it has 25 sections.

23
Seed legislation could broadly be divided into two groups

1. Sanctioning legislation

•Sanctioning legislation authorizes formation of Advisory

bodies, Seed Certification Agencies, Seed Testing
laboratories, Foundation and Certified Seed
Programmes, Recognition of Seed certification Agencies of
Foreign countries Appellate authorities etc.
2. Regulatory legislation

•Regulatory Legislation controls the quality of seeds sold in

the market including suitable agencies for regulating the
seed quality.
24
1966: THE SEEDS ACT was passed by GOI,

Act No. 54 of 1966 (enacted on 29th December, 1966)

The law came into force on 2nd Oct, 1969 in all the states
and union territories of India

It contains 25 sections –

Section – 1: Short Title, Extent & commencement

Act is called The Seeds Act, 1966
It extends to the whole of India

Section – 2: Definitions
Seed means –
Seeds of food crops including oilseeds, fruits & vegetables
Cotton seeds
Fodder seeds
Jute seeds
other vegetatively propagated material
 Section 2: Definitions
(1) ‘Agriculture’ includes Horticulture.
(8) ‘Kind’ means one or more related species or
sub species of crop plants each individually or
collectively called by a common name such as
cabbage, maize, paddy.
(16) ‘Variety’ means a sub division of a kind
identifiable by growth, yield, plant, fruit, seed or
other characters.

26
 (11) Seed means the following
(i) Seeds of food crops including edible oilseeds
and seeds of fruits and vegetables;
(ii) Cotton seeds;
(iii) Seeds of cattle fodder and includes seedlings
and tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all
types of grafts and other vegetatively
propagated material of food crops or cattle
fodder
(iv) Jute seeds.
27
Section – 3: Constitution of Central Seed Committee

To advice the Central Government and State Government on

administrations of the act and in any other matter related to seeds.

Committee consists of -
Chairman (nominated by GoI)
Secretary (appointed by GoI)
8 – Members

Section – 4: Establishment of a Central Seed Laboratory

& State seed laboratory

For analysis of any notified kind/ var

Central Govt. to establish Central seed lab

State Govt. to establish state seed lab

Section 5: Notification of Kind / Variety
of Seeds
Section -5: empowers the Central Government

To declare a variety to be a notified variety

by notification in the Gazette

• Release and notification of varieties

• State Variety Evaluation Committee
• State Seed Sub Committee
• Central Seed Committee
29
 Section 6: Minimum quality
Standards for Seeds
Section -6: empowers Central Government

To specify minimum limits of germination

and purity and label to indicate the quality traits.

a. Minimum limits of Germination and

physical purity

b. Label to indicate such standards

30
Section-7: Regulation of sale of seed of notified
kinds or var.

No seed is offered for sale unless

• Seeds shall be identifiable with kind / variety

• It confirm to minimum standards of
Germination and physical purity clause (a) of
section 6
• Labeling as per procedure / standards
• Shall comply with other requirements as
prescribed
31
Section -8: Establishment of Certification Agency

Establishment of CSCB (Central Seed Certification Board) by GoI

Board consists of –

Chairman (nominated by GoI)

Secretary (appointed by GoI)

4 – members (appointed by DoA)

3 – members (appointed by AU’s)

13 – members (not < 4 are representatives of seed growers / traders)

Tenure – 2 years

Central/ state Govt. establishes CA by official notification.

 Sections 8 a, b, c, d, e, 9, 10,11
and 18:
• Establishment of Seed Certification
Board, Agency and other Committees.
• All matters relating to seed certification
standards, procedures are detailed
• Appointment of Appellate authority
• Recognition of Certifying agencies of
other countries
33
Section -9: Grant of certificate by CA

Any person who desires to have the seed crop certified by CA,
can apply to CA for grant of certificate.

Application should be made in prescribed form, along with

prescribed fee
If the seed conforms to the prescribed standards after the tests,
certificate is granted

Section -10: Revocation of certificate

Misrepresentation of facts

Fails to comply with the provisions of the Act

Section -11: Appeal

Aggrieved person can make appeal to the appellate authority

specified by the state govt. within 30 days.

The order of Appellate Authority is final

Section -12: Seed Analysts

State govt. appoints seed analysts

Section -13: Seed Inspectors

State govt. appoints Seed Inspectors

Section -14: Powers of Seed Inspectors

Take samples of any seed of any notified var.

Send samples for analysis to the seed analyst

Can enter & search at all times

Can examine any record/doc. & seize the same

Can break open any container

Section -15: Procedures to be followed by Seed inspector

Take 3 samples

1 – Given to the concerned person

1 – Sent to the seed analyst
1 – Retained by him

When any record /doc is seized, he has to inform a magistrate to

get an order for its custody

Section -16: Report of seed analyst

Seed analyst delivers

One copy of report to seed inspector

One copy of report to the concerned person

If not satisfied, a sample of the seed is sent to the CSTL

Section -17: Restriction of import & export
No import/export of seeds unless –
It conforms to min. limits of germination & purity
Container bears label in the prescribed form

Section -18: Recognition of SCA of foreign country

GoI can recognize any SCA in any foreign country for the purpos

Section -19: Penalty

If any person contravenes any provision of the act
Prevents S.I from taking samples

Section -20: Forfeiture of the property

Seed material is forfeited by the govt. from the convicted under

Section -21: Offenses by the companies

Representative / person responsible of the company is
liable for prosecution

Section -22: Protection of action taken in good faith

No legal action is taken against the Govt. Officer for any thing
that is done in good faith under the act
Section -23: Power to give directions
Central Govt. can give directions to State Govt.

Section -24: Exemption

The act is not applicable for selling the notified kind/var

by a person in his own premises to any other person for sowing /

Section -25: Power to make rules

Central Govt. can make rules –

Regarding functions of the CSC
Regarding functions of the CSL
Regarding functions of the CA
Regarding manner of labelling
Regarding grant of certificates
Regarding procedures followed by AA
Regarding duties of S.I. & S.A
Regarding form of analysis report
 Seed act 1966
Statutory Bodies and Agencies established in
India under the Seeds Act, 1966
1. Central Seed Committee

2. Central Seed Certification Board

3. State Seed Certification Agencies

4. Central Seed Testing Laboratory

5. State Seed Testing Laboratories

6. Appellate Authority

7. Recognition of Seed Certification Agencies of

Foreign Countries
 Enforcement Authorities
 Licensing Authority
 Seed Inspector
 Seed Analyst
 Appellate Authority

40
 Salient Features of the Seed Act 1966
• Regulating the quality of certain seeds for
sale and matters connected therewith.

Effective from;

2.9.1968: Sections 1 to 6, 8 to 11, 18, 22 to 25

1.10.1968: Sections 7, 12 to 17, 19 to 21

8.5.1987: extended to Sikkim

41
 KEY TO SEED ACT AND SEED RULES

Topic Sections of the Act Related section or rules Form

Seed testing 4 Part-III-5
Labeling 6, 7 Part-V-7 to 12
Part-VI-13
Seed analyst 12, 6 Part- IX- 20, 21, 33, 35 VII
Seed inspector 13, 14, 15 Part-IX- 22,23 III,
Part-X-24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, IV,
31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 39 V
VI, VIII
Penalty 19
General 1, 2, 3, 5, 20, 21,22, 23, 24, Part-I-1,2
25 Part-II-3,4
Seed certification 8,9,10,11,18 Part-IV- 6 I, II
Part-VI-14
Part-VII-15, 16, 17
Part-VIII-18, 19
 Salient Features of the Seed Act 1966
• Enacted by Parliament for the whole of India to regulate seeds
• Constitution of Central Seed Committee to advise the
Central & State Governments on the matters arising out of
administration of the Act and to carry out the other
functions assigned to it or under this Act.
• Establishment of a Central Seed Testing Laboratory as well
as State Seed Testing Laboratory to carry out seed analysis
of notified variety
• Regulation of sale of seeds of notified varieties by
compulsory truthful labeling revealing the true identity of the
variety, germination as well as purity
• Appointment of a seed analyst to undertake seed testing.
• Penalty or punishment or both for those who do not comply
with the provisions of the act and also prevent seed
inspectors from executing his power.
 Contd..
• Restriction on import and export of seeds of notified
varieties. Any variety imported or exported should
meet the minimum limits of seed germination
• Empowerment of seed inspector to draw samples from
any seller or a purchaser and verify the quality by
sending samples to a seed analyst in the seed testing
laboratory
• Power of certification agency to recommend
notification of suitable variety and grant of notification
certificate provided the seed meets minimum limits of
germination and purity
• Forfeiture of property (seeds) belonging to any person
convicted under this act due to contravention of the
procedures under this act
 1968, THE SEED RULES
Seed Rules contains 11 parts.

PART – I: Deals with short title & definitions

PART – II: Functions of CSC

Can advice Central / State Government on establishment of STL’s

Recommend procedure and standards for certification tests and
analysis of seeds

PART – III: Functions of CSTL

Initiate testing programmes and

To promote uniformity in test results
Collect data on quality of seed found in the market & make it available
to the CSC
PART – IV: Functions of SCA

Certify seeds of any notified kind / varieties

Verification of the eligibility of the cultivars & seed source

Make field inspections

Take samples & inspect seed lots

Inspect Processing plants

Grant certificates
PART – V: Marking & labelling

Label should contain

Net contents in terms of weight
Date of testing
Statement indicating seed treatment
Caution statement – “do not use for
food, feed or oil purpose”
Caution – “POISON” in RED color
Label should not contain any false statements

47
PART – VI: Requirements

For business:

No person can sell seeds after the expiry date

No person shall alter / deface the mark / label
Sale record should be maintained for 3 years

Classes of certified seeds

There will be 3 classes of certified seed

Foundation,

registered and

certified.

Certified seed may be the progeny of certified seed

provided it does not exceed 3 generations and
there is no significant alteration of the genetic purity.
PART – VII: Certification of seeds
The application for grant of certificate is made in Form – I
The grant of certificate by CA will made in Form – II

Certification tag will contain

Name & address of CA
Kind & var. of seeds
Lot No.
Name & address of certified seed producer
Date of issue of certificate & its validity period

Color of certification tag

F/s - White,
R/s – purple,
C/s – Azure blue
PART – VIII: Appeals

• Memorandum of appeal is accompanied by a

copy of decision of CA

• AA will follow the Court procedures

50
PART – IX: Seed Analysts & Seed Inspectors
Qualification of Seed Analysts
MSc (Ag) + 1 year experience in seed technology
BSc (Ag) + 3 year experience in seed technology

Duties of seed analysts

Analyse the samples in accordance with procedures of seed testing manual
Deliver the copy of reports to the concerned persons within 30 days

Qualification of Seed Inspectors

BSc (Ag) + 1 year experience in seed technology

Duties of seed Inspectors

Conduct inspections – field/storage/sale counters
Draw & send samples for analysis
Maintain record of all inspections matter & make it available to DoA
Detain imported containers on suspicion
Institute prosecution w.r.t breach of the Act
PART – X: Sealing, fastening, dispatch & Analysis of samples

Samples are taken in clean dry containers, packed, fastened & sealed
in the prescribed manner.

FORM – III: Order given by S.I. to the concerned person for condition
of inspection

FORM – IV: S.I will issue receipt to the concerned person regarding
seizure of the property

FORM – V: sent to seed analyst along with the sample

FORM – VI: S.I will give notice to the concerned person from whom
the sample is taken

FORM – VII: Report of the seed analysis.

PART – XI: Miscellaneous

Records to be kept by the seed trader

Stock record
Record of sales of seed

53
Salient Features of the Seed rules 1968
• Central Seed committee describes the act such as
recommendation for Seed Testing fee, advice on the
suitability of seed testing laboratory,
recommendation for the procedure and standards
for seed certification and testing
• Central Seed Laboratory function as coordinating
with State Seed Laboratories for uniformity in test
results
• Rules for marking or labeling of seed lots indented
for certification have been provided in Marketing or
Labeling
• Certification Agency such as-outlining the procedure
for submission of applications, growing, harvesting
and processing and storage of seeds
Salient Features of the Seed rules 1968

• Certification agency has the discretion of

producing certified seed from certified seed
provided that it does not exceed three
generation and the genetic purity is not
significantly altered.
• Provision for appeal has been provided by
submitting a memorandum accompanied by
a treasury receipt
 THE SEEDS ACT, 1966
(ACT NO. 54 OF 1966)

[29th December, 1966]

An Act to provide for regulating the quality of certain seeds for sale, and for matters
connected therewith

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India as follows:-

Short title, extent and commencement

1. (1) This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 1966.

(2) It extends to the whole of India.

(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be
appointed for different provisions of this Act, and for different States or for
different areas thereof.

Definitions
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,

(1) “Agriculture” includes horticulture;

(2) “Central Seed Laboratory” means the Central Seed Laboratory established or
declared as such under sub-section (1) of section 4;

(3) “Certification agency” means the certification agency established

(4) “Committee” means the Central Seed Committee constituted under sub-section
(1) of Section 3;

(5) “Container” means a box, bottle, casket, tin, barrel, case, receptacle, sack, bag,
wrapper or other thing in which any article or thing is placed or packed;

(6) “Export” means taking out of India to a place outside India;

(7) “Import” means bringing into India from a place outside India;

(8) “Kind” means one or more related species or sub-species of crop plants each
individually or collectively known by one common name such as cabbage,
maize, paddy and wheat;
 (9) “notified kind or variety” , in relation to any seed, means any kind or variety
thereof notified under Section 5;

(10) “Prescribed” means prescribed by rules made under this act;

(11) “seed” means any of the following classes of seeds used for sowing or
planting-

(i) seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits and
vegetables;

(ii) cotton seeds;

(iii) seeds of cattle fodder;

and includes seedlings, and tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all types of
grafts and other vegetatively propagated material, of food crops or cattle
fodder;

(12) “Seed Analyst” means a Seed Analyst appointed under section 12;

(13) “Seed Inspector” means a Seed Inspector appointed under section 13;

(14) “State Government”, in relation to a Union territory, means the administrator

thereof;

(15) “State Seed Laboratory”, in relation to any State, means the State Seed
Laboratory established or declared as such under sub-section (2) of section 4
for that State; and

(16) “variety” means a sub-division of a kind identifiable by growth, yield, plant,

fruit, seed, or other characteristic.

Central Seed Committee

3. (1) The Central Government shall, as soon as may be after the commencement
of this Act, constitute a Committee called the Central Seed Committee to
advise the Central Government and the State Governments on matters
arising out of the administration of this Act and to carry out the other
functions assigned to it by or under this Act.

(2) The Committee shall consist of the following members, namely:-

(i) a Chairman to be nominated by the Central Government;

(ii) eight persons to be nominated by the Central Government to

represent such interests that Government thinks fit, of whom not less
than two persons shall be representatives of growers of seed;

(iii) one person to be nominated by the Government of each of the

States.
 (3) The members of the Committee shall, unless their seats become vacant
earlier by resignation, death or otherwise, be entitled to hold office for
two years and shall be eligible for renomination.

(4) The Committee may, subject to the previous approval of the Central
Government, make bye-laws fixing the quorum and regulating its own
procedure and the conduct of all business to be transacted by it.

(5) The Committee may appoint one or more sub-committees, consisting

wholly of members of the Committee or wholly of other persons or partly
of members of the Committee and partly of other persons, as it thinks fit,
for the purpose of discharging such of its functions as may be delegated to
such sub-committee or sub-committees by the Committee.

(6) The functions of the Committee or any sub-committee thereof may be

exercised notwithstanding any vacancy therein.

(7) The Central Government shall appoint a person to be the secretary of the
Committee and shall provide the Committee with such clerical and other
staff as the Central Government considers necessary.

Central Seed Laboratory and State Seed Laboratory

4. (1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,

establish a Central Seed Laboratory or declare any seed laboratory as the
Central Seed Laboratory to carry out the functions entrusted to the Central
Seed Laboratory by or under this Act.

(2) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,

establish one or more State Seed Laboratories or declare any seed
laboratory as a State Seed Laboratory where analysis of seeds of any
notified kind or variety shall be carried out by Seed Analysts under this
Act in the prescribed manner.

Power to notify kinds or varieties of seeds

5. If the Central Government, after consultation with the committee, is of

opinion that it is necessary or expedient to regulate the quality of seed of
any kind or variety to be sold for purposes of agriculture, it may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, declare such kind or variety to be a
notified kind or variety for the purposes of the Act and different kinds or
varieties may be notified for different States or for different areas thereof.
Power to specify minimum limits of germination and purity, etc.
6. The Central Government may, after consultation of the Committee and by
notification in the Official Gazette, specify –

(a) the minimum limits of germination and purity with respect to any seed of
any notified kind or variety:
(b) the mark or label to indicate that such seed conforms to the minimum
limits of germination and purity specified under clause (a) and the
particulars which marks or label may contain.

Regulation of sale of seeds of notified kinds or varieties

7. No person shall, himself or by any other person on his behalf, carry on the
business of selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering or otherwise
supplying any seed of any notified kind or variety, unless-

(a) such seed is identifiable as to its kind or variety;

(b) such seed conforms to the minimum limits of germination and purity
specified under clause (a) of section 6;
(c) the container of such seed bears in the prescribed manner, the mark or
label containing the correct particulars thereof, specified under clause (b)
of section 6; and
(d) he complies with such other requirements as may be prescribed.

Certification agency

8. The State Government or the Central Government in consultation with the

State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, establish a
certification agency for the State to carry out the functions entrusted to the
certification agency by or under this Act.

Grant of certificate by certification agency

9. (1) Any person selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering or
otherwise supplying any seed of any notified kind or variety may, if he
desires to have such seed certified by the certification agency, apply to the
certification agency for the grant of a certificate for the purpose.

(2) Every application under sub-section (1) shall be made in such form, shall
contain such particulars and shall be accompanied by such fees as may be
prescribed.

(3) On receipt of any such application for the grant of a certificate, the
certification agency may, after such enquiry as it thinks fit and after
satisfying itself that the seed to which the application relates conforms to
the minimum limits of germination and purity specified for that seed under
clause (a) of section 6, grant a certificate in such form and on such
conditions as may be prescribed.
Revocation of certificate
10. If the certification agency is satisfied, either on a reference made to it in
this behalf or otherwise, that-

(a) the certificate granted by it under section 9 has been obtained by

misrepresentation as to an essential fact; or
(b) the holder of the certificate has, without reasonable cause, failed to
comply with the conditions subject to which the certificate has been
granted or has contravened any of the provisions of this Act or the
rules made thereunder;

then, without prejudice to any other penalty to which the holder of the
certificate may be liable under this Act, the certification agency may,
after giving the holder of the certificate an opportunity of showing
cause, revoke the certificate.

Appeal

11. (1) Any person aggrieved by a decision of a certification agency under section
9 or section 10, may, within thirty days from the date on which the
decision is communicated to him and on payment of such fees as may be
prescribed, prefer an appeal to such authority as may be specified by the
State Government in this behalf:

Provided that the appellate authority may entertain an appeal after the
expiry of the said period of thirty days if it is satisfied that the appellate
was prevented by sufficient cause from filing the appeal in time.

(2) On receipt of an appeal under sub-section (1), the appellate authority shall,
after giving the appellant an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the
appeal as expeditiously as possible.

(3) Every order of the appellate authority under this section shall be final.

Seed Analysts

12. The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint
such persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications, to be
Seed Analysts and define the areas within which they shall exercise
jurisdiction.

Seed Inspectors

13. (1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint
such persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications, to be
Seed Inspectors and define the areas within which they shall exercise
jurisdiction.

(2) Every Seed Inspector shall be deemed to be a public servant within the
meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) and shall be
officially subordinate to such authority as the State Government may
specify in this behalf.
Powers of Seed Inspector

14. (1) The Seed Inspector may-

(a) take samples of any seed of any notified kind or variety from-

(i) any person selling such seed; or

(ii) any person who is in the course of conveying, delivering or

preparing to deliver such seed to a purchaser or a consignee; or

(iii) a purchaser or a consignee after delivery of such seed to him;

(b) send such sample for analysis to the Seed Analyst for the area within
which such sample has been taken;
(c) enter and search at all reasonable times, with such assistance, if any, as
he considers necessary, any place in which he has reason to believe
that an offence under this Act has been or is being committed and
order in writing the person in possession of any seed in respect of
which the offence has been or is being committed, not to dispose of
any stock of such seed for a specific period not exceeding thirty days
or, unless the alleged offence is such that the defect may be removed
by the possessor of the seed, seize the stock of such seed;
(d) examine any record, register, document or any other material object
found in any place mentioned in clause (c) and seize the same if he has
reason to believe that it may furnish evidence of the commission of an
offence punishable under this Act; and
(e) exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the
purposes of this Act or any rule made thereunder.

(2) Where any sample of any seed of any notified kind or variety is taken
under clause (a) of sub-section (1), its cost, calculated at the rate at which
such seed is usually sold to the public, shall be paid on demand to the
person from whom it is taken.

(3) The power conferred by this section includes power to break-open any
container in which any seed of any notified kind or variety may be
contained or to break-open the door of any premises where any such seed
may be kept for sale:

Provided that the power to break-open the door shall be exercised only
after the owner or any other person in occupation of the premises, if he is
present therein, refuses to open the door on being called upon to do so.

(4) Where the Seed Inspector takes any action under clause (a) of sub-section
(1), he shall, as far as possible, call not less than two persons to be present
at the time when such action is taken and take their signatures on a
memorandum to be prepared in the prescribed form and manner.

(5) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (5 of 1898), shall,
so far as may be, apply to any search or seizure under this section as they
apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued
under section 98 of the said Code.
Procedure to be followed by Seed Inspectors

15. (1) Whenever a Seed Inspector intends to take sample of any seed of any
notified kind or variety for analysis, he shall-

(a) give notice in writing, then and there, of such intention to the person from
whom he intends to take sample;
(b) except in special cases provided by rules made under this Act, take three
representative samples in the prescribed manner and mark and seal or
fasten up each sample in such manner as its nature permits.

(2) When samples of any seed of any notified kind or variety are taken under
sub-section (1), the Seed Inspector shall-

(a) deliver one sample to the person from whom it has been taken;
(b) send in the prescribed manner another sample for analysis to the Seed
Analyst for the area within which such sample has been taken; and
(c) retain the remaining sample in the prescribed manner for production in
case any legal proceedings are taken or for analysis by the Central Seed
Laboratory under sub-section (2) of section 16, as the case may be.

(3) If the person from whom the samples have been taken refuses to accept
one of the samples, the Seed Inspector shall send intimation to the Seed
Analyst of such refusal and thereupon the Seed Analyst receiving the
sample for analysis shall divide it into two parts and shall seal or fasten up
one of those parts and shall cause it, either upon receipt of the sample or
when he delivers his report, to be delivered to the Seed Inspector who shall
retain it for production in case legal proceedings are taken.

(4) Where a Seed Inspector takes any action under clause (c) of sub-section (1)
of section 14:

(a) he shall use all despatch in ascertaining whether or not the seed
contravenes any of the provisions of section 7 and if it is ascertained that
the seed does not so contravene, forthwith revoke the order passed under
the said clause or, as the case may be, take such action as may be
necessary for the return of the stock of the seed seized;
(b) if he seizes the stock of the seed, he shall, as soon as may be, inform a
magistrate and take his orders as to the custody thereof;
(c) without prejudice to the institution of any prosecution, if the alleged
offence is such that the defect may be removed by the possessor of the
seed, he shall, on being satisfied that the defect has been so removed,
forthwith revoke the order passed under the said clause.

(5) Where as Seed Inspector seizes any record, register, document or any other
material object under clause (d) of sub-section (1) of section 14, he shall,
as soon as may be, inform a magistrate and take his orders as to the
custody thereof.

Report of Seed Analyst

16. (1) The Seed Analyst shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the sample
under sub-section (2) of section 15, analyse the sample at the State Seed
Laboratory and deliver, in such form as may be prescribed, one copy of the
 report of the result of the analysis to the Seed Inspector and another copy
thereof to the person from whom the sample has been taken.

(2) After the institution of a prosecution under this Act, the accused vendor or
the complainant may, on payment of the prescribed fee, make an
application to the court for sending any of the samples mentioned in clause
(a) or clause (c) of sub-section (2) of section 15 to the Central Seed
Laboratory for its report and on receipt of the application, the court shall
first ascertain that the mark and the seal or fastening as provided in clause
(b) of sub-section (1) of section 15 are intact and may then despatch the
sample under its own seal to the Central Seed Laboratory which shall
thereupon send its report to the court in the prescribed form within one
month from the date of receipt of the sample, specifying the result of the
analysis.

(3) The report sent by the Central Seed Laboratory under sub-section (2) shall
supersede the report given by the Seed Analyst under sub-section (1).

(4) Where the report sent by the Central Seed Laboratory under sub-section (2)
is produced in any proceedings under Section 19, it shall not be necessary
in such proceedings to produce any sample or part thereof taken for
analysis.

Restriction on export and import of seeds of notified kinds or varieties

17. No person shall, for the purpose of sowing or planting by any person
(including himself), export or import or cause to be exported or imported
any seed of any notified kind or variety, unless-

(a) it conforms to the minimum limits of germination and purity specified for
that seed under clause (a) of section 6; and
(b) its container bears, in the prescribed manner, the mark or label with the
correct particulars thereof specified for that seed under clause (b) of
section 6.

Recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries

18. The Central Govt. may, on the recommendation of the Committee and by
notification in the Official Gazette, recognise any seed certification agency
established in any foreign country, for the purposes of this Act.

Penalty

19. If any person-

(a) contravenes any provision of this Act or any rule made thereunder; or
(b) prevents a Seed Inspector from taking sample under this Act;
or
(c) prevents a Seed Inspector from exercising any other power conferred on
him by or under this Act;
he shall, on conviction, be punishable-

(i) for the first offence with fine which may extend to five hundred
rupees, and
 (ii) in the event of such person having been previously convicted of an
offence under this section, with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to one thousand
rupees, or with both.

Forfeiture of property

20. When any person has been convicted under this Act for the contravention of
any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder, the seed in
respect of which the contravention has been committed may be forfeited to the
Government.

Offences by companies

21. (1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every
person who at the time the offence was committed was in charge of, and
was responsible to the company for the conduct of the business of the
company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such
person liable to any punishment under this Act if he proves that the
offence was committed without his knowledge and that he exercised all
due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence

under this Act has been committed by a company and it is proved that the
offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is
attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary
or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other
officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable
to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.

Explanation. – For the purpose of this section,-

(a) “company” means any body corporate and includes a firm or other
association of individuals; and
(b) “director”, in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

Protection of action taken in good faith

22. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the
Government or any officer of the Government for anything which is in
good faith done or intended to be done under this Act.

Power to give directions

23. The Central Government may give such directions to any State
Government as may appear to the Central Government to be necessary for
carrying into execution in the State any of the provisions of this Act or of
any rule made thereunder.
Exemption

24. Nothing in this Act shall apply to any seed of any notified kind or variety
grown by a person and sold or delivered by him on his own premises direct
to another person for being used by that person for the purpose of sowing
or planting.

Power to make rules

25. (1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
make rules to carry out the purpose of this Act.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the fore-going

power, such rules may provide, for-

(a) the functions of the Committee and the travelling and daily allowances
payable to members of the Committee and members of any sub-
committee appointed under sub-section (5) of section 3;
(b) the functions of the Central Seed Laboratory;
(c) the functions of a certification agency;
(d) the manner of marking or labelling the container of seed of any
notified kind or variety under clause (c) of Section 7 and under clause
(b) of section 17;
(e) the requirements which may be complied with by a person carrying on
the business referred to in section 7;
(f) the form of application for the grant of a certificate under section 9, the
particulars it may contain, the fees which should accompany it, the
form of the certificate and the conditions subject to which the
certificate may be granted;
(g) the form and manner in which and the fee on payment of which an
appeal may be preferred under section 11 and the procedure to be
followed by the appellate authority in disposing of the appeal;
(h) the qualifications and duties of Seed Analysts and Seed Inspectors;
(i) the manner in which samples may be taken by the Seed Inspector, the
procedure for sending such samples to the Seed Analyst or the Central
Seed Laboratory and the manner of analysing such samples;
(j) the form of report of the result of the analysis under sub-section (1) or
sub-section (2) of section 16 and the fees payable in respect of such
report under the said sub-section (2);
(k) the records to be maintained by a person carrying on the business
referred to in section 7 and the particulars which such records shall
contain; and
(l) any other matter which is to be or may be prescribed.

(3) Every rule made under this Act shall be laid as soon as may be after it is
made, before each House of Parliament while it is in session for a total
period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or in two
successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the session in which it is
so laid or the session immediately following, both Houses agree in making
any modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not
be made, that rule shall, thereafter have effect only in such modified form
or be of no effect, as the case may be; so however, that any such
modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of
anything previously done under that rule.
 THE SEEDS RULES 1968
PART I - Preliminary

1. Short title. – These rules may be called the Seeds Rules, 1968.

2. Definitions. – In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires,-

(a) “Act” means the Seeds Act, 1966 (54 of 1966);

(b) “advertisement” means all representations other than those on the label, disseminated in any
manner or by any means relating to seed for the purposes of the Act;

(c) “certification sample” means a sample of seed drawn by a certification agency or by a duly
authorised representative of a certification agency established under section 8 or recognized
under section 18 of the Act;

(d) “certification tag” means a tag or label of certain design to be specified by the certification
agency and shall constitute the certificate granted by the certification agency;

(e) “certified seed” means seed that fulfils all requirements for certification provided by the Act and
these rules and to the container of which the certification tag is attached;

(f) “certified seed producer” means a person who grow or distributes certified seed in accordance
with the procedure and standards of the certification agency;

(g) “complete record” means the information which relates to the origin, variety, kind, germination
and purity of seed of any notified kind or variety offered for sale, sold or otherwise supplied;

(h) “form” means a form appended to these rules;

(i) “origin” means the State, Union Territory or foreign country where the seed is grown and in case
seeds of different origin are blended the label shall show the percentage of seed of each origin;

(j) “processing” means cleaning, drying, treating, grading and other operations which would change
the purity and germination of the seed and thus requiring re-testing to determine the quality of the
seed, but does not include operations such as packaging and labelling;

(k) “section” means a section of the Act;

(l) “service sample” means a sample submitted to the Central Seed Laboratory or to a State Seed
Laboratory for testing, the results to be used as information for seeding, selling or labelling
purposes;

(m) “treated” means that the seed has been subjected to an application of a substance or process in
such a manner as to reduce, control or repel certain disease organisms, insects, or any other pests
attacking such seeds or seedlings growing therefrom and for other purposes.
 PART II – Central Seed Committee

3. Functions of the Central Seed Committee. – In addition to the functions entrusted to the
Committee by the Act, the Committee shall,-

(a) recommend the rate of fees to be levied for analysis of samples by the Central and State Seed
Testing Laboratories and for certification by the certification agencies;

(b) advise the Central or State Governments on the suitability of seed testing laboratories;

(c) send its recommendations and other concerning records to the Central Government;

(d) recommend the procedure and standards for certification, tests and analysis of seeds; and

(e) carry out such other functions as are supplemental, incidental or consequential to any of the
functions conferred by the Act or these rules.

4. Travelling and Daily Allowances Payable to Members of the Committee and its sub-
Committees. – The members of the committee and its sub-committees shall be entitled to draw
travelling and daily allowances as specified below when they are called upon to attend a meeting of
the committee or a sub-committee thereof:

(a) An official member of the committee or its sub-committees shall be entitled to draw travelling
and daily allowances in accordance with the rules of the Government under which he is for
the time being employed and from the same source from which his pay and allowances are
drawn.

(b) A non-official member shall be allowed travelling and daily allowances in accordance with
the general orders issued in this behalf by the Central Government from time to time.

PART III – Central Seed Laboratory

5. Functions. – In addition to the functions entrusted to the Central Seed Laboratory by the Act, the
Laboratory shall carry out the following functions, namely:-

(a) initiate testing programmes in collaboration with the State Seed Laboratories designed to
promote uniformity in test results between all seed laboratories in India.

(b) collect data continually on the quality of seeds found in the market and make this data
available to the Committee; and

(c) carry out such other functions as may be assigned to it by the Central Government from time
to time.

PART IV – Seed Certification Agency

6. Functions of the Certification Agency. – In addition to the functions entrusted to the certification
agency by the Act, the Agency shall-

(a) certify seeds of any notified kinds or varieties;

(b) outline the procedure for submission of applications and for growing, harvesting, processing,
storage and labelling of seeds intended for certification till the end to ensure that seed lots
finally approved for certification are true to variety and meet prescribed standards for
certification under the Act or these rules;
 (c) maintain a list of recognised breeders of seeds;

(d) verify, upon receipt of an application for certification that the variety is eligible for
certification, that the seed source used for planting was authenticated and the record of
purchase is in accordance with these rules and the fees have been paid;

(e) take sample and inspect seed lots produced under the procedure laid down by the certification
agency and have such samples tested to ensure that the seed conforms to the prescribed
standards of certification;

(f) inspect seed processing plants to see that the admixtures of other kinds and varieties are not
introduced;

(g) ensure that action at all stages, e.g. field inspection, seed processing plant inspection, analysis
of samples taken and issue of certificates (including tags, marks, labels and seals) is taken
expeditiously;

(h) carry out educational programmes designed to promote the use of certified seed including a
publication listing certified seed growers and sources of certified seed;

(i) grant certificates (including tags labels, seals etc.) in accordance with the provisions of the
Act and these rules;

(j) maintain such records as may be necessary to verify that seed plants for the production of
certified seed were eligible for such planting under these rules;

(k) inspect fields to ensure that the minimum standards for isolation, roguing (where applicable)
use of male sterility (where applicable) and similar factors are maintained at all times, as well
as ensure that seedborne diseases are not present in the field to a greater extent than those
provided in the standards for certification.

PART V – Marking or Labelling

7. Responsibility for Marking or Labelling. – When seed of a notified kind or variety is offered for
sale under section 7, each container shall be marked or labelled in the manner hereinafter specified.
The person whose name appears on the mark or label shall be responsible for the accuracy of the
information required to appear on the mark or label so long as seed is contained in the unopened
original container:

Provided, however, that such person shall not be responsible for the accuracy of the statement
appearing on the mark or label if the seed is removed from the original unopened container, or he
shall not be responsible for the accuracy of the germination statement beyond the date of validity
indicated on the mark or label.

8. Contents of the mark or label. – There shall be specified on every mark or label-

(i) particulars, as specified by the Central Government under clause (b) of section 6 of the Act;
(ii) a correct statement of the net content in terms of weight and expressed in metric system;
(iii) date of testing;
(iv) if the seed in container has been treated-

(a) a statement indicating that the seed has been treated;

(b) the commonly accepted chemical or abbreviated chemical (generic) name of the
applied substance; and
(c) if the substance of the chemical used for treatment, and present with the seed is
 harmful to human beings or other vertebrate animals, a caution statement such as “Do
not use for food, feed or oil purposes”. The caution for mercurials and similarly toxic
substance shall be the word “Poison” which shall be in type size, prominently
displayed on the label in red:

(v) the name and address of the person who offers for sale, sells or otherwise supplies the seed
and who is responsible for its quality;
(vi) the name of the seed as notified under section 5 of the Act.

9. Manner of marking or labelling the container under clause (C) of section 7 and clause (B) of
section 17. – (1) The mark or label containing the particulars of the seed as specified under clause
(b) of section 6 shall appear on each container of seed or on a tag or mark or label attached to the
container in a conspicuous place on the innermost container in which the seed is packed and on every
other covering in which that container is packed and shall be legible.

(2) Any transparent cover or any wrapper, case or other covering used solely for the purpose of
packing of transport or delivery need not be marked or labelled.

(3) Where by a provision of these rules, any particulars are required to be displayed on a label on
the container, such particulars may, instead of being displayed on a label be etched, painted
or otherwise indelibly marked on the container.

10. Mark or Label not to contain false or misleading statement. – The mark or label shall not contain
any statement, claim, design, device, fancy name or abbreviation which is false or misleading in any
particular concerning the seed contained in the container.

11. Mark or label not to contain reference to the Act or Rules contradictory to required
particulars. – The mark or label shall not contain any reference to the Act, or any of these, rules or
any comment on, or reference to, or explanation of any particulars or declaration required by the Act
or any of these rules which directly or by implication contradicts, qualifies or modifies such
particulars or declaration.

12. Denial of Responsibility for mark or label content prohibited. – Nothing shall appear on the mark
or label or in any advertisement pertaining to any seed of any notified kind or variety which shall
deny responsibility for the statement required by or under the Act to appear on such mark, label or
advertisement.

PART VI – Requirements

13. Requirements to be complied with by a person carrying on the Business referred to in Section
7. – (1) No person shall sell, keep for sale, offer to sell, barter or otherwise supply any seed of any
notified kind or variety, after the date recorded on the container, mark or label as the date upto which
the seed may be expected to retain the germination not less than that prescribed under clause (a) of
section 6 of the Act.

(2) No person shall after, obliterate or deface any mark or label attached to the container of any
seed.

(3) Every person selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering or otherwise supplying any
seed of notified kind or variety under section 7, shall keep over a period of three years a
complete record of each lot of seed sold except that any seed sample may be discarded one
year after the entire lot represented by such sample has been disposed of. The sample of seed
kept as part of the complete record shall be as large as the size notified in the official
Gazette. This sample, if required to be tested, shall be tested only for determining the purity.
(14) Classes and sources of certified seed. – (1) There shall be three classes of certified seed, namely,
foundations, registered and certified and each class shall meet the following standards for that class:-

(a) Foundation seed shall be the progeny of breeders’ seed, or be produced from foundation
seed which can be clearly traced to breeder’s seed. Production shall be supervised and
approved by a seed certification agency and be so handled as to maintain specific genetic
purity and identify and shall be required to meet certification standards for the crop being
certified.
(b) Registered seed shall be the progeny of foundation seed that is so
handled as to maintain its genetic identity and purity according to standard specified for
the particular crop being certified.
(c) Certified seed shall be the progeny of registered or foundation seed
that is so handled to maintain genetic identity and purity according to standards specified
for the particular crop being certified.

(2) At the discretion of the certification agency (when considered necessary to maintain adequate
seed supplies) certified seed may be the progeny of certified seed provided this reproduction
may not exceed three generations and provided further that it is determined by the seed
certification agency, that the genetic purity will not be significantly altered.

PART VII – Certification of Seeds

15. Application for the Grant of a Certificate. – Every application for the grant of a certificate under
sub-section (1) of section 9 shall be made in Form I in accordance with the procedure outlined by the
certification agency for submission of applications and contain the following particulars, namely:-

(a) the name, profession, and place of residence of the applicant;

(b) the name of the seed to be certified; its notified kind or variety;
(c) class of the seed;
(d) source of the seed;
(e) limits of germination and purity of the seed;
(f) mark or label of the seed.

16. Fees. – Every application under sub-section (1) of section 9 shall be accompanied by a fee of Rs. 25
in cash.

17. Certificate. – Every certificate granted under sub-section (3) of section 9 shall be in Form II and
shall be granted by the certification agency, after making enquiries and satisfying itself in accordance
with the provisions of the said sub-section on the following conditions, for the period to be specified
by the certification agency, namely:-

(i) The person to whom the certificate is granted under sub-section (3) of section 9 shall attach
a certification tag to every container of the certified seed and shall follow the provisions in
respect of marking or labelling provided by or under the Act.
(ii) The certification tag shall contain the following particulars, namely:-
(a) name and address of the certification agency;
(b) kind and variety of the seed;
(c) lot number or other mark of the seed;
(d) name and address of the certified seed producer;
(e) date of issue of the certificate and of its validity;
(f) an appropriate sign to designate certified seed;
(g) an appropriate word denoting the class designation of the seed.
(iii) The colour of the certification tag shall be white for foundation seed, purple for registered
seed and blue for certified seed.

(iv) The container of the certified seed shall carry a seal of such material and in such form as the
certification agency may determine and no container carrying a certification tag shall be sold
by the person if the tag or seal has either been tampered with or removed.

(v) The certification tag on the container shall specify-

(a) the period during which the seed shall be used for sowing or planting;
(b) that the use of seed after the expiry of the validity period by any person is entirely at
his risk and the holder of the certificate shall not be responsible for any damage to the
buyer of the seed;
(c) that no one should purchase the seed if the seal or the certification tag has been
tampered with.

(vi) The holder of the certificate shall keep record of the details of each lot of the seed which is
issued for sale in such form as to be available for inspection and to be easily identified by
reference to the number of the lot as shown in the certification tag of each container and such
records shall be retained in the case of a seed for which expiry date is fixed for a period of
two years from the expiry of such date.

(vii) The holder of the certificate shall allow any Seed Inspector, authorised in writing by the
certification agency in that behalf, to enter with or without prior notice the premises where
the seeds are grown processed and sold and to inspect premises, plant and the process of
processing at all reasonable hours.

(viii) The holder of the certificate shall allow the Seed Inspector, authorised in writing by the
certification agency, to inspect all registers and records maintained under these rules and to
take samples of the seeds and shall supply to the Seed Inspector such information as he may
require for the purposes of ascertaining whether the conditions subject to which the certificate
has been granted, have been complied with.

(ix) The holder of the certificate shall on request furnish to the certification agency from every
lot of the seed or from such lot or lots as the said agency may from time to time specify, a
sample of such quantity as the agency may consider adequate for any examination required to
be made.

(x) If the certification agency so directs, the holder of the certificate shall not sell or offer for
sale any lot in respect of which a sample is furnished under the preceding clause until the
agency authorises the sale of such lot.

(xi) The holder of the certificate shall on being directed by the certification agency that any part
of a lot has been found by the said agency not to conform to prescribed standards of quality
or purity specified by or under the Act, withdraw the remainder of that lot from sale and so
far as may, in the particular circumstances of the case, be practicable, recall all issues already
made from that lot.

(xii) The holder of the certificate shall comply with the provisions of the Act and these rules and
with the directions given after not less than one month’s notice by the certification agency to
such holder.
 PART VIII – Appeals

18. The form and manner in which and the fee on payment of which the appeal may be referred. –

(1) Every memorandum of appeal under sub-section (1) of section 11 shall be in writing and shall be
accompanied by a copy of the decision of the certification agency against which it has been
preferred and shall set forth concisely and under distinct heads the grounds of objection to such
decision without any argument, or narrative.

(2) Every such memorandum of appeal shall be accompanied by a treasury receipt for a sum of Rs.
100/-/

(3) Every such memorandum of appeal may be presented either in person or through an agent duly
authorised in writing in this behalf by the appellant or may be sent by the registered post.

19. Procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority. – In deciding appeals under the Act the
appellate authority shall exercise all the powers which a Court has and shall follow the same
procedure which a Court follows in deciding appeals from the decree or order of an original Court
under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908)

PART IX – Seed Analysts and Seed Inspectors

20. Qualifications of Seed Analyst. – A person shall not be qualified for appointment as Seed Analyst
unless he-

(i) possesses a Master’s or equivalent degree in Agriculture or Agronomy or Botany or Horticulture

of a University recognised for this purpose by the Government and has had not less than one
year’s experience in seed technology; or

(ii) possesses a Bachelor’s degree in Agriculture or Botany of a University recognised for this
purpose by the Government and has had not less than three years’ experience in seed
technology.

21. Duties of a Seed Analyst. – On receipt of a sample for analysis the Seed Analyst shall first ascertain
that the mark and the seal or fastening as provided in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 15 are
intact and shall note the condition of the seals thereon.

(2) The Seed Analyst shall analyse the samples according to the provisions of the Act and these
rules.

(3) The Seed Analyst shall deliver the copy of the report of the result of the analysis to the
persons specified in sub-section (1) of section 16.

(4) The Seed Analyst shall from time to time forward to the State Government the reports giving
the result of analytical work done by him.

22. Qualifications of Seed Inspectors. – A person shall not be qualified for appointment as Seed
Inspector unless he is a graduate in Agriculture of a University recognised for the purpose by the
Government and has had not less than one years experience in seed production, or seed development
or seed analysis or testing in a seed testing laboratory.
23. Duties of a Seed Inspector. - In addition to the duties specified by the Act the seed inspector shall -

(a) inspect as frequently as may be required by certification agency all places used for growing,
storage or sale of any seed of any notified kind or variety;
(b) satisfy himself that the conditions of the certificates are being observed;
(c) procure and send for analysis, if necessary, samples of any seeds, which he has reason to
suspect are being produced stocked or sold or exhibited for sale in contravention of the
provisions of the Act or these rules;
(d) investigate any complaint, which may be made to him in writing in respect of any
contravention of the provisions of the Act or these rules;
(e) maintain a record of all inspections made and action taken by him in the performance of his
duties including the taking of samples and the seizure of stocks and submit copies of such
record to the Director of Agriculture or the certification agency as may be directed in this
behalf;
(f) when so authorised by the State Government detain imported containers which he has reason
to suspect contain seeds, import of which is prohibited except and in accordance with the
provisions of the Act and these rules;
(g) institute prosecutions in respect of breaches of the Act and these rules; and
(h) perform such other duties as may be entrusted to him by the competent authority.

PART X – Sealing, Fastening, Despatch and Analysis of Samples

24. Manner of taking Samples. – Samples of any seed of any notified kind or variety for the purpose of
analysis shall be taken in a clean dry container which shall be closed sufficiently tight to prevent
leakage and entrance of moisture and shall be carefully sealed.

25. Containers to be labelled and addressed. – All containers containing samples for analysis shall be
properly labelled and the parcels shall be properly addressed. The label on any sample of seed sent
for analysis shall bear-

(a) serial number;

(b) name of the sender with official designation, if any;
(c) name of the person from whom the sample has been taken;
(d) date and place of taking the sample;
(e) kind or variety of the seed for analysis;
(f) nature and quantity of preservative, if any, added to the sample;

26. Manner of Packing, Fastening and Sealing the Samples. – All samples of seeds sent for analysis
shall be packed, fastened and sealed in the following manner:

(a) The stopper shall first be securely fastened so as to prevent leakage of the containers in
transit.
(b) The container shall then be completely wrapped in fairly strong thick paper. The ends of the
paper shall be neatly folded in and affixed by means of gum or other adhesive.
(c) The paper cover shall be further secured by means of strong twine or thread both above and
across the container, and the twine or thread shall then be fastened on the paper cover by
means of sealing wax on which there shall be at least four distinct and clear impressions of
the seal of the sender, of which one shall be at the top of the packet, one at the bottom and the
other two on the body of the packet. The knots of the twine or thread shall be covered by
means of sealing wax bearing the impression of the seal of the sender.

27. Form of Order. – The order to be given in writing by the Seed Inspector under clause (c) of sub-
section (1) of section 14 shall be in Form III.
28. Form of Receipt for Records. – When a Seed Inspector seizes any record, register, document or any
other material object under clause (d) of sub-section (1) of section 14, he shall issue a receipt in
Form IV to the person concerned.

29. Samples how to be sent to the Seed Analyst. – The container of sample for analysis shall be sent to
the Seed Analyst by registered post or by hand in a sealed packed enclosed together with a
memorandum in Form V in an outer cover addressed to the Seed Analyst.

30. Memorandum and Impression of seal to be sent separately. – A copy of the memorandum and a
specimen impression of the seal used to seal the packet shall be sent to the Seed Analyst separately
by registered post or delivered to him or to any person authorised by him.

31. Addition of Preservatives to Samples. – Any person taking a sample of seed for the purpose of
analysis under the Act may add a preservative as may be specified from time to time to the sample
for the purpose of maintaining it in a condition suitable for analysis.

32. Nature and Quantity of the Preservative to be noted on the Label. – Whenever any preservative
is added to a sample, the nature and quantity of the preservative added shall be clearly noted on the
label to be affixed to the container.

33. Analysis of the Sample. – On receipt of the packet, it shall be opened either by the Seed Analyst or
by an officer authorised in writing in that behalf by the Seed Analyst, who shall record the condition
of the seal on the packet. Analysis of the sample shall be carried out at the State Seed Laboratory in
accordance with the procedure laid down by the Central Government.

34. Form of Notice. – The notice to be given under clause (a) of sub-section (1) of section 15 to the
person from whom the Seed Inspector intends to take sample shall be in Form VI.

35. Form of Report. – The report of the result of the analysis under sub-section (1) or sub-section (2) of
section 16 shall be delivered or sent in Form VII.

36. Fees. – The fees payable in respect of the report from the Central Seed Laboratory under sub-section
(2) of section 16 shall be Rs. 10/- per sample of the seed analysed.

37. Retaining of the Sample. – The sample of any seed shall, under clause (c) of sub-section (2) of
section 15, be retained under a cool, dry environment to eliminate the loss of viability and insect
proof or rat proof container. The containers shall be dusted with suitable insecticides and the storage
room fumigated to avoid infestation of samples by insects. The sample shall be packed in good
quality containers of uniform shape and size before storage.

PART XI - Miscellaneous

38. Records. – A person carrying on the business referred to in section 7 shall maintain the following
records, namely:-
(a) stock record of seed;
(b) record of the sale of seeds;

39. Form of Memorandum. – The memorandum to be prepared under subsection (4) of section 14 shall
be in Form VIII.
 FORM I
Form of application for seed production under the seed certification programme

1. Name (in Block Letters) ________________________________________

2. Complete Address

(In Block Letters)

Village _____________________

Post Office __________________

District _____________________

State ______________________

Telegraph Office _____________

Nearest Rly. Station ___________

Telephone No. _______________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Nearest town __________________

its distance from your farm Highway
No. or Route __________________

4. Name of variety/kind of seed offered

for certification.

5. Area under each variety/kind

offered for certification.

6. Class of seed desired to be produced

Foudation/Registered/Certified.

7. Source of seed for Item 6 above

(also mention Tag No. and other
particulars on the tag).

8. “Isolation distance” (in meters) from

other varieties of the same crop.
North to South : East to West.

9. Actual or proposed date of planting.

Signature.
Date

______________________________________________________________________________
(To be filled in by the office of the Seed Certification Agency)

1. Number of field inspections made _______________________________

Dates of Inspection

(Copy of inspection reports to be attached).

2. Report of Seed Analyst (copy to be attached).

3. Certificate issued.

Tag No.

Date of issue

Issued by

Signature

Director

Seed Certification Agency.

 FORM II
Seed Certification Agency _________________________________

Tag No. ________________________________

Director

Seed Certification Agency

Kind _________________ Variety _________________________________

Lot No. _______________________________

Germination __________________% Not below %

Date of test _______________________________

Certification valid upto _____________________

Minimum pure seed %

Innert matter _________________% Not more than __________________%

Weed seeds (Max) %

Other crop seeds _______________ Not more than _________________%

Producer __________________ (Name and Full Address) _____________

Class of seed __________________________

N.B.:-

1. A white tag shall be used for foundation seed.

2. A purple tag shall be used for registered seed.

3. A blue tag shall be used for certified seed.

4. Certification shall be valid for the period indicated on the tag provided seed is stored under
cool dry environment.
 FORM III

To

(Name and address of the vendor)

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

Whereas I have reason to believe that the stock of seeds in your possession detailed below
contravenes the provisions of Section 6 of the Seeds Act, 1966 (No. 54 of 1966).

I hereby direct you under clause (c) of Sub-Section (1) of Section 14 of the Seeds Act, 1966 (No. 54
of 1966) not to dispose of the said stock for a period of from this ______________________
__________________________ date and take action to remove the following defects:-

_________________________

_________________________

_________________________

Place __________________ Seed Inspector

Date __________________ Area

Details of stock of seeds

______________________

______________________

Date __________________ Seed Inspector

 FORM IV
To

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

The records detailed below have this day been seized by me under the provisions of clause (4) of
sub-section (1) of Section 14 of the Seeds Act, 1966 (No. 54 of 1966) from the premises of
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
situated at ______________________________________________________________________________

Place ___________________

Date ____________________

Seed Inspector

Details of records seized

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

Date __________________ Seed Inspector

 FORM V

Memorandum to Seed Analyst.

Serial No. of Memorandum.

From:

______________________________

______________________________

To

The Seed Analyst

___________________________

___________________________

The sample described below is sent herewith for test and analysis under clause (b) of sub-section (1) of
section 14 and/or clauses (b) and (c) of sub-section (2) of Section 15 of the Seeds Act, 1966.

1. Serial No. of the sample.

2. Date and place of collection.

3. Nature of the articles submitted for analysis/test.

2. A copy of this memo and specimen impression of the seal used to seal the packet of samples is being
sent separately by post/hand.*

Date _____________________ Seed Inspector

*Strike out whichever is not applicable Area ___________________

 FORM VI
To

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

I hereby give you the notice of my intention of taking a sample of seed from your stocks for the
purposes of tests or analysis.

Date _________________ Seed Inspector

 FORM VII

(Certificate of test and/or analysis by the Seed Analyst)

Certified that the sample(s) bearing number _______________________ purporting to be a sample

of ____________________________________________________________ received on
____________________________ Memorandum No. __________________ dated _____________ results
of such test(s)/analysis is/are as stated below.

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

2. The condition of the seals on the packet and the outer covering on receipt was as follows.

__________________________

__________________________

Place ____________ Seed Analyst

Date ____________ Central Laboratory

If opinion is required on any other matter suitable paragraph(s) may be added.

 FORM VIII
To

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

I have this day taken from the premises of _____________________________ situated at

_____________________________ samples of seeds specified below to have the same tested/ analysed by
Seed Analyst.

Date _________________ Seed Inspector

Details of samples taken

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

Whether cost of sample damanded?

Cost of sample ____________Rs.________________________ paid.

Date ______________ Seed Inspector

Area

Signature of the party from whose premises samples taken and payment made.

[No. 4(2)/67-Seeds Dev.]

S.M.H. BURNEY, Jt. Secy.

 THE SEEDS (CONTROL) ORDER, 1983
Government of India
Ministry of Agriculture
(DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE & COOPERATION)

New Delhi, dated the 30th Dec., 1983

ORDER

GSR 932 (E) – In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 of the Essential
Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955), the Central Government hereby makes the following
order, namely:-

PRELIMINARY
1. Short title and extent:

(i) This Order may be called the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983.
(ii) It extends to the whole of India.
(iii) It shall come into force on the 30th December, 1983.

2. Definitions :

In this Order, unless the context otherwise requires,

(a) “Act” means the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955).
(b) “Controller” means a person appointed as Controller of Seeds by the Central
Government and includes any person empowered by the Central
Government to exercise all or any functions of the Controller under this
Order;
(c) “Dealer” means a person carrying on the business of selling, exporting or
importing seeds, and includes an agent of a dealer;
(d) “Export” means to take or cause to be taken out from any place in India to a
place outside India;
(e) “Form” means a form appended to this Order;
(f) “Import” means to bring or cause to be brought to any place in India from
outside India;
(g) “Inspector” means an inspector of seeds appointed under clause 12;
(h) “Registering authority” means a licensing authority appointed under clause
11;
(i) “Seeds” means the seeds as defined in the Seeds Act, 1966 (54 of 1966).
(j) “State Government” in relation to a Union Territory means the
Administrator thereof by whatever designation known.
 DEALER IN SEEDS TO BE LICENSED

3. Dealer to obtain licence

(1) No person shall carry on the business of selling, exporting or importing seeds at any
place except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of licence granted
to him under this order.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-clause (1), the State Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, exempt from the provisions of that sub-clause
such class of dealers in such areas and subject to such conditions as may be specified
in the notification.

4. Application for licence

Every person desiring to obtain a licence for selling, exporting or importing seeds
shall make an application in duplicate in Form ‘A’ together with a fee of rupees fifty
for licence to licensing authority.

5. Grant and refusal of licence

(1) The licensing authority may, after making such enquiry as it thinks fit, grant a
licence in Form ‘B’ to any person who applies for it under clause 4:

Provided that a licence shall not be issued to a person-

(a) whose earlier licence granted under this Order is under suspension, during
the period of such suspension;
(b) whose earlier licence granted under this Order has been cancelled, within a
period of one year from the date of such cancellation.
(c) who has been convicted under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of
1955) or any order issued thereunder within three years preceding the date of
application.

(2) When the licensing authority refuses to grant licence to a person who applies for it
under clause 4, he shall record his reasons for doing so.

6. Period of validity of licence

Every licence under this Order, shall, unless previously suspended or cancelled,
remain valid for three years from the date of its issue.

7. Renewal of licence

(1) Every holder of licence desiring to renew the licence, shall, before the date of
expiry of the licence, make an application for renewal in duplicate, to the
licensing authority in Form ‘C’ together with a fee of rupees twenty for renewal.
On receipt of such application, together with such fee, the licensing authority may
renew the licence.

(2) If any application for renewal is not made before the expiry of the licence, but is
made within one month from the date of expiry of the licence, the licence may be
 renewed on payment of additional fee of rupees twenty five, in addition to the fee
for renewal of licence.

8. Dealers to display stock and price list

Every dealer of seeds shall display in his place of business:

(a) the opening and closing stocks, on daily basis, of different seeds held by
him;
(b) a list indicating prices or rates of different seeds.

9. Dealers to give memorandum to purchaser

Every dealer shall give a cash or credit memorandum to a purchaser of seeds.

10. Power to distribute seeds

Where it is considered necessary to do so in public interest, the Controller may, by an

order in writing direct any producer or dealer to sell or distribute any seed in such
manner as may be specified therein.

ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITY

11. Appointment of licensing authority

The State Government may by notification in the Official Gazette appoint such
number of persons as it thinks necessary to be licensing authority and may also define
in that notification the area within which each such licensing authority shall exercise
his jurisdiction.

12. Appointment of Inspectors

The State Government may by notification in the Official Gazette appoint such
number of persons as it thinks necessary to be inspectors and may in such notification
define the local area within which each such Inspector shall exercise his jurisdiction.

13. Inspection and punishment

(1) An Inspector may with a view to securing compliance with this Order-

(a) require any dealer to give any information in his possession with respect to
purchase, storage and sale of seeds by him;
(b) enter upon and search any premises where any seed is stored or exhibited for
sale to ensure compliance with the provisions of this Order;
(c) draw samples of seeds meant for sale, export and seeds imported, and send
the same in accordance with the procedure laid down in Schedule I, to a
laboratory notified under the Seeds Act, 1966 (54 of 1966) to ensure that the
sample conforms to standard of quality claimed;
(d) seize or detain any seed in respect of which he has reason to believe that a
contravention of this Order has been committed or is being committed;
 (e) seize any books of accounts or document relating to any seed in respect of
which he has reason to believe that a contravention of this Order has been
committed or is being committed.

Provided that the Inspector shall give a receipt, in respect of the books of
accounts or documents seized, to the person from whom they have been
seized.
Provided further that the seized books of accounts or documents shall be
returned to the person from whom the same had been seized after copies
thereof or extracts therefrom as certified by such person have been taken.

(2) Subject to the provision of paragraph (d) of sub-clause (1), the provision, of
section 100 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) relating to search
and seizure shall, so far as may be, apply to searches and seizures under this
clause.

(3) Where any seed is seized by an Inspector under this clause, he shall forthwith
report the fact of such seizure to a Magistrate where-upon the provisions of
sections 457 and 458 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) shall,
so far as may be, apply to the custody and disposal of such seed.

(4) Every person, if so required by an Inspector, shall be bound to offer all necessary
facilities to him for the purpose of enabling him to exercise his power under this
clause.

14. Time limit for analysis

The laboratory to which a sample has been sent by an Inspector for analysis under this
Order shall analyse the said samples and send the analysis report to the concerned
Inspector within 60 days from the date of receipt of the sample in the laboratory.

15. Suspension/Cancellation of licence

The licensing authority may, after giving the holder of the licence an opportunity of
being heard, suspend or cancel the licence on the following grounds, namely:-

(a) that the licence had been obtained by misrepresentation as to a material

particular; or
(b) that any of the provisions of this Order or any condition of licence has been
contravened.

16. Appeal

Any person aggrieved by an order-

(a) refusing to grant, amend or renew the licence for sale, export or import of
seeds;
(b) suspending or cancelling any licence, may within sixty days from the date of
the order, appeal of such authority as the State Government may specify in
this behalf, and the decision of such authority shall be final.

Provided that an application for appeal shall accompany an appeal fee of rupees fifty.
 MISCELLANEOUS
17. Amendment of licence

The licensing authority may, on receipt of a request in writing together with a fee of
rupees ten from a dealer, amend the licence of such dealer.

18. Maintenance of records and submission of returns, etc. :

(1) Every dealer shall maintain such books, accounts and records relating to his
business as may be directed by the State Government.

(2) Every dealer shall submit monthly return relating to his business for the preceding
month in Form ‘C’ to the licensing authority by the 5th day of every month.

Sd/-
R.K. Srivastava
Joint Secretary to the Govt. of India
 FORM ‘A’
(See clause 4)

FORM OF APPLICATION TO OBTAIN DEALER’S LICENCE

To
The Registering Authority,
_________________ (Place)
State of/ U.T. of

1. Full name and address of the applicant:

(a) Name and postal address:

(b) Place of business (please give exact address):

(i) for sale

(ii) for storage

2. Is it a proprietory/partnership/Limited Company/Hindu undivided family concern?

Give the Name(s) and address(es) of proprietor/partner/Manager/Karta.

3. In what capacity this application is made:

(i) Proprietor
(ii) Partner
(iii) Manager
(iv) Karta

4. Was the applicant ever convicted under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955), or
any order issued thereunder during the last three years preceding the date of application? If
so, give details

5. Give the details of seeds to be handled.

S.No. Name of Seed

6. I/we have deposited the licence fee of rupees fifty vide challan No. ______________
dated ____________________________ in treasury/bank ____________________

7. Declaration:

(a) I/we declare that the information given above is true to the best of
my/our knowledge and belief and no part thereof is false.

(b) I/we have carefully read the terms and conditions of the licence given in Form
‘B’ appended to the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983, and agree to abide by them.

Signature of Applicant
Date: _____________

Place: _____________

Note: (1) Where the business of selling/exporting/importing seeds is intended to be carried

on at more than one place, a separate licence should be obtained for each such
place.

For use in the office of Licensing Authority

Date of receipt ________________

Name and designation of officer receiving the application

 FORM ‘B’
(See clause 5)

LICENCE TO CARRY ON THE BUSINESS OF A DEALER IN SEEDS

Licence No. ________________ Date: ________________

Subject to the provisions of the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983 and to the terms and
conditions of this Licence Shri/M/s
_________________________________________________ is hereby granted licence to
sell, export, import and store for the said purposes of seeds.

2. The licencee shall carry on the aforesaid business at _______________________

(Place for storage and place for sale) _______________________ (Tehsil or District)
____________________

Date: ________________

Seal:

Licensing Authority

State of ______________

Terms and conditions of licence

(i) The licence shall be displayed at a prominent and conspicuous place in a part of the
business premises open to the public.

(ii) The holder of the licence shall comply with the provisions of the Seeds (Control)
Order, 1983 and the notifications issued thereunder and for the time being in force.

(iii) This licence comes into force with immediate effect and shall be valid upto
_____________ unless previously cancelled or suspended.

(iv) The holder of the licence shall from time to time report to the licensing authority any
change in the premises where he carries on his business of sale, export, import or
storage for the said purposes of seeds.

(v) The licencee shall give every facility to the licensing authority or any other officer
acting under his Authority for the purpose of inspecting his stock in any shop, depot
or godown or other place/places used by him for the purpose of storage, sale or export
of seeds.
 FORM ‘C’
(See clause 7)

APPLICATION FOR RENEWAL OF LICENCE TO CARRY ON THE BUSINESS OF A

DEALER IN SEEDS

To

The Licensing Authority

________________ (Place)
State of/U.T. of

I/We hereby apply for renewal of the Licence to carry on the business of dealer in
seeds under the name and style of Shri/M/s.
_______________________________________________ The licence, desired to be
renewed, was granted by the Licensing Authority for the State of
____________________________ and alloted Licence No. ____________________ on the
______ day of ____________________19

Signature of applicant(s)

Full name and address of the applicant(s) _________________________________________

Date and Place: _____________________________________________________

Certified that the Licence bearing No. ______________________ granted on

___________ to carry on the business of a dealer in seeds at the premises situated
________________________ is hereby renewed upto _______________________________,
unless previously cancelled or suspended under the provisions of the Seeds (Control) Order,
1983.

Date: ________________ Licensing Authority

Renewal No. __________ State of ______________

Seal:
 FORM ‘D’
(See clause 18)

1. Month and year:

2. Name and designation of Licensee:

(Quantity in Quintals)

Crop/ Class Opening Quantity Total Total Total Total Closing

Variety of stock purchased quantity quantity quantity stock
seed on during sold exported on
the first the month imported the last
day of day of
the the
month month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(3+4+5) 6-(7+8)

Signature of dealer
Name: _______________
Address: _______________
_______________
 SCHEDULE I
(See clause 13)

Sealing, Fastening, Despatch and Analysis of Samples

I. Manner of taking Samples

Samples of any seed for the purpose of analysis shall be taken in a clean dry container
which shall be closed sufficiently tight to prevent leakage and entrance of moisture
and shall be carefully sealed.

II. Sampling Intensity

Bulk Sampling – When sampling seed lots are stored in bulk (heaps, bins, wagons,
etc.), the following sampling intensity should be regarded as a minimum requirement
for obtaining the “bulk sample”.

(a) upto 500 kilograms – at least 5 individual samples except in case of small lots
upto 50 kilograms where a smaller number of samples is sufficient, not less than,
3 samples need be taken.

(b) 501 to 3,000 kilograms – one individual sample for each 300 kilograms, but not
less than 5 individual samples.

(c) 3,001 to 20,000 kilograms – one individual sample for each 500 kilograms but not
less than 10 individual samples.

For seed in bulk the individual samples should be distributed at random all over
the bulk and the samples drawn from varying depths.
Bag sampling – For seed lots in bags or other containers the following sampling
intensity should be regarded as a minimum requirement:

(d) upto 5 containers – sample each container but always take at least 5 individual
samples.

(e) from 6 to 30 containers – sample at least one in every three containers but never
less than 5.

(f) 31 containers or more – sample at least one in every five containers but never less
than 10.

Unless doubt exists about the homogeneity of a lot, all such primary samples
should be combined to make a composite sample of the lot for submitting to the
seed testing laboratory. If the individual or primary samples are not sufficiently
homogenous, they may be sent to the laboratory for a heterogeneity test.

III. Containers to be labelled and addressed – All containers containing samples for
analysis shall be properly labelled and the parcels shall be properly addressed. The
label on any sample of seed sent for analysis shall bear-

(a) serial number;

 (b) name of the sender with official designation, if any;
(c) name of the person from whom the sample has been taken;
(d) date and place of taking the sample;
(e) kind or variety of the seed for analysis;
(f) nature and quantity of preservative, if any, added to the sample.

IV. Manner of Packing, Fastening and Scaling the Samples – All samples of seeds sent
for analysis shall be packed, fastened and sealed in the following manner:

(a) The stopper shall first be securely fastened so as to prevent leakage of the
containers in transit.
(b) The container shall then be completely wrapped in fairly strong thick paper.
The ends of the paper shall be neatly folded in and affixed by means of gum or
other adhesive.
(c) The paper cover shall be further secured by means of strong twine or thread
both above and across the container, and the twine or thread shall then be
fastened on the paper cover by means of sealing wax on which there shall be
at least four distinct and clear impressions of the seal of the sender, of which,
one shall be at the top of the packet, one at the bottom and the other two on the
body of the packet. The knots of the twine or thread shall be covered by
means of sealing wax bearing the impression of the seal of the sender.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Seed Certification-history, phases, field inspection

Seed certification is a legal sanctioned system for quality assurance

whereby seed intended for marketing is subject to official control and inspection.
• In India the field evaluation of the seed crop and its certification started with the establishment
of National Seeds Corporation in 1963.
• A legal status was given to seed certification with the enactment of first Indian Seed Act in the
year 1966 and formulation of Seed Rules in 1968.
• The Seed Act of 1966 provided the required impetus for the establishment of official Seed
Certification Agencies by the States.
• Maharashtra was the first State to establish an official Seed Certifications Agency during
1970 as a part of the Department of Agriculture
• Karnataka was the first State to establish the Seed Certification Agency as an autonomous
body during 1974.
• At present 22 States in the country have their own Seed Certification Agencies established
under the Seed Act, 1966.
• In great majority of the countries in the World, including India, seed certification is
voluntary and labelling is compulsory.
The main objective of the Seed Certification is to ensure the acceptable standards of seed
viability, vigour, purity and seed health. A well organized seed certification should help in
accomplishing the following three primary objectives;
• The systematic increase of superior varieties
• The identification of new varieties and their rapid increase under appropriate
and generally accepted names.
• Provision for continuous supply of comparable material by careful maintenance.

Eligibility requirements for certification

Any variety to become eligible for seed certification should meet the following
requirement:
• General requirements
• Field standards
• Specific requirements
• Seed Standards
(i) General requirements
• Should be a notified variety under Section-5 of the Indian Seed Act, 1966.
• Should be in the production chain and its pedigree should be traceable.
(ii) Field standards
Field standards include the selection of site, isolation requirements, spacing, planting ratio,
border rows etc.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

(iii) Specific Requirements

Presence of off-types in any seed crop, pollen-shedders in Sorghum, Bajra, Sunflower
etc., Shedding tassels in maize crosses, disease affected plants, objectionable weed plants etc.,
should be within the maximum permissible levels for certification.

(iv) Seed standards

Seeds should meet minimum certifications standards of germination, physical purity, inert
mattes, other crop seeds and moisture content. Seeds once processed will be tested for quality
parameters in notified Seed Testing Laboratory. Seeds with MSCS will be packed and release in
the market.

Seed Certification Agencies

Seeds Act, 1966 provides for the establishment of Seed Certification Agencies in each State.
Seed Certification Agency should function on the following broad principles:
• Seed Certification agency should be an autonomous body.
• Seed Certification Agency should not involve itself in the production and marketing of
seeds.
• The Seed Certification Standards and procedures adapted by seed certification agency
should be uniform, throughout the country.
• Seed Certification Agency should have close linkage with the technical and other related
institutions.
• Its long-term objective should be to operate on no-profit no-loss basis.
• Adequate staff trained in seed certification should be maintained by the Certification
Agency.
• It should have provision for creating adequate facilities for ensuring timely and through
inspections.
• It should serve the interests of seed producers and farmers/users.
• Certify foundation and certified class of seeds

Organizational set-up of a Seed Certification Agency

Organization and establishment of a Seed Certification Agency needs careful planning. In
planning one should take into consideration the pertinent data about anticipated acreage for
certification of various crops/varieties, area of operation, farm sizes etc. The organizational set up
of the Certification Agency includes Board of Directors, technical and other staff for operating the
programme. Seed Certification Agency may have its own seed testing laboratory or it may get its
seed samples tested through seed testing laboratories.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Seed certification consists of the following quality check:

An Administrative check on the origin of the propagating material: Source seed verification
is the first step in Seed Certification Programme. Unless the seed is from approved source and of
designated class certification agency will not accept the seed field for certification, thereby
ensuring the use of high quality true to type seed for sowing of seed crops.
Field Inspection : Evaluation of the growing crop in the field for varietal purity, isolation of
seed crop is to prevent out-cross, physical admixtures, disease dissemination and also ensure crop
condition as regards to the spread of designated diseases and the presence of objectionable weed
plants etc.
Sample inspection: assessing the planting value of the seeds by laboratory tests. Certification
agency draws representative samples from the seeds produced under certification programme and
subjects them to germination and other purity tests required for conforming to varietal purity.
Bulk Inspection: Under certification programme provision has been made for bulk inspection.
Hence, the evaluation of the lot for the purpose of checking homogeneity of the bulk seed
produced as compared with the standard sample is carried out. This gives an idea about the
genuinity of lot and sample.
Control plot testing: Here the samples drawn from the source and final seed produced are grown
side by side along with the standard samples of the variety in question. By comparison it can be
determined whether the varietal purity and health of the produced seed are equal to the results
based on field inspection.
Grow-out test: Evaluation of the seeds for their genuineness to species or varieties or seed borne
infection. Here the samples drawn from the lots are grown in the field along with the standard
checks. Growing plants are observed for the varietal purity. Grow-out test helps in the elimination
of the sub-standard seed lots.

Phases of Seed Certification

Seed Certification is carried out in six broad phases listed as under:
1. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements of the seed used for raising the seed
crop.
2. Receipt and scrutiny of application.
3. Inspection of the seed crop in the field to verify its conformity to the prescribed field
standards.
4. Supervision at post-harvest stages including processing and packing.
5. Drawing of samples and arranging for analysis to verify conformity to the seed standards; and
6. Grant of certificate, issue of certification tags, labelling, sealing etc.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

I. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements of the seed used for raising the
seed crop.
Farmer
• The seed producer should submit application to the certification agency along with one or
more relevant evidence on genuine plating material used for seed production such as
certification tags, seals, labels, seed containers, purchases record etc.
• The application for certification of seed fields should be submitted by seed grower in the
prescribed form-1 in triplicate copies to the concerned Assistant director of seed certification
after source verification by the concerned officer of the agency.
• The form-1 should be submitted within 30 days from date of sowing or 15 days from date of
transplanting. Only such fields will be considered for the certification. The Form-1 contains
information of the kind and variety, area, class of the seeds intended for seed certification.

II. Receipt and scrutiny of application.

• The relevant seed certification fees such as registration fees, inspection charges, out test
charge, tag charge etc., should be send along with form-1 only are registration fees is collected
per grower for each season.
• In single application, the maximum area to be offered for certification is 25acre (10ha) only
additional area will be treated as separate registration.

III. Field Inspection: seed production plot will be visited and inspected by seed certification
officer to ensure that seed crop meets field standards and specific requirements. The number
of field inspection varies with mode of pollination, kind and class of seeds produced. Hybrid
and cross pollinated crops are inspected 4 times during their crop growth stages. The
objectives of field inspections are;
a. To verify seed origin (source seed) and identity of the variety.
b. To collect information on cropping history of the seed field, i.e. to verify whether the seed
field meets the prescribed land requirements.
c. To check crop and cultivation conditions.
d. To check isolation distance.
e. To check freedom from impurities, namely other crop plants and weeds plants.
f. To check freedom from other cultivars and off-types.
g. To check freedom from seed borne diseases.

Inspection at Crop Different Growth Stages

1. Inspection at the time of sowing: The purpose is to explain to the growers the land and
isolation requirements to check whether their seed field meets such requirements; to verify
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

their seed bags; planting; planting ratios; sowing time; seed treatment etc. In biennial
crops the main objective is to verify the purity of roots/stem at the time of transplanting.
2. Inspection during pre-flowering/vegetative stage :
• The planting ratios (in hybrid seed production), isolation requirements and land
requirements have been met.
• If contaminants are present within isolation distance, verify the stage of seed crop and
contaminant crop within the isolation distance,
• Area of seed field and approximate area of contaminant field, direction and location of
the contaminant, percentage of varietal impurity in contaminant field.
• The seed crop has not been grown as a mixed crop, intercrop or companion crop or
ratoon crop.
3. Inspection during flowering stage:
a. Check whether various corrective measures, if suggested earlier have been carried out.
b. Check/ re-check the land and isolation requirements.
c. Take detailed counts for various contaminating factors as per procedure described
earlier.
d. Advise farmer to continue roguing during flowering season.
4. Inspection during post flowering and pre harvest stage
During these inspections, detailed counts should be taken to determine the extent of
various contaminants present in the seed field, and to educate farmers regarding rogues which
were not identifiable earlier so as to remove them before final inspection. The corrective measures
suggested earlier may also be checked to ensure whether these have been done.
5. Harvest time inspection:
Seed certification officer will give instructions regarding precautions should be taken
during harvesting/threshing and supply of the material to processing plants

Number of plants/heads per count Crop Number of plants/heads

per count
Wide spaced row crops: 100 plants
Okra, Egg plant, Bulb crops, Chillies, Cole crops,
Cucurbits, groundnut, maize, potato, rot crops, tomato
etc.
Medium spaced row crops: 500 plants
Beans, leaf crops, mustard, peas etc
Thickly sown crops: 1000 plants
Barley, Oats, Paddy, Wheat etc
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

IV. Supervision at post-harvest stages including processing and packing.

Seed plots meeting the field standards are sent to notified seed processing unit for
processing. Seed Certification Officer will take care to avoid any physical admixture of
the seeds.
V. Drawing of samples and arranging for analysis to verify conformity to the seed
standards;
Seeds after cleaning and grading samples will be drawn from the seed certification officer
and sent to Seed Testing laboratory to confirm seed standards. Based on the report issued
from seed analyst form STL seed tags will be issued.

VI. Grant of certificate, issue of certification tags, labelling, sealing etc

After confirmation of the seeds meeting all the requirements like field and seed standards
certificate will be issued for the seed certification officer. The number of labels or tags are
issued as per the number of packets only. Each tag will be signed by the seed certification
officer. All the procedures will be done under the supervision of the seed certification
officer. The validation of the tag will be for initially 9 months from the date of testing.
While the validation of revalidated seed lots is for six months only.

VII. Revocation of Certificate

If the certificate Agency is satisfied, either on reference made to it in this behalf or otherwise,
that the Certificate granted by it under section 9 has been obtained by misrepresentation as an
essential fact. The holder of the certificates has, without reasonable cause, failed to comply with
conditions subject to which the certificate has been granted or has contravened any of the
provisions of this Act or rules made there under, then without prejudice to any other penalty to
which the holder of the certificate may be liable under this Act, the certification Agency may,
after giving the holder of the certificate an opportunity of showing cause, revoke the certificate.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Fig. Walking/inspecting pattern in seed production on plot to verify off-types, pollen

shedders and diseased plants

Seed certification procedures

Application for Registration as certified seed production: The person interested should
register with the concerned Assistant Director of Seed Certification by remitting Rs 25/- per crop,
per season.

Sowing Report: The seed producer shall apply to the Assistant Director of Seed Certification
concerned. Separate sowing reports are required for different crop varieties, different classes,
different stages and if the seed farm fields are separated by more than 50 m and sowing dates
differ by more than 7 days and if the seed farm area exceeds 10 ha.

Registration of sowing report: The Assistant Director of Seed Certification scrutinizes and
registers the seed farm and assigns a Seed Certification Number for each sowing report.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Verification of Seed Source: Verification of seed source is made by scrutiny of documents such
as certification tags, sale bill of the producer to seed grower, purchase bills etc., and by enquiries
during field inspection.

Field Inspection: The primary objective of conducting field inspection is to verify those factors,
which can result in irreversible damage to seed quality by causing genetic and physical
contamination.

The objective of field inspection is to verify the following factors:

 Cropping history
 Seed source
 Unit of seed certification
 Isolation distance
 Genetic and physical contaminants
 Border rows
1. Cropping history of seed field: The seeds left scattered in the field from the last crop may
cause genetic or physical contamination of the seed crop by volunteer plants. Hence in the
previous year or season the same crop of lower standard should not have been grown. The
volunteer plants should be destroyed by irrigation and subsequent ploughing, just before sowing
or planting.

2. Seed source: Source of seed of the seed crop should be approved and should satisfy the
specific requirement of purity. It is verified by checking the certification tag of the source seed
used for sowing.

3. Unit of seed certification: One unit shall consist of 10 hectares of seed farm if (i) seed fields
are separated by not more than 50 meters (ii) planting dates do not differ by more than 7 days (iii)
seed crop is of same variety and class.

4. Isolation distance: It should be provided to separate the seed crop from all possible sources of
contamination during the growing period. Sources of contamination may be (i) cross pollination
from different cultivars or (ii) transmission of designated diseases (iii) mechanical admixture
from adjacent crop during harvest.

5. Physical and genetic contaminants: Proper roguing of physical and genetic contaminants
must have been performed so as to conform to the prescribed minimum seed certification
standards. In hybrid seed production field, border rows are used to provide enough pollen and it
absorbs foreign pollen thus avoiding contamination of main seed crop. Besides, the planting ratio
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

between male and female parent is also confirmed. Roguing space should also be verified
wherever applicable. Necessary guidance should be given to farmers at each stage of field
inspection.

6. Border rows: In hybrid seed production field, border rows are used to provide enough pollen
and it absorbs foreign pollen thus avoiding contamination of main seed crop. Besides, the planting
ratio between male and female parents is also confirmed. Roguing space should also be verified
where ever applicable.

Stages and number of field inspection: The stages and number of field inspections required
depends on the breeding system of the seed crop.

Table1. Stages of field inspection for sexually propagated crops.

Crop Vegetative Flowering Post flowering Pre harvest

Self pollinated varieties - √ - √

Cross pollinated varieties √ √ - √

Hybrids √ √ √ √

Table 2.General factors to be observed

Vegetative stage Seed source, cropping history, isolation distance, seed production practices

Flowering stage Isolation distance, off-types, rogues, objectionable weeds, seed borne
diseases, other crop plants.

Post flowering and Isolation distance, off-types, rogues, objectionable weeds, seed borne
pre-harvest stage diseases, other crop plants.

Harvest stage Isolation distance, off-types, rogues, objectionable weeds,

Stages of crop inspection for vegetatively propagated crops

Potato - Sprouting, seedling lifting and replanting, tuberisation, tube hardening, haulm cutting
stages
Cauliflower - Curd formation, bolting
Knol khol - Knob formation, bolting
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Cabbage - Head formation

Field counts: It is impossible to examine all the plants in the seed farm. All the characters of the
plant may not exhibit in a particular time. Hence 'random counting' is made at required stages of
crop growth.

Table3. No. of field counts

Area of the field (acres) No. of counts to be taken

<5 5

5 – 10 6

10 – 15 7

15 – 20 8

20 – 25 9

Table 4. Number of plants /heads per count

S.No. Crop No. plants / heads

per count

1. Bajra, barely, oats, paddy, sorghum, wheat, ragi 1000 heads

2. Berseem, jute, lucerne, mesta, soyabean 1000 plants

3. Beans, cluster beans, cowpea, pea, greengram, 500 plants

blackgram, horsegram, bengalgram, mustard, sesamum,
niger, safflower, green leafy vegetables

4. Bhendi, brinjal, bulb crops, capsicum, chilli, cole crops, 100 plants
cucurbits, potato, cotton, maize, castor, groundnut,
sunflower, redgram, root crops, tomato

Processing: Processing repot should accompany the seed lot. ODV should not exceed 1%.Yield
should correlate with estimated yield. Seed should conform to prescribed moisture level and be
brought to the processing plant in new containers within 2 months. Processing and sampling
should be completed within 2 months.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Processing should be done only in approved seed processing unit after proper cleaning. Lot
identity should be maintained throughout. Appropriate sieve size should be used except in cases
of exigencies with approval from Assistant Director of Seed Certification. Processed seed shall
not have seed of the size lower than the lower than the aperture of the bottom screen used beyond
5 % by weight. Float test is done for paddy, the maximum float admissible is 5 %, or else adjust
the air flow or feeding to perfect the processing. Stenciling on containers should be verified. Next
lot number should be assigned and written legibly on the containers after processing.

Hand processing : It is allowed when the quality of seed lot is below 1000 kg in pulses and
sunflower, 500 kg in sesamum under single seed certification number for tomato, chillies, brinjal
etc., and groundnut, hand processing is allowed irrespective of quantity since required equipments
are not available.

Assigning Lot No
The lot number will have four parts. Each part will signify and conform the following
details.
MAR 04- 22- 10 - 01
First part - Month of harvest

Second part - State code

Third part - Processing plant code

Fourth part - Seed producer code

Seed Sampling and Testing: Processing and sampling should be completed within 2 months
from the date of receipt in the processing unit. SCO (Seed Certification Officer) who takes the
sample shall send the same to the concerned Assistant director of Seed Certification within 24
hours of sampling with necessary details. He will be sent it to the STL with secret code number
within 3 days. After analyses, STO (Seed Testing Officer) will communicate the result to the
Assistant director of Seed Certification. After decoding he will communicate the result
immediately to the producer and SCO concerned.

Tagging and Labelling: After receiving the seed analytical reports from the STO the result will
be checked with seed standard. After checking the tags the details may be filled up without any
correction or omission. Seed will be treated with approved chemicals, bagged, weighed and
stitched with tags and sealed. Tagging should be done within one month from the date of test. For
lots subjected to genetic purity tagging should be completed within 15 days from the date of
receipt of results.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

Sealing and grant of certificate: After receiving the seed analytical report, the producer will get
the tag from the ADSC & affixes labels (producer’s label) and tags (Blue for C.S & White for
F.S) to the containers & sealed to prevent tampering and grant certificate fixing a validity period
for 9 months. Tagging should be done within two months from the date of testing.

Validation: Initially granted certificate will be valid for 9 months. Before expiry of the seed lot
the producer shall apply for validation if he desires to have the seed lot validated for a further
period of 6 months. He shall do so after stocking the seed lot in an approved seed processing unit.
The process of extension of validity is called “validation”. Within 10 days from the date of receipt
of orders from the Assistant director of Seed Certification, SCO will inspect the seed lot. He will
verify the correctness of the seed lots and ensure whether all the containers have tags and seals are
intact. Later samples will be drawn and tested, if the lot conforms to the prescribed standards the
SCO will extend the validity period by six months by stamping validation in the existing tags duly
signed.

Seed certification agency

The functions of the Seed Certification Agency can be broadly classified into five categories.

 Seed certification
 Seed law enforcement
 Grow out test
 Issuing of certificate for transport of seeds
 Training and Liaison

1. Seed certification :
(a) Outlines the procedure for seed certification, which includes submission of application,
growing, harvesting, processing, storage and labeling of seeds.

(b) Inspection of fields to ensure that minimum standards for seed source, land requirements,
isolation, off types, pollen shedders, shedding tassels, objectionable weed plants, designated
diseases and similar factors are maintained at all times.

(c) Inspection of seed processing plants to seed that the admixtures of other kinds and varieties
are not introduced.

(d) Arrange of seed sampling, analysis of sample and issue of certificate in accordance with the
provisions of the seed Act and Seed Rules.

(e) Maintain the list of recognized breeders of seed, required records to verify the production of
certified seeds.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B)2020 2020

(f) Monitor the Breeder seed production plots by constituting a monitoring team.

2. Seed Law Enforcement: Seed inspectors will visit the premises of seed distribution agencies,
inspect seed lots produced, take samples of seed, as per the procedure and have such samples
tested to ensure that the seed conforms to the prescribed standards of certification. If found
necessary seed inspectors can issue orders to stop the sale of seeds, seize the stocks and initiate
prosecution.

3. Grow out test: It is a test of genetic purity. Samples are drawn both from the source seed and
the seed produced and grown in the field along with the standard seed samples of respective
variety. By comparison, it can be determined whether varietal purity and health of the seed
produced are according to the prescribed standards.

The objective of grow-out-test is to determine the genetic purity of a given seed lot of a released
cultivar and the extent to which the submitted sample conforms to the prescribed standards. Grow
out tests are conducted for foundation classes I and II of variety cotton and tomato, hybrid cotton
and its parents and hybrids of red gram, castor, tomato, brinjal, musk-melon, true potato seed and
seeds of seedless watermelon. Grow out test will be conducted under direct supervision of the
Director of Seed Certification

4. Issuance of certificate: Issuance of Form II to the seeds to be moved out of Tamil Nadu.

Issuance of following certificate for export of seeds “Certified that the seeds to be exported are
not wild species do not belong to foundation or breeder seeds”.

5. Training and Liaison

(a) Orientation training: Training is given to the newly joined seed certification officers.

(b) Refresher training: Technical officers already positioned in the department are trained.

(c) Training to seed producers: Training is given on seed production aspects to Government,
Quasi government and Private Seed Producers.

(d) Quality control training to seed dealers: Training is also given to seed dealers on the
regulatory aspects of seed selling and seed legislation.
 NEW SEED POLICY
Ministry of Agriculture, vide Letter No.11-71/88-SD-1 dated September 16,1988, has
brought out ‘New Policy on Seed Development’, with the aim of providing to the farmer
the best planting materials available in the world so as to increase productivity and there
by increasing farm income and export earnings. The Policy covers the import of seeds of
coarse cereals/pulses/oil seeds; vegetable & flower seeds; bulbs/tubers of flowers;
cuttings/ saplings/bud /wood etc., of flowers; and seeds & planting material of fruits.

The following are the guidelines for the import of above categories of seed/planting
material under the Seed Policy

1. Import of seeds of coarse cereals/pulses/oil seeds

The import of seeds of coarse cereals/pulses/oil seeds is permitted for a period not
exceeding two years by companies that have technical/financial collaboration with
companies abroad, provided that the latter agree to supply parental lines/nucleus or breeder
seed technology to the Indian firm within two years of first shipment of commercial
consignment. The bulk import is permitted by the importer based on the recommendation
issued by the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) after considering the
trial/evaluation report of the varieties/hybrids, which he intends to import. PPA or any
other officer notified for the said purpose issues the import permit based on the
recommendation of DAC. However the recommendation of DAC is not required for
import of trial material. The quantities of the seed permitted for import for initial trials by
the importer, for ICAR multi-location trials & agronomic trials or combined trials and also
the quantities of seeds of parental lines required to be sampled and submitted in sealed
condition for accession to gene bank of National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR), New Delhi. The imported consignment shall be subjected to detailed testing for
a period of 30-35 days and the same purpose the consignment will be held under detention
in AAI warehouse or any customs bonded warehouse at the cost of importer.

2. Import of vegetable & flower seeds

The bulk import of vegetable & flower seeds is permitted under Open General License
(OGL) by the eligible importers viz.,

(i) Departments of Agriculture/Horticulture of the State Governments, State Agricultural

Universities and ICAR;

(ii) Seed producing Indian companies/firms after registration with National Seeds
Corporation;

(iii) National Seeds corporation, State Seeds Corporations;

(iv) Food processing industrial units;

(v) Growers of vegetables and flowers registered with Director of Horticulture/Agriculture

of the State Government. The imported seed is subject to detailed seed testing for a period
of 30-35 days on arrival at the port of entry. However, permit issued by PPA or any other
competent officer notified for this purpose, is required for import of vegetable seeds but
not flower seeds.
3. Import of bulbs &tubers of flowers

The bulk import of bulbs & tubers of flowers and ornamentals is allowed under OGL by
eligible importers as stated above. The imported consignments shall be subjected to grow-
out test for a period of 35-40 days on arrival at the port of entry and for the same purpose
the consignment will be held under detention in cold storage under customs bond or the
imported bulbs & tubers may be subjected to post-entry quarantine instead of grow-out test
at the specific request of the importer (vide Ministry of Agriculture Letter No. 8-55/93-
PP.I, dated 10th January 1998).The bulbs/tubers are required to be sown in individual poly
bags and are subjected to joint inspection by DIA and the officer of concerned PQ station
during PEQ period specified at the time of issue of permit.

4. Import of cuttings/saplings/bud wood etc., of flowers

The cuttings/saplings/bud wood etc., of flowers is permitted for import under OGL.
However, a permit issued by PPA or any other competent officer notified for this purpose,
is required. The importer is required to establish PEQ facilities prior to import, which are
to be approved by the Designated Inspection Authorities (DIAs) as per the guidelines
issued by PPA. The imported consignments on arrival at the port of entry shall be subject
to quarantine inspection and cleared within 24-72 hrs with a condition for growing under
post-entry quarantine for a period not exceeding 45 days in an approved PEQ facility
under the supervision of DIA.

5. Import of seeds/planting material of fruits

The seeds/planting material of fruit plant species are selectively permitted for import by
DAC on case-to-case basis on the recommendation of Director of Horticulture/Agriculture
of the state and subject to quarantine regulations as may be laid down by PPA. However,
permit issued by PPA or any other competent officer notified for this purpose, is required
for the import of the same.
 OECD Varietal Certification in India
1. Introduction
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) an inter-
governmental organization founded in 1958, Secretariat at Paris (France) provides a multilateral
forum to discuss, develop and reform economic and social policies. The OECD’s mission is to
promote for sustainable economic growth and employment, a rising standard of living and trade
liberalization. The OECD brings together its member countries to discuss and develop domestic
and international policies during its Technical Working Group and Annual Meetings. It analyses
issues, identifies good policy practices and recommends action in a unique forum in which
countries can compare their experiences, seek answers to common problems and work to co-
ordinate policies.

2. OECD Seed Schemes

The OECD Seed Schemes provide an international framework for the certification of
agriculture seed moving in international trade. The schemes were established in 1958 driven by a
combination of factors including a fast-growing seed trade, regulatory harmonization in Europe,
the development of off-season production, the seed breeding and production potential of large
exporting countries in America (North and South) and Europe, and the support of private
industry. Membership of the Schemes is voluntary and participation varies.

There are seven agriculture Seed Schemes in OECD viz.,

i. Cereals v. Fodder beet and sugar beet
ii. Maize and sorghum vi. Subterranean clover and similar species
iii. Crucifers and other oil or fiber species vii. Vegetables
iv. Grasses and Legumes

3. Participating countries
Including India, 58 countries from Europe, North and South America, the Middle-East,
Asia and Oceania currently participation in the OECD Seed Schemes.

4. Objectives
 The objectives of the OECD Schemes for the varietal certification of seed are to encourage
the use of “quality-guaranteed” seed in participating countries.
 The Schemes authorize the use of labels and certificates for seed produced and processed for
international trade according to agreed principles ensuring identify and purity.
 The Schemes facilitate the import and export of seed, by the removal of technical trade
barriers through internationally recognized labels (passports for trade).
 They also lay down guidelines for seed multiplication abroad as well as for the delegation of
some control activities to the private sector (“accreditation”).

5. Operation of OECD Seed Schemes

The success of international certification depends upon close-operation between
maintainers, seed producers, traders and the Designated Authority (appointed by the
Government) in each participating country. Frequent meeting allow for a multi-stakeholder
dialogue to exchange information, discuss case studies prepare new rule and update the Schemes.
The UN family of bodies, a vast range of non-government organizations (UPOV, ISTA) and seed
industry networks participate actively in the Schemes.

6. Benefits of the Schemes

i. To facilitate international trade by using globally-recognized OECD labels and certificate (e.g.
they are required to export seeds to Europe).
ii. To build a framework to develop seed production with countries or companies.
iii. To participate in the elaboration of international rules for seed certification.
iv. To develop collaboration between the public and private sectors.
v. To benefit from regular exchanges of information with other national certification agencies
and observer organizations.

7. Rules and Directions of OECD Seed Scheme:

Since 1958, the OECD Seed Schemes are open to OECD countries as well as other UN
Members, 58 countries participate. The OECD certification is applied to varieties satisfying
distinction, uniformity and stability conditions, having an agronomic value, and published in
official lists. The annual list of varieties eligible for OECD certification includes about 42,000
varieties from 194 species. The schemes ensure the varietal identity and purity of the seed
through appropriate requirements and controls throughout the cropping, seed processing and
labeling operations. eg: Generation control (pre-basic, Basic and certified seed), isolation
distances, purity standards, field inspection, lot sampling, post-control plots, compulsory official
laboratory analysis for each certified seed lot. The OECD certification provides for official
recognition of “quality-guaranteed” seed, thus facilitating international trade and contributing to
the removal of technical trade barriers.

8. Government of India’s Participation in the OECD Seed Schemes

The Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation submitted a formal application to the Secretary General of the OECD on 21st
September, 2007, for membership of the OECD Seed Schemes. Subsequently the OECD
Evaluation Mission visited India during April, 2008; then India delegation participated and
presented a status of country’s Seed Industry and Seed Certification System during the Annual
Meeting held at Chicago during June, 2008; India’s application was admitted and approval was
given during October, 2008 by the OECD Council. Accordingly, India became member to
participate in OECD Seed Schemes and entitled to attend the meeting of OECD to participate in
the multilateral forum for discussion and expressing country’s position on Varietal Certifications.
In this India’s participation in following five Seed Schemes have been accepted by the OECD
Council from October, 2008 viz.,

i. Cereals seed iv. Grasses and Legumes seed

ii. Maize and sorghum seed v. Vegetables seed
iii. Crucifers and other oil or fiber species seed

9. Notification of National Designated Authority (NDA):

Notification of the Joint Secretary to the Government of India in-charge Seeds Division,
Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation as NDA for the OECD Seed
Scheme, who will responsible for the implementation of the Seed Schemes in India.
10. Notification of Designated Authorities (DAs):
National Designated Authority have already nominated 10 State Seed Certification
Agencies who are capable of operating the varietal certification Process of OECD Seed Schemes
in our country as Designated Authorities by considering their Technical and administrative
facilities. DAs are responsible for OECD Varietal certification System in India. List of Ten DAs
carrying varietal certification under OECD Seed Schemes in India is as follows:
Name and Address of
# Code Area of Operation
Designated Authority
The Director, AP Andhra Pardesh, Odisha &
1. Andhra Pradesh State Seed Certification Agency, Chhatisgarh
House No. 5-10-193, 1st Floor, HACA Bhawan,
Opposite Public Gardens, Hyderabad-500004.
The Director, AS All Seven North Eastern
2. Assam State Seed Certification Agency, States and Sikkim.
R.K. Mission Road, Ulubari, Guwahati-781007,
The Director, BH Bihar, West Bengal and
3. Bihar State Seed Certification Agency, Andaman & Nicobar
Meethapur,
Patna – 800001.
The Director, HR Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh
4. Haryana State Seed Certification Agency, and Jammu & Kashmir
Plot No. B-11&12, Sector-14, Sector 12A
Panchkula-134 109
The Director, KA Karnataka, Kerala and
5. Karnataka State Seed Certification Agency, Lakshadweep
KAIC Premises, Opp. Baptist Hospital, Bellary
Road, Hebbal, Bangalore – 560024.
The Director, MH Maharashtra, Gujarat, Daman
6. Maharashtra State Seed Certification Agency, & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Neel Kanth Sekhari soot, Girni Amravathi Road and Goa
Akola – 444 005.
The Director, RJ Rajasthan and Madhya
7. Rajasthan State Seed & Organic Production Pradesh
Certification Agency, 3rd Floor, Pant Krishi
Bhawan, Jan Path, Jaipur-302004.
The Director, TN Tamil Nadu and Puducherry
8. Directorate of Seed Certification, 1424 A
Thadagam Road, GCT Post,
Coimbatore-641013.
The Director, UP Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand
9. Uttar Pradesh State Seed Certification Agency,
Government Garden Campus,
Alambag, Lucknow– 226005.
The Director, UK Uttarakhand, Himachal
10. Uttrakhand State Seed and Organic Production Pradesh and Delhi
Certification Agency, 12/II, Vasant Vihar,
Dehradun – 248006.
The responsibilities of DAs are as follows.
i. Ensuring that the variety to be OECD Listed has been registered on the National Official
Catalogue.
ii. Communicating the name of the person(s) or organization(s) responsible for the maintenance
of the variety.
iii. Liaising with the maintainer of the variety.
iv. Providing written agreement for the multiplication of seed outside the country of registration
to the appropriate Designated Authority.
v. Supplying an authenticated standard sample of the variety to be multiplied in order that a
control plot can be sown to provide an authentic reference of the variety.
vi. Supplying an authenticated standard sample of the variety to be multiplied in order that a
vii. control plot can be sown to provide an authentic reference of the variety;
viii. Supplying an official description of the variety to be multiplied;
ix. Authenticating the identity of the seed to be multiplied.

Classes and sources of seeds for OECD varietal certification System

Designation of Categories of Seed

The following categories of seed are recognized in the Scheme:
i. Pre-Basic Seed; ii. Basic Seed; iii. Certified Seed.

Breeders Maintenance Material:

 Checked against DUS Centers for the definite characters.
 Carries maintainer/breeder Labels.
 Controlled and maintained by the maintainer/breeder.
 Used for pre-basic seed multiplication

Pre-Basic Seed:
Pre-basic seed is defined a seed of generations preceding Basic seed and may be at any
generation between the parental material and the Basic seed.
 Controlled by official Maintainer + Designated Authority.
 Subject to compulsory pre-control test.
 Cannot be commercialized and it has to be used for further multiplication.
 Produced officially by the recognized Institute/organization.
 Carries White Label with diagonal Violet Stripe

Basic Seed:
Basic seed is defined as seed which has been produced under the responsibility of the
maintainer according to the generally accepted practices for the maintenance of the variety and is
intended for the production of certified seed. Basic seed must conform to the appropriate
conditions in the Scheme and the fulfillment of these conditions must be confirmed by an official
examination.
 Controlled by official Maintainer + Designated Authority.
 Subject to compulsory pre-control test.
 Cannot be commercialized and it has to be used for further multiplication.
 Produced officially by the recognized Institute/organization.
 No validity period.
 Carries White Label.
Certified Seed:
Certified seed is defined as seed that is of direct descent from either Basic seed or certified
seed of a variety and is intended for the production of either certified seed or of crops for
purposes other than seed production. It must conform to the appropriate conditions in the
Scheme and the fulfillment of these conditions must be confirmed by an official examination.
 Not under Breeder/Maintainers control however consulted for the number of
multiplication.
 DA’s shall under take the quality control including post control test
 Used for the commercial multiplication/sale.
 No validity period.
(C1): Carries Blue Label
(C2… ): Carries Red Label

Not Finally Certified Seed:

 Seed which is to be exported from the country of production after field approval, but
before final certification as basic or certified seed is called not finally certified seeds.
 Carries Grey Label

Standard Seed:
 This category mainly exists in vegetable seed scheme
 Seed which declared by the supplier as being true to the variety and of satisfactory
varietal purity. It must conform to the appropriate conditions in the Scheme.
 Carries Dark Yellow Label.

NDA has adopted the following criteria for selection of variety for inclusion in the OECD
Seed Scheme.

1. Varieties and Hybrids released and notified under the Seeds Act, 1966 and are in commercial
use (as they have already under gone the requisite testing).

2. Varieties and Hybrids which have been filed for registration to PPV & FR Authority (based of
DUS criteria).

3. Varieties and Hybrids that have already under gone the multi-location testing for two years in
public system (ICAR, SAU etc).

4. Varieties and Hybrids which are export potential and have under gone multi-location testing
including in house trials with appropriate checks and plot size, continuously for Two Years.

5. Varieties and Hybrids from India which have been tested outside the country only for export
purpose in multi-location trials under national varietal testing system for two years along with
data.
New Seed Policy, 1988

Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order 1989

The Indian PPV & FR Act 2001

National Seed Policy, 2002

Exim Policy 2002-07

Seeds Bill 2004

National Food Security Mission - 2007

Dr. Sowmya, K.J
Dept. of Seed Science and Technology
 New Seed Policy, 1988

• Features
• Encouraging seed production on commercial lines
• Advantage of agro climatic zones
• Upgradation of planting materials
• Provide the best planting materials to the farmers
• Agreement to supply parent line seeds/ breeder
seeds/ technology
 New Seed Policy, 1988
Objective :-

 Librize the import of high quality seed includes Agriculture as

well as Horticulture produce.

 A time bond programme to strengthening the plant quarantine

measure especially for post entry quarantine. (PEQ)

 Insentives to encourage the domastic seed Industries.

 To encourage the export of seed.

 New Seed Policy, 1988

After careful consideration of all the related aspects, a

New Policy on Seed Development has been evolved
with special emphasis on

 The import of high quality seeds:

 A time bound-programme to strengthen /modernize plant
quarantine facilities.
 Effective observance of procedures for quarantine/post entry
quarantine(PEQ); and
 Incentives to encourage the domestic seed industry.
The New Policy for the Import of Seeds and Planting
Materials will cover the following categories:

 Seeds of wheat and Paddy

 Seeds of coarse cereals, oilseeds and pulses
 Seeds of vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants
 Tubers and bulbs of flowers
 Cuttings/saplings etc. of flowers
 Seeds/Planting materials of fruits.
 Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order 1989

 The order was made suppressing the Plants, Fruits

and Seeds Order (Regulation of Import into India)
1984 and provides regulations during import based
on post entry quarantine checks.
 Import of any form of seed for consumption or sowing
should carry a permit issued by the competent
authority
 Amendments have been made for the above order
during 1998, 2000 and 2001. With the liberalized
trade in agriculture,
Contd..
• The order has widened the scope of plant quarantine
activities and has made pest risk analysis compulsory for
imports
• provision for regulating the import of soil, moss,
germplasm and GMO's for research, insects, microbial
cultures and bio-control agents
• Import of germplasm has to be permitted by NBPGR and
any other biological materials such as soil, microbes,
moss etc. has to be permitted by Plant Protection Advisor
• Phytosanitary certificate according to Plant Quarantine
requirements has to be provided so as to prevent spread
of noxious pests Pest risk analysis during post entry
quarantine is compulsory.
 Protection of Plant Varieties and
Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001

Objectives
1. To establish an effective or Sui generis system for protection
of plant variety for the International recognition of the National
Plant Variety Protection System.
2. Safeguards the interest of plant breeders
3. To recognize and protect farmers’ right for their contribution in
conserving, improving and making available plant genetic
resources for development of new plant varieties
4. Encouragement of investment in Plant Breeding

8
 The Indian PPV & FR Act 2001

Salient features:
• It extends to all categories of plants except
micro-organisms.

• In order to be eligible for protection, a variety

must be new, distinct, uniform and stable.

• Provisions are made for compulsory licensing

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 General functions of the Authority

 Registration of new plant varieties, EDV and extant varieties

 Developing DUS test guidelines for new plant species

 Developing characterization and documentation of registered

varieties

 Cataloging facilities for all variety of plants particularly tribal

and rural community

 Maintenance of the National Register of Plant Varieties

 Maintenance of National Gene Fund

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 National Seed Policy, 2002
• The Seed Act, 1966, seed control order 1983 and New Policy
on Seeds Development, 1988, from the basis of promotion
and regulation of the Indian Seed Industry

• The “New Policy” of 1988 ushered in a new area of growth

and phenomenal development. Because, it allowed limited
import of commercial seed, remove curbs on imports of
seeds of vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants
 The main features of the National Seed Policy, 2002

1. Development of new and improved varieties of plants

2. Timely availability of quality seeds
3. Compulsory registration of seeds
4. Creation of infrastructure facilities
5. Quality assurance, promotion of seed industry,
6. Abolition of licensing for seed dealers,
7. Facility for import of best quality seeds,
8. Encouragement to export of seeds
9. Creation of Seed Banks and National Seed Grid.

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 National Seed Policy 2002
Covers 10 Thrust Areas and contains 85 Specific Policies:
1. Variety development and plant variety protection
2. Seed production
3. Quality assurance
4. Seed distribution and marketing
5. Infrastructure facilities
6. Transgenic plant varieties
7. Import of seeds and plant material
8. Export of seeds
9. Promotion of domestic seed industry
10. Strengthening of monitoring team
 The important constraints

 Non existence of National Seed Policy

 IPR laws
 Restrictions and licenses on seed exports and
imports
 Lack of incentives for the public and private seed
sectors of the country
 Seed Bank Scheme

 Seed Bank Scheme has been implementing by Seed Division from

1999- 2000 with the objective to meet requirement of seeds during
natural calamities and unforeseen conditions.
 The scheme is for the maintenance of foundation and certified
seeds of different crops to ensure timely availability of seeds to the
farmers.
 Under this component, for maintenance of certified and foundation
seeds of identified crops, grants are provided for meeting 50% cost
as revolving funds for procurement of seed, maintenance cost and
price differential for leftover seeds
 Financial assistance is also provided for development of necessary
infrastructure for production and distribution of quality seeds, like
construction of seed storage as well as setting up of a data bank

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 Challenges (Seed Bank)

• Stored specimens have to be regularly replanted when

they begin to lose viability.
• Only a limited part of the world's biodiversity is stored.
• It is difficult or impossible to store recalcitrant seeds.
• Seed banks carry a cataloguing and data management
burden.
• Many of the same issues apply to seed banks as
with fallout shelters. With regard to its use as an
insurance policy against cataclysmic events.
• Power would have to be sustained after a cataclysmic
event in order to keep the seeds at -18 Celsius, which
would be very difficult in an apocalyptic scenario unless
linked to an automated power plant that uses solar
panels, hydroelectricity, or another source of power that
doesn't require resupply.
 Components covered

(i) Revolving Fund:- 50% of the cost of the seed as revolving fund
for procurement of seeds.

(ii) Maintenance charges:- (a)Transportation charges:- Rs. 100 per

quintal. (b)Processing and packaging charges:- Rs. 100 per
quintal.

(iii) Price differential: - Funds is released to the participating

organization on the basis of actual loss incurred by them on this
account or 10% of the quantity seeds kept during the year
whichever is less.

(iv) Assistance for construction of Seed godown:- Maximum

assistance would be available for Rs. 25.00 lakh for a godown of
10000/ quintal capacity.

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 Exim Policy 2002-07

• On March 31, 2002, the Government announced a New

Export-Import (EXIM) policy for 2002- 2007. Sharply export
oriented rather than import liberalizing

• Government control import of non-essential items through the

EXIM Policy.

• Exports should be promoted in such, a manner that the economy

of the country is not affected by unregulated exports of items
specially needed within the country.

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 Objective of the Exim Policy

1. To accelerate the economy from low level of economic activities

to high level of economic activities by making it a globally
oriented vibrant economy
2. To stimulate sustained economic growth by providing access to
essential raw materials, intermediates, components,
consumables
3. To enhance the technological strength and efficiency of Indian
agriculture, industry and services,
4. To generate new employment.
5. Opportunities and encourage the attainment of internationally
accepted standards of quality.
6. To provide quality consumer products at reasonable prices.
 Seeds Bill 2004

• The Seeds Bill, 2004 aims to regulate the quality of seeds sold, and replaces
the Seeds Act, 1966
• All varieties of seeds for sale have to be registered. The seeds are required to
meet certain prescribed minimum standards.
• The Bill does not restrict the farmer’s right to use or sell his farm seeds and
planting material, provided he does not sell them under a brand name. All seeds
and planting material sold by farmers will have to conform to the minimum
standards applicable to registered seeds
• If a registered variety of seed fails to perform to expected standards, the farmer
can claim compensation from the producer or dealer under the Consumer
Protection Act, 1986.
• The Bill permits self certification of seeds by accredited agencies and allows the
central government to recognize certification by foreign seed certification
agencies
• Every seed producer and dealer, and horticulture nursery has to be registered
with the state government

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 Issues before Seed Bill

Quality assurance to farmers

 spurious seeds

 under performing seeds

 non-performing seeds

Price Control
 Share of seed in the cost of production is going up

Increasing yields
 Productivity

 Quality of produce
 SEEDS BILL 2004

Main Aim is to:

 Increase private participation in the seed trade.
 Fulfill WTO commitments
 Slight increase in penalties
 Compensation to farmers
 Seed Bill 2004 - Salient Features

• Registration of kinds and varieties of Seeds etc.

• Evaluation of performance.
• Compensation to farmers.
• Registration of seed producer and processing units.
• Seed dealers to be registered.
• Regulation of sale of seed and seed certification.
• Seed analysis and seed Testing.
• Export and Import of seeds and Planting material.

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 What is the Current Status?

• The Government had introduced the Seeds Bill in the Rajya

Sabha in December 2004.
• The Bill was referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee
on Agriculture, which recommended several modifications to
the Bill.
• Accordingly, the Government moved the official amendments
to the Seeds Bill 2004 twice.
• The bill has not been introduced in the latest session of the
parliament and now (reportedly) keeping in view the
widespread concerns over certain provisions in the Seed Bill
 Salient features of the Bill
• Registration of kinds and varieties of Seeds etc.
• Evaluation of performance.
• Compensation to farmers.
• Registration of seed producer and processing units.
• Seed dealers to be registered.
• Regulation of sale of seed and seed certification.
• Seed analysis and seed Testing.
• Export and Import of seeds and Planting material.
 Salient features of the Bill
8. Evaluation of performance of varieties
9. Accreditation of Seed Certification Agencies
10. More penalties on offences
11. Individuals or Seed Producing Organizations to
carry out Self Certification
12. Declaring any Seed Testing Laboratory even
under Non-Government sector as a State Seed
Testing Laboratory to carry out seed quality
analysis.
 SEEDS BILL 2004
Comparison Seed Act 1966

Seeds Act 1966 Proposed Act

Contains 25 Sections Contains 49 Sections

Divided into 11 parts Divided into 10 chapters

Consists of 35 Rules Rules yet to be drafted

 SEEDS BILL 2004
Comparison Seed Act 1966

Seeds Act 1966 Proposed Act

Sec - 5: Notification of Sec -13: Registration of kinds /
kinds/varieties /hybrids varieties/hybrids/transgenic varieties/
SPO and SPU

Agriculture includes horticulture Also includes forestry, plantation, medicinal

and aromatic plants.
Seeds of different crop plants Seed means any type of living embryo or
including vegetatively propagating propagule capable of regeneration and
material giving rise to a plant

Penalty:  If seed not conforms to PP, Germn. or

 First offence fine Rs 500/- health, fine of Rs. 5000/- - 25000/-
 Subsequent Offence Rs 1000/-  False Information relating to GP,
or imprisonment for 6 months or mis brand of any seed, selling of spurious
Both transgenic seed – 6 months imprisonment
or fine of Rs. 50000/- or both
 Controversies/Confusions

 Making the farmers seed consumers completely

 Role of PSSPO rapidly decreases
 Private participation in certification may invite conflicts
 No sufficient technical, institutional and physical infrastructure to check
import of undesirable pests, weeds, diseases and as well as seeds
 Could legitimize and facilitate bio piracy
 No provision for regulating seeds supply or seed pricing
 No compatibility with PVPFR, EPA, BDA
 Farmers to compulsorily register themselves as seed dealers
 Bill does not uphold the rights of farmers to get compensation
 Penalty clauses are mild
 IMPLICATIONS
 Restrict the entry of increased research investment from private
sector in self pollinated/vegetatively propagated crops.

 Private investment is expected to increase in selective sectors,

such as hybrids and high-tech products

 Monopoly by private seed producing organizations.

 Chances of public research cease to operate

 Public Research Institutes may be sold to the Private Sector

 IMPLICATIONS

Insufficient molecular techniques:

 For confirming genetic purity

 To ensure free from terminator or the de- embryogenesis gene

 International seed certification is mandatory for export of seeds

 Need to develop certification system to meet International

standards

 Millions of Indian small scale farmers are the looser

 IMPLICATIONS

MNC’s are winners

Improve market conditions for private seed companies

Lobbying for removal of seeds from the consumer protection Act

Leading to centralization of power

India harmonizing its seed loss with that of EU and US

 ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION
Inter-State Certification of Seeds

Uniform Certification Charges

Introduction of Seed Wagon

Up gradation of Indian Minimum Certification Standards

Effective Breeder Seed Monitoring Team

Introduction of compulsory seed vigour testing for validation samples

Making seed health test compulsory

 ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION

Establishment of ELITE State STL and accreditation to

ISTA ( At least four from North, South, East and West
zones as authorized labs for issue of ISTA Orange
Certificate)

Seed Health standards needs up-gradation :

• Confined to primitive field standards for about 50 diseases

• Seed standards for only 15 diseases (10 caused

by fungi, 4 by bacteria and 1 by nematode)

Quick method for conducting genetic purity of GM crops

 Issues for consideration
Regulation should include seed supply and seed pricing
Public access to information related to grant of licenses or revocation of license
Standard formula to calculate penalty
Stringent action on offenders
Speedy redressal to farmers client
Compensation should be linked to Insurance system
Accountability and liability clauses should be fixed against seed traders
Seed standards for GM crops
 National Food Security Mission - 2007

• National Food Security Mission (NFSM) is a Central Scheme of

GOI launched in 2007 for 5 years to increase production and
productivity of wheat, rice and pulses on a sustainable basis so
as to ensure food security of the country. The aim is to bridge
the yield gap in respect of these crops through dissemination of
improved technologies and farm management practices.
http://www.gktoday.in/national-food-security-mission/

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 Objectives

• Increasing production of rice, wheat, pulses and

coarse cereals through area expansion and
productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in
the identified districts of the country;

• Restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual

farm level; and

• Enhancing farm level economy (i.e. farm profits) to

restore confidence amongst the farmers.

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 Salient Features:

• The implementation of the NFSM would result in increasing the production of

rice by 10 million ton, wheat by 8 million ton and pulses by 2 million ton by
2011-12.
• Restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual farm level. Creation of
employment opportunities and enhancing farm level economy
• Beneficiaries can choose to draw loans from the Banks, in which case
subsidy amount prescribed for a particular component for which the loan
availed will be released to the Banks.
• Promotion and extension of improved technologies i.e., seed, Integrated
Nutrient Management including micronutrients, soil amendments, IPM and
resource conservation technologies along with capacity building of farmers.
• Farmers and their dependents are eligible for this scheme
• Productions of breeder seeds are done under ICAR while certified seeds and
pulses are implemented by State and District agencies.

9/17/13
 BIOSAFETY REGULATION
• Ministry of Environment and Forests
• Department of Biotechnology

1. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC)

2. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulations (RCGM)
3. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC)
4. State Biosafety Coordination Committee (SBCC)
5. District Level Coordination Committee (DLCC)
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)

The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) of India was

reconstituted on March 11, 2013

This committee function as a body under the Department of

Environment, Forest and Wildlife for approval of activities involving
large scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in
research and industrial production from the environmental angle.

The Committee also responsible for approval of proposals relating

to release of genetically engineered organisms and products into
the environment including experimental field trials.
Thank You
Thank you
TRANSGENIC PLANT VARIETIES
All genetically engineered crops / varieties are tested under AICRP as per EPA (1986)
before their commercial release

NBPGR is the nodal institute for import of transgenic crop varieties for research
purpose

After the commercial release of transgenic plant varieties

- Seed will be registered and marketed
- Should carry a label indicating their transgenic
nature
IMPORT OF SEEDS AND PLANT MATERIAL

Seed import require permit from Plant Protection Advisor

Imported seeds should meet minimum seeds standards
Small sample to be kept in gene bank
Quarantine checks would be done
- Through Visual observation
- Laboratory observation
- Conducting GOT
Post Entry Quarantine for tubers and bulbs of flowers
 Export of seeds
Encouragement for custom seed production

Creation of Data Bank on International Market for export of Indian varieties

Promotion of domestic seed industry

Through incentives
- Tax rebate
- Transport subsidy
- Reduction of import duty

Membership to International Organization

ISTA, OECD, UPOV
-,
'. (h) "pe~t" meads al1y form of plant or anlmal
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
life or any patho~ni!; agent, injurious or
(Department of Agriculture & CooperatiQU) potentially injurious to plants or plant pro-
New Delhi, the 27th October, 1989 ducts and includes any insect, mite, nema-
tode, snail, bacterium, fungus, virus, vi-
NOTIFICA nON roid, mycoplasma-like organism (MLO),
.phanerogam or weed ;
S.O. 867(E) .-In exercise of the powers confer-
red by sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Destruc- (i) "plant" means any plant or part thereof.
t;.. e Insects and Pests Act, 19H (2 of 1914), and whether living or' dead, trees, shurbs, nur-
in supersession of Plants, Fruits and Seeds (Regu- sery stock, and includes ~U vegetatively
lation of import into India) Order 1984, except as propagated materials;
respects things done or omitted to be done before
such supersession, the Central Government hereby G) "Plant Protection Adviser" means the plant
makes the following order for the purpose of prohi- Protection Adviser to the Government of
biting and regulating the import into India of agri- India, Directorate of Plant Protection,
cultural articles ment1\lned herein, namcly r-s- Quarantine and Storage, N.H. IV, Farida-
bad;
CHAPTER I (k) "Post-entry Quarantine" means growing of
Preliminary plants in isolation for 'any specified period
in a. glass-house, and facility, area of nur-
1. Short title and commencement-e-This order sery, approved by the Plant Protection
may be called the Plants,. Fruits and. Seeds (Regu- Adviser;
lation ot Import into India) Order, 1989.
(I) "seeds" means seeds of agricultural, horti-
(2) It shall come into force on the date of its cultural, Iruit and foddcr crops, forest
cublicatlon in the Official Gazette.' trees and includes seedlings and tubers.
bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, 'all types of
~. Definitions.-In this order, unless the context grafts and other vegetatively propagated
rtherwise requires,- material .utilized for sowing, planting or
consumption;
(a) "Competent Authority" means an autho-
rity notified by the Central . Government (rn) "Schedule" means schedule annexed to this
from time to time by notification in tbc order;
Oflidal Gazette;
(n) "soil" includes earth, peat. camposr, day,
(b) "Designated Inspection Authority" means sand or any medium capable or supporting
the authority notified by the Central Go- life of plantstaud includes ballast. or any
vernment from time to time through a noti- soil for minerological or microbiological in-
fication to be published in the Official vestigatlons or soil utilised for any other
Gazette for the inspection of. the plants purpose.
grawn in POSt entry quarantine fac iii,ics ;
CHAPTER II
(c) "Entry Point" means sea port, airport or
land customs station through which im- :3. General conditions for import,-:-All consign-
port is permitted under this order; ments of plants, fruits and seeds (hereinafter referred
to as 'consignments') shall he imported into India
d) "Form" means ,form attached to this order; subject to the following conditions, namely : -

(e) "nursery" means any orchard, or any (I) No consignment shall be imported into India
other place, facility, glass-house, screen without a valid permit issued under clause'
(3) ;
house, utilised for raising plants;
(f) "Official Phytosanitary Certificate" means (2) (i) All anplicatlons for a permit to import
a phytosanitary certificate in the format consignments '.!y land. air or sea shan be
(reproduced as Schedule 1) Of escdbed sent;., triplicate) at least one month in
by the International Plant Protection Con- advance, to, the Competent Authority, and
vention sponsored by the Food and Agri- the application for the import of seeds, fruits
cultural Organisation of the United Nation" and Plants for consumption shall be made
Organisation and issued by the authorised in form 'N and that for the import of
officer of the country of origin of consign- seeds and plants [or sowing or planting shalt
ments; be made in form 'B':
(i~) ~ fee o~.R~ .. 50 shall be payable along-
cg) "~cking ~~terial" means the packing rna- w't,hhe appi.canon for the import of seeds,
terial consisting, of saw dust, woodshavings, fruits and . plants for consumption and
waste p~per and synthetic material used Rs. leO!· fer applic:llion for' Ow import of
for packing of plants fruits or seeds; seeds and plants for f,jwirg o.r plaing and the
16 THE GAZETTE Of INDIA: EXTRAORDINARY [PARrII-SEc. 3(ii)]
fee"shall-be 'payable in .'the- form of Demand -fruits "of, mere- "thiln lGOO---cubic metre iii
Draft -payable to' the CompeteniAuthority ,volume, the importer shall on, his·own 01
.having jurisdiction. 'at his cost 'tliro'ugh' an agencY'" approved by
(3) (i) The Competent Authority shall issue per- the 'plant Protection Adviser' arrange for the
mit in Form "C" for import of seeds and fumigation, disinfection. or disinfection of
fruits for consumprionand in form "D" for the consignment, under the supervision of
import of seeds and plants for sowing or an officer' duly authorised bY. 'the Plant
planting, if· he is satisfied that the applicant .Protection Adviser in' that' behalf:
meets all the necessary conditions; (7) It shall be the responsibility of the inip9rter,~
(ii) The issue of permit may be refused or
withheld by the Competent, Authority after (a) to bring the consignments to the concemed
giving reasonable notice to the applicant and Plant Ouarantina. aqd Pumigauon Station.
for reasons to be recorded in writing; or to places of 'jnspectlon, fumigation or
treatment as directed by the' Plartt Protec-
import permit issued under this
'(iii). The tion Adviser or, tlie . officer dulv authorised
clause shall be. valid for a period of six by bim;
months provided that the Competent Autho-
rity may, on request, extend the period of (b) to open, repack 'and, load into or unload
validity ror a, further period of six months, from the fumigation chamber and seal the
lor reasons to be recorded in writing; consignments; . 'and,
(4J The Competent Authority shall 'forward to (c) to removethem after- inspection' an<i- treat·
the importer an orange and green colour ment, according to' the' .directionsvlssued
tag specified i.n form "E", ill the case of by the Plant ProtectiOn Adviser or
an 'bfif.
-permitsissuedfor import of seeds and plants cer duly authorised. bv him.
for sowing o'r planting SO as to facilitate
the identification' of consignments at the (8) The consignments intended for other ecUID
, time of their arrival at the land customs tries shall be allowed transit tbrough , IJl
station 'or port .of en try . transhipment' at air or sea porei' or land
(5) (i) All the consignments for consumption. customs stations, provided they' are
pricked
sowing and propagation or planting shall be in such a manner as will not permit spillage
importedjnto India only through entry of any soil or material or escape' of an}
points notified by the Central Government pest, and subject also to the condition that
from time to time in this bell;:) If, provided they are not openedin .any .place in India.
that all consignments of dry fruits. fresh
fruits and vegetables for consumption, im- (9) No consignment shall :be imported unless
ported from Afghanistan, Pakistan and accompanied by an Official Phytosanitary
West, Asian countries by land shall be im- Certificate issued' by the authorised officer
ported only through Attari-Wagha Border, of the country of origin of the consignment :
(ii) All consignments of plants and seeds for
Provided that cut flowers, garlands. bouquets,
sowing and propagation or planting shall be fruits and vegetables weighing less than
imported into India through land customs two kilogram') imported for persona: '
station, seaport, airport at Amritsar, Bom- consumption may be allowed to be imported
bay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras and such without a Phytosanitary Certificate at an
other entry points as may be specifically import permit.
notified by the Central Government from
time to time. (10) Consignments for import should be packed
(6) (i) The consignment, on arrival. at an entry in the packaging material envisaged as in'
point, shall be inspected by the Plant Pro- clause 2(g) of this order. No consignment
tection Adviser or any other officer duly wherein hay Or straw or any, material of,
authorised by him in this behalf, in accor- plant origin is used for packaging or as :l
dance with the guidelines issued by the part .of packaging material shall be allowed
Plant Protection Adviser from time to to be imported.
time.
(11) Import of soil. earth, compost, sand. plant
(in The Plant Protection Adviser or the om- debris alongwith plants. fruits or seeds shall
ccr authorised bv him may, after insnectlon, not '>e oermitted except under the following
fumigation. disinfection or disinfestation, as conditions ' -
may be considered necessarv by him. accord
ouarantine clearance for the entry of a C011- (i) The consignments 0" soil, earth. clay and
siznment into India or renuire, in public similar material for any microbiological.
interest. destruction of the consiznment Or soil-mechanics OT, .minerolozicnt irrvesti-
return of the same to the country of origin: gations :mG, peat for' h,-)rticu'!!\,Iral' numo-
(jii) Where furnization or disinfestation or ses may be permitted throuzh specified air
disinfection is considered necessarv in res- or sea norts or land custom, station, on
pect of a consignment of plants, seeds and applications made for that purpose:
 ['11T7! II- fJ'q .J (ii) J Ii

(ii) The application for the purpose referred tosanitary Certificate issued by the authorisej officer
to in (i) above shall be made to the Plant of the country of origin of consignment, containing
Protection Adviser, at least one month in additional declarations that they arc free from pests
advance, in form "F"; specified against them in column 4 of Schedule II.
(iii) The Plant Protection Adviser may, after CHAPTER IV
scrutiny of the application. and if satis-
fied of the purposs for which such con- Post-entry Quarantine
signment is being imported, issue special
5.. Plants a~d seeds, :Vhich require Post-entry Qua-
permit in Form "G". rantine as laid down m Schedule II of this order
(iv) The consignments shall be inspected, shall be grown in Post-entry Quarantine facilities'
fumiWolted disinfected or dlsinfested, on approved and certified by the Designated Inspection
arrival, by the Plant Protection Adviser Authority, to conform to the conditions laid down hy
or any other officer duly authorised by the Plant Protection Adviser, The period for which,
him in this behalf. and the conditions under which. the plants and seeds
shall be grown in such facilities shall be specified in
(12) The importer of the consignments or his the permit granted utPer clause 3.
agent shall pay to the Plant Protection Ad-
viser or any other officer duly authorised 6. The Post-entry Quarantine facilities shall be es-
by him in this behalf, the fees prescribed tablished and provided by the importer Or his azent
in Schedule In
to meet the cost of insnec- at his own cost and these shall be ready for us~ at
+\00. fumigation disinfestation, dlsinfecticri the time of arrival of the consignment in India. The
before the release of the consignments. importer shall obtain a certificate from the Designated
Inspection Authority who, after inspection o( the
CHAPTER In Post-entry Quarantine facilities, shan certify that such
Post-entry Quarantine facilities have been duly es-
4. Special conditions-e-t'L) In addition to the l!ene- tablished and nrovided in accordance with the guide-
ra! conditions snecificd in Chanter n.
the articles lines of the Plant Protection Adviser, The imoorter
hereinafter mentioned shall be imoorted subiect to shall produce this certificate before the Officer-in-
soecial conditions prescribed for them in Schedule Il, Charge of the Quarantine Station at the entry point,
namely : - at the time of arrival of the consignment.
(n All species of Allium; 7. 0) The Officer-in-Charce of the Quarantine
Station, if after insoection of the consiznment i<;
(ii) Cacao and all species of Sterculiaceae and satisfied. shall accord cuarantine clearance with Post-
Bombacacae; entry Quarantine Condition on the nroduction, hv an
(iii) AU species of Citrus; imnorter. of a certificate from the Desisnated Tn!!-
neetion Authority as envisased in dame 7. with the
(iv) Coconut. seeds and all species of Cocos; stioulation that the plant, shall be grown in such
(v) Coffee plants and seeds, and all species of Post-entrv Quarantine !aciIity for the period specified
Coffee; in the import' permit, . .
(vi) Cotton seeds. and all species of Gossypium; (in After according Quarantine clearance with
Post-entry Ouarantine conditions to the con-ienments
(vii) Seeds of forest trees; of nlants and seeds renuirins Post-entre Ollnranti"e.
(viii) Groundnut seeds, and all species of Araches. the Officer-in-Charze nf the Onsranttne St:\tinn ;It the
entrv noint shalt inform the .Desienated Tnsnection
(ix) Bucrene and all species of Medicago: Authoritv, havinz jurisdiction over the Post-entrv
(x) Potato and all sneeies of Solanum; Ouarantine facilitv. of their arrival at the location
where such plnnts would he grown bv the imnorter.
(xi) Rubber and all species of Hevea:
~. The imnorter shall inform in advance the De-is-
(xii) Suzarcane nnd all species of Saccharum; nated Insnection Authoritv havine iurisdiction. about
(xiii) Tobacco and an species of Nicotiana; the time of planting of such material.

(xiv) Berseem and all species of Tril"olium: 9. The imnorter shall nermlt to the Dp'~;<m~tl"d
Tnomection Anthoritv com'l'\l~tp' acre"" to' thp' "Pn<:t-
(xv) Sunflower and all species of Helianthus; entrv Onarantine f;tcllitv for the in5nt~ctin" nl" nlants
(xvi) Wheat and 311 species or Triticum; and shall, at an times. ani/lf" hv hi" jnc:tT'llrtinnc: con-
I cerninz the plants in the Post-entry Quarantine.
(xvii) Paddy and all species of Oryzae:
10. The Designated Insoection Authoritv "hall ins-
(xviii) Cuttinzs, saolings and bud-wood" of flowers nect the plants l!fOWO in the Post-entrv OIJi'li<:tntine
or ernamentsl plants; fncilitv of the imnorter for the detection of the inci-
(xix) Seeds and tho plant material of fruits. dence of nest" and diseases and 'ohservagce of oeneral
term" and conditions goveminz the nnnroval of the
(2) Every consignment of the articles hereinbefore Past-entry Quarantine. Such inspections shan be at
mentioned shall be accompanied with the official Phy- the time of planting and at such intervals as may be
306S 01189-1
 [PAR r II-:-SEc, 3(ii)1

considered necessary by the Designated Inspection CHAPTER V

Authority in accordance with the guidelines issued
by the Plant Protection Adviser. Appeal and<Revislon'
13. (i). If an impor~e~ is aggtiev~d J~y the decision
11. (i) The Designated Inspection Authority shall of a Designated Inspection Authority regarding the
permit the release of plants from Post-entry Quaran- destruction of any planl,;'},'opuiation,he may appeal
tine, if they are found to be free from pests and dis- to the Plant Protection Adviser within 7 days from
eases for the period specified in the permit for im- the date of communication of the decision giving the
portation. grounds of appeal.
(ii) It shall be lawful for the Plant Protection Ad-
(ii) Where the plants in the Post-entry Quaran- viser to rely on the observation of. the Designated
tine are found to be affected by 'pests and diseases Inspection ~uthori~ and: sucn other expert opinion,
during the specified period .:- as he mav deem necessarv, for decidina the anneal.
':14. The memorandum c)rappear~nall set out tne
(a) the Design~~d lnsP7ction '~~tho'rity' ;shall grounds on which the"'~cisiOlf is challenged and shall
order the ...destruction or ...return to the be ,~cc9Illpanied _by a Treasury, Challan evidencing
country of origin of the affected consign- the payment of a, fe,,'9{ Rs.;:JOj~,
ment. of whole gr a, part of the, plant popu- APv.
lS:.,:Jhe )nfl nt ,Protectj8 n iser , ID3:Yi .at any time,
IarionIa the Post-entry ,:Quarantine if the -call for, the records..~l~tlng J9 .~Y;Jh~s~kpending be-
pest or"disease is ~xotic,arid ,
-fore the ~si~ate~Jhsp-ec~g A.P.!!19.t~ty jfpr•the ~ur-
)pse oLsatisfying l~eltas JQ~Jh.erJ.tJ~gality:-or propriety
(b) the Designated,Jnspection Authority. ;:i;'~hall of, any decision passed,hy:~that.:.-.a':.~.o~ty "and may
advise the importer about the curative mea- pass such order in relation thereto. 'as it thinks fit :
sures to be taken ,to tJie,'extent n~~aiY, :if Provided ,cth~t: Jib' such"order 'shall be passed
the pestor .dis~. is not exotic and permit
the release 9~ ~theaffeeted, population from ,afte~l/the e~ifY' ~f.:!9ree.·'inonths from the
the Post-entry Quarantin~_on1y' after _~ra­ date of the decision'
tive measures have been observed to be !Provided furth~. that Jl;re}!.I~n~}!~q;ection Adviser
successful.; Otherwise, the pIlnts shall be shall not' pass; a~.J.:order,;pt-ejP,~lcja~ to any
ordered to be destroyed. ., person, without giving him ,,~':":re:1sonable
opportunity 'of heating.
. '(iii) Where "destruction ~f ani plant .population is CHAPTER VI
?t'dered by the Designated Inspection Authority. the
tmporter shall destroy "the same 'in the presenced 16. Powers of Relaxation.-The Centfat'Oovem·
manner under the SUpervision of Designattd'Inspec- ment may. in public interest. t:etax-l:\ny of,the condi-
tion Authority. ' tions of this order relating to the permit. ~n.d the
phytosanitary Cettificne in relation to the'Unpctrt of
anyOOnSignment. !k Ll!~.it~V'.tr:!lrr.::t!0; hi
12. The
importer shall be liable to pay the pres- ~f~(:fN~~ 8-4rS7-PPJ,]
cribed fee for inspection of plants in the 'Post-entry B. NARASIMHAN. Jt. Secy,
Quarantine facility as laid down in Schedule In.

FORM-A
[Clause 3(2){i)]
APPLICATION FOR: PERMIT ,TO IMPORT, SEEDS/FRUlTS/PLANTS
FOR CONSUMPTION,
To
The Comoetent Authority.

.The undersigned hereby applies for a 'permit authorising the import of seeds/fruitslPIants for COn-
sumption as per details, given, below =~
, . (Please write/type in BlockLetters)
1. Name and exact description of seeds/fmits/plants to be
rmported,
2. Description of the Consignment and Quantity :,
3. Name and address of the consignor
4., Name and address of the importer :
5. Country and locality in, which grown or produced r
 19
6. Foreign POrt of shinment ;
7. Approximate date of arrival of the consignment iii
India:
8. Name of *AirjSea Port/Land Customs Station of'entrv iii
India :
I uadertake-to produce an official Phytosanitory Certificate with additional declaration, if any, as specl-
fied in the permit. I also 'undertake to pay.to the Plant Protection Adviser or any officer duly authorised
by him, the prescribed fees to meet the cost of inspection. furiliiiatioti: disinfestation and disinfection ~f thp- '
consignment referred to .
above:
~jgnature or tIle importer or his authorised agent.
Place:
Name and postar aaaress 91 tnennporter or DIS authorised aeem
Date :'

*Strike out whichever is not applicable.

FORM-':'B
[See Clause 3, condition (2)]
. APPLICATION FOR PERMIT TO IMPORT SEEDS AND PLANTS FOR SOWING!
PLANTING

To
The Competent Authority,

The undersigned hereby applies for a permit authorising the import of Seeds/Plants as per detaili.·
given belowv--
(Please type/write in BLOCK LEITERS)
1. Name and address of Importers :
2.

SI. Exact description of seeds/plant to be imported (state Name of Quantity

No. commercial and botanical name) Hybrid/ No. of Total weight
Variety packages or total No. of
propagating
material

1 2 3' 4(a) 4{b)

3. *Catalogue of seeds producer establishing ~dentity of the'

seed/planting material to be imported :
4. ,.Nameand.address ef.the.producing company:
5. Name and address of consignor :
6. Country and locality in which seed/planting matenal
grown:
7. Foreign port of shipment: -
20 TIm GAZETIE OF INDIA: EXTRAORDINARY [PART rr-sSC. 3(h1}-

I 2 3 4(a) 4(b)
8. Approximate date of arrival of consignment in India and
name of ••AirlSeaport/Land Custom Station.
9. Number and date ofregistration certificate from National,
Seeds Corporation/State Director of Agriculture/Horti-
culturej Central/State Govt. Authorities (alongwith a
photo copy): :
10. Number and datc_ of import.li.~ence. for. commercial
import of seeds of coarse cereals, oilseeds and pulses
(photo copy to be attached).
11. ONLY FOR IMPORTS FOR WHICH POST ENfRY
QUARANTINE/INSPECTION IS PRESCRIBED·
(a) Exact locality and its postal address where imported
seeds/plants will be grown ,.:,
(b) Names, postal address of Designated Inspection
Agency (DIA) under whose supervision imported
seeds/plant will be grown.
[2. DECLARATION"
I declare that the information furnished is correct to, the best ofmy knowledge and belief.
I undertake toproduce an official Phytosanitary Certificate with additional declarations, if 'any,'as
specified in t!te permit.
I also undertake to pay to the Plant ProtectionAdviserorthe officer duly authorised by him, the pres-
cribed fees to meet the cost of inspection, fumigation, disinfestation and disinfection of the consignment
reft.rred to above.
Place:
Signature of the Importer or his authorised agent.
Date:
*Photo copy of cover page and the relavant portion, if original catalogue cannot be furnished/photo
copies of documents establishing. identity of the seedstplanting materials. -
@C'nly for Food Processing Industries•
••Strike out whichever is not applicable.
FORM-e
[Clause 3(3»)'
(National Emblem)
Government of India.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
, (Department of Agricn1ture, & Cooperation)
Directorate ofPlant Protection, Quarantine & Storage
N.H. IV, Faridabad·121 OOt.
PERMIT FOR IMPORT OF FRUITS/SEEDSIPLANTS FOR CONSUMPTION
Permit N o . - - - - - - - - -
VaJid uptOI--------
Dat&o-----------
1. Permission is hereby granted - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(Name and address ofthe importer or his authorised agent)

[lfPf II-~ 3(ii)] 21

to import by air/sea/land the plants/seeds/ fruits herein specified grown or produced in - - - -

-------from,-----------------------------

(Name and address of the consigner)

through air/sea port/land custom station,

(Name of Port/Station)
as per following details .-
1. Name and exact description of seeds/fruits!plarits/to be import-
ed.
2. Description of the Consignment and Quantity
3. Country and locality in which grown or produced.
4. Foreign Port of shipment:
5. Specific purpose of Import":

2. The consignment should be,-

(i) accompanied by an official Phytosanitary Certificate issued by the authorised officer of the country
of origin (i.e."

(ii) the officialPhytosanitary Certificate shall also contain the following additional declarations :-
(a)l---------------------------
(b)J-----------------------
3. Quantity and description :
4. This permit is not transferable.

Place:
Signature of the Competent Authority "
Date :.
(SEAL)

*Here specify the country of origin.

Copy to :-

(1) the Collector of Customsr---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(address of Collector of Customs)

(2) Officer-in-Charge, Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station------------~-

(Name and address of the station)

Note :-(1) The importer or his authorised agent shall produce this permit for inspection oy the Plant
Protection Adviser or an officer authorised by him at the time of arrival of the consignment
at the land customs station or port of entry.

(2) THE IMPORTER SHALL INTIMATE IMMEDIATELY TO THE PERMIT ISSUING

AUTHORITY OF ANY CHANGE OF ADDRESS.
 22 THE GAZETTE OF INDIA: EXTRAORDINARY [PART. rr-8EC. 3(ii)]

FORM-D
[CLAUSE 3(3)]
(National Emblem)
Government of India
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
(Depar.ment of Agriculture & Cooperation)
DirectorateofPlant Protection, Quaran'ine & Storage
N.H. IV. Faridabad-121 001
PERMIT FOR IMPORT OF PLANTS/SEEDS FOR SOWING/
PLANTING

Permit N o . - - - - - - - - -
Valid uptQ:-,- - - - - -
Datc---------
1. Permission is hereby granted t o - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(Name and address of the importer or his authorised agent)

to import by air/sea/land the plants/seeds herein specified grown or produed i n - - - - - -
from,----------------

(Name and address of the Co nsi2110 r)

throu2h< air/sea port/land custom station- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -__
(Name of Port/Station)
as per following details :-.
1.

81. Exact description of Plants/Seeds to be imported (state Name of Quantity

No. commercial and botanical name) Hybrid/·
variety . No. of Total weightor
Packages total No. of
propagating
material
---------_.
2 3 4{a) 4(b)

2. *eataloguc of seeds producer establishing i~ntity _~f the ,.

seCd/pJantU1g'mitCiiai to be' importe4.. -
3. NaDleand address of the producing company.:
4~ Name and address of consignor'
5. Coilntry'and locality inwhichseedjpIanting material
grown;' .
6. Foieigil port ~fshipment
7. App~~~ AAt~ of arrival of consignmen; in India. and
name 'of Aif~ea-portjL3.nd Custom Station.
8. Number and date of registration certificate from National
Seeds Corporation/State Director of AgriculturelHorti-
cult.utel -@CCritra1/Stafe Govt. Authorities (alon~tb a;
photo copy).
 1 2. 3. 4(a) 4(b)

9. Number and date of import licence for commercial import of

seedsof coarse cereals, oiIseeds and pulses (photo copy
to 'be attached).
10. ONLY FOR IMPORTS FOR WmCH POST ENTRY QUARANTINE/INSPECTION IS PR
CRffiED) ,
(a) Exact locality and its postal address where imported
Plants/Seeds will be grown.
(b) Names. postal address of Designated Inspection Agency
(DIA) under whose supervision imported plants/seeds
will be grown.
2. The consignment of plants/seeds should be,-
(i) free from soil and seeds;
(ii) accompanied by an Official Phytosanitary Certificate
issued by the authorised officer of the country of
origin { i . e . * - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(iii) the Official Phytosanitary Certificate shall also con-

tain following additional declarations :-
(a)J---------------------------
(b)J----------------------------
(c)...---------------------------- ~
3. The plants/seeds should be grown under post-entry quarantine approved by the Plant Protectic
Adviser a t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Name and address of location)
for a period not exceeding-----------------days.
4. Quantity and description :
5. This permit is not transferable.
Place:
Signature of the Competent Authori
Date:
(SEAL)

Copy to :-
(1) The Collector of C U s t o n t s - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(Address of the Collector of Customs)

(2) Officer-in-Charge, Plant Quarantine & Fumigation S t a t i o n . - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Name of Station)

Note l : The importer or his authorised agent shallproduce this permit for inspection by the Plant Pre
tection Adviser, or an officer authorised by him, at the time of arrival of the consignment at th
land custom station or port of entry.
Note 2 : THE IMPORTER SHALL INTIMATE IMMEDIATELY TO THE PERMIT ISSUJNG
AUTHORITY OF ANY CHANGE OF ADDRESS.
------------_.~--
*Here specify the country of origin.
 24 TIlE GAZETTE OF I~DrA: EXTRAORDINARY [PART II-Sec. 3(ii)

FORM-E
[Clause 3(4)]
FACE OF TAG

This package contains perishable

plants/seeds

Rush and Deliver to : The Officer In-Charge,

Plant Quarantine and
Fumigation Station,
airport/Seaport/Land Customs Station.

Signature of Competent Authority

REVERSE OF TAG

Permit No. Valid upto----,...-----

Directlons for sending plants/seeds
Under this tag only materials covered by
Permit the number of which it bears should be booked.
Any other material may be confiscated.
Place inside the package the importer's name and address, the invoice, and an officialPhytosanitary
Certificate issued by authorised.officers of your country. In case. of import by sea rush all docume
to consignee by air.

Attach Tag securely to consignment.

FORM-F
[Clause 3(1 1Xii)]
APPLICATION FOR IMPORT OF SOIL/pEAT

To
The Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India,
Directorate of Plant Protection,
Qrantine &: Storage,
N.H. IV,
Faridabad·121 001.

The undersigned hereby applies for a Special Permit authorising import of soil/peat as per details g
below:-
(IN BLOCK LETTERS)
1. Exact details of the quantity of Soil/Peat to be imported:
2. Details of location (village, town, district, country) from
where imports will be made :.
3. Mode of packing of consignment :
4. Specific purpose of import :
5. Name and address of the Consignor :
 ['llT'T II~ J (ii)]
25
6. Name and address of the importer :
7. Foreign Port of shipment:

8. Approximate date of arrival of cosignment in India and

name of the airport of seaport or Land Custom Station:
9. Specific location where consignment will be utilised:

I undertake to pay to the Plant Protection Adviser or any officerduly authorised by him prescribed fees
to meet the cost of inspection, fumigation, disinfestation or disinfection of the consignment referred above.

Signature of the importer or his authorised

agent.
Place :
Name and postal address of the importer or his authorised
agent.
Date:

FORM-G
[Clause 3(11) (iii)]
(National Emblem)
Government of India
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
(Department of Agriculture and Cooperation)
Directorate of piant Protection. Quarantine & Storage
N.H. IV. Faridabad-121 001
SPECIAL PERMIT OR IMPORT OF SOIL/pEAT

Special Permit N o . - - - - · - - - - · - - - - -
Valid u p t o - - - - - - - - - -
Date : - - - - - - - - - -
1. Permission is hereby granted t o - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(Name and address of importer or his authorised agent)

to import by land/airport/sea the soil/peat. as per details givenbelow, f r o m l - - - - - - - - - -

(Name and address of consignor)

through land custom station/air/sea port of·--------:-~----------
(name of the land)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , as per follwoing details
(custom station/air sea port).
1. Exact details of the quantity of soil/peat to be. imported:
2. Details of location (village, town. district. country) from
where import will be made :..
3. Mode of packing of consignment:
4. Specific purpose of import :
5. Foreign Port of shipment:
3065 Glf-4
 THE GAZETTE OF INDIA: EXTRAGRDINARY [PART II-SfC'. 3(ii)]

6. Specific location where consignment will be utilised :

7. This permit is not transferable. :
Signature of the Plant Protection Adviser to the Governn ent of
India.
Place:
(SEAL)
Date:

Copy to :-
1. The Collector of C u s t o m s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Address of the Collector of Customs)
2. The Offi:er-in-Charge, Plant Quarantine and Fumigation S , a t i o n - - - - - - - - - - -

(Name and address of the station)

Note l The importer or his authorised agent shall produce this permit for inspection by the Plant Pro-
tection Adviser or an officer dilly authorised by him at the time of arrival of the consignment'
at the land custom station or port of entry.
Note 2: THE IMPORTER SHALL INTIMATE IMMEDIATELY TO THE DIRECTORATE OF
PLANT PROTECTION, QUARANITNE AND STORAGE OF ANY C.HANGE OF
ADDRESS.
SCHEDULE-I
[Clause 2(0]
OFFICIAL PHYTOSANITARY CERTIFICATE
Plant Protection Organisation o f - - - - - - - - - - No.
(Name of the country)
To,
The Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India,
Dte. of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage,
N.H. IV, Faridabad-IZl 001
(India)
DESCRIPTION OF CONSIGNMENT
Name and address of the exporter:
Declared name and address of consignee:
Number and description of packages:
Distinguishing marks:
Place of origin:
Declared means of conveyance:
Declared POl t of entry/land custom station:
Name of the produce and the quantity declared:
Commercial and Botanical names of the plants/seeds/fruits:

This is to certify that the plants or plant products described above have been inspect cd and found
from quarantine pests and substantially free from other injurious pests; and that they are considered
conform with the current phytosanitary regulations of the importing country.
[q-rr II-qq 3 (ii )] 27
DISINFESTATION AND/OR DISINFECTION TREATMENT
Date : . - - - - - - - - - - Treatment :---------~--
Chemical (active ingre:1ient)-----------Dur:ltion and temperature - - - - - - - -
Concmtration Additional infolmation-------

Additional declaration

(Stamp of Organisation)
Place of Issue : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Name of the authorised o f f i c e r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Signature
Date:---
N J financial liability with respect to this' certificate shall attach to (Name
of th~ Plant Protection Organisation) -- or to any of its officers or representatives.
·Optional clause.

SCHEDULE-II
(Clause 4)
Conditions, for import of plants, seeds for sowing, planting and consumption

Sl, Plants, Seeds and Countries from Pest for which additional Special conditions for
No. propagating where import is declarations in Official import
materials prohibited Phyrosanitary Certificate
are required

2 3 4 5

I. All species of Allium Smut (U rocystis capulae)

(Onion, garlic, leek, Stem and bulb namatode
Chive, shallot etc.) Ditylenchus dipsaci)
2. Cacoa and all species West Indies, Pod rot (Monilia rorei Mealy Growing imported seeds and
of the family Stercu- Africa and Pod (Trachysphaeria fructi- plants under post-entry
liaceae and Sri Lanka gena), Witches Broom (Cri- quarantine.
Bornbacacae. nipellia pemicaioaus) and
swollen Shoot virus.
3. All species of Citrus "Mal Secco" Growing imported seeds and
(lemon, lime, orange, (Deutercphoma trachiphilla) plants under post-entry
grape fruit etc.) quarantine.

4. Coconut seeds and Red Ring (Rhadinaphelenchus (i) Consignments can only
plants (all species of cocophilus), Lethal yellowing, be imported by Director,
cocoa) cadang cadang, Bronze leaf Central Plantation Crops
wilt, Guam coconut disease, Research Institute; 'Kasa-
LeafScorch, Coconut leaf raged (Kerala).
miner (Promecotheea curningi) (ii) Imported material shall
be grown in individual
containers under post-
entry quarantine.
28 THE GAZETTE OF INDIA: E XTRAORDINAR Y cr ART lI-Src, 3(ti)]

1 2 3 4 5

5. Coffee American leaf spot (Omphalia (i) Consignments of coffee

(a) Plants, seeds (all flavida), Virus diseases and seeds plants can only be
species of Coffea) coffee' berry borer (Hypo the- imported by Director,
namus hampii) Coffee Research Station
pin-577117, Karnataka,
(b) Coffee Beans Sri Lanka, Coffee berry bo rer (Hypo-
Africa, thenamus hampii)
South America
6. Cotton seeds (all Black arm (Xanthomonas Consignment of seed s can
species of Gossypium) malvacearum) and (Glom only be imported by Di-
erella gossypii) rector, Central Institute for
Cotton Research, Nagpur
(Maharashtra).
7. Forest seeds (all Coronartium ribicola Consignments can only be
species of pinus, Endothea parasitica, imported by Director,
Ulmus and Castanea) Ceratoystis ulrni Dothios- Biological Research, Forest
troma pint Lophoderminum Research Institute, New
Pinastris U Forest Post, Dehradun or
any organisation under
Central or State Govern-
ment.
8. Groundnut seeds (i) Prod uction of seeds in (i) Consignments, can .only
(Peanut (all species areas free of Puccinia be imported as decorti-
of Arachis) arachidis and Sphaceloma cated seed s.
arachidis,
(ii) Inspection of parent (ii] Consignments can only be
crops in active growing imported for . research
season and certification work.
for freedom from peanut (iii) Consignments . originat-
mottle, peanut Stunt & ing from North and South
marginal chlorosis America shall be grown
viruses. in intermediate post-
entry quarantine facility
in non-groundnut 'grow-
ing countries and healthy
seedlings or cuttings shall
.only be imported.

9. Luerene (all species Bacterial wilt (Corynebacte-

of Medicago) rium incidionum)
10. Potato (all species of Wart (Synchytrium endobio (i) Consignments can only
Solanum) ticum Cyst nematodes be imported for research
Golcbodera pallida, by Director, Central
G. rostochiensis), Leptin Potato Research Insti-
otarasa decimlineata) and tute, Simla (RP.)
freedom of parent crops from (ii) Consignments shan be
virus diseases. grown under post-entry
quarantine.
t'lfT1T It-lA' 3(ii)] 29
1 2 3 4 5

: 1. Rubber (all species America or South American Leaf Blight

of Hevea) West Indies (MycrocycIus wei)
Sphaerostilbe repens

12. Sugarcane (aU species Fiji. Leaf Scald (Xanthomonas (i) Consignments shall be
of Saccharum) New Guinea. albineans), Gummosis imported only by Dir-
Australia, (Xanthomonas vasculorum), ector, Sugarcane Breed-
Philippines Sereh, white leaf, Downy ing Instt. Coimbatore
mildew and.chloratic streak. (Tamil Nadu).
(ii) Consignments shall: be
grown under post-entry
quarantine.
13. Sunflower (all species Argentina, Peru Downy Mildew (Plasmopara (i) Consignments imported
of Helianthus) halstedii), Orobanche Camana, for sowing and planting
shall be grown under
post-entry quarantine.
(ii) Consignments imported
for consumption shall be
utilised under super-
vision of Plant Protec-
tion Adviser or any
officer authorised by
him.
14, Tobacco (all species Blue Mould (Peronospora (i) Tobacco seed for sowing
of Nicotiaba) tabacina) and planting shall only
(a) Tobacco seed be imported by Director
Central To bacco Research
Institute, Rajahmundry
(Andhra Pradesh) for
research.
(li) Consignments shall be
grown under post-entry
quarantine.
(b) Un-manufactured Tobacco Moth
tobacco (Bphestia elutelia)
15. Berseem (all species Bulb and Stem Namatode
of Trifolium) (Ditylenchus dipsaci)

16. Wheat (all species of Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), (i) Consignments for sowing
(Triticum) Dwarf bunt (Tilletia and planting shall only
(a) for sowing and contraversa), Spikelet rot be imported by Director,
'planting. Pseudomonas antrofaciens) National Burea u of
and granary weevil (Sitop- Plant Genetic Resour-
hilus granarius) ces, New Delhi," .\.
,(ii) Consignment shall be
'grown in 'post-entry
quarantine.
 30 THE GAZETTE OF INDIA: EXTRAORDtNARY [PART tI-SEC. 3(ii)]

1 2 3 4 5

(b) for consumption Granary weevil (Sitoph (i) Ergot not to exceed
ilus granarius) 0.05 % limit.
(ii) Dwarf bunt not to exceed
0.005%.
Note: Import of wheat preferably
be undertaken during summer months.

17. Paddy seeds/rice Granary weevil (Sitoph

ilus granarius).
18. Cuttings/Saplings! Exotic pests and diseases to Consignments shall be grown
bud wood of flowers be specified in the import in approved post-entry
and ornamental permit. quarantine.
plants.
19. Planting material! Exotic pests and diseases (i) Import to be permitted
seeds of fruits. to be specified in the import selectively by the Central
permit. Government on the re-
commendations of Di-
rector of Horticulture!
Agriculture of State
Government.
(ii) Consignment to be grown
under Post Entry Qua-
rantine conditions, to be
specified by the Plant
Protection Adviser.

SCHEDULE-III
A-INSPECTION FEES
[Clause 3(12) and 12]

S1. Particulars of Import VolumefWt. Fee

No.

2 3 4

1. Plants, cuttings, saplings, budwood (i) Upto 10 Nos. Nil

etc. for planting as under Clause (li) Above 10 Nos; for every 100 Nos. or Rs.50/-
4, Schedule Il, requiring Post part thereof.
Entry Quarantine. (iii) Above 100 Nos. upto 1000 Nos. or Rs.250/-
part thereof.
(iv) Above 1000 Nos. upto 10,000. Rs.5OO/-
(v) Above 10,000 Nos. Rs. 250 for every
1000 Nos. or part
thereof.
2. Plants, bulbs,' tubers, corns, (i) Upto 10 Nos. Nil.
rhizomes etc. for Planting, not (ii) Above 10 Nos. upto 1000 Nos. or Rs, 100/-
requiring Post Entry Quarantine. part thereof.
(iii) Above 1000 Nos. Rs. 100/- plus
Rs. 0.05 per piece.
 r'lftlr II-~ 3 (Ii)] 31
~ -==~:::::::-====:-==================-===========::::-
2 3 4

A. For coarse cereals/ Pulses/Oil seeds

3. Seed s for sowing. (i) Upto 100 gms. Nil.

(ii) Above 100 gms. for every 1 Kg. or Rs.2/-
part thereof.
(iii) Above 1 Kg.; for every 10 Kgs, or Rs.I0/·
part thereof.
B. For Vegetables/flowers
(i) Upto 100 Kgs. Re. 1/- per Kg.
Hi) Above 100 Kgs. upto 1000 Kgs. Rs. 0.50 per Kg.
(iii) Beyond 1000 Kgs, Rs. 0.20 per Kg.
C. For Others
(i) Above 10 Kgs. for every 200 Kgs. Rs. 100/-
or part thereof.
(ii) Above 100 Kgs, for every 1000 Rs.500/-
Kgs. or part thereof. .
,4. Plants. Seeds and fruits for (i) Upto 2 Kgs. Nil.
consumption. (ii) Above 2 Kg; for every 10 Kg. or Rs.2/-
part thereof.
(iii) Above 10 Kg.; for every 100 Kgs. or Rs.201-
part thereof.
(iv) Above 100 Kg.; for every 1000 Kg. or Rs·40/-
part thereof.

B. FUMIGATION/DISINFECTION/DISINFESTATION/SUPERVISION
CHARGES

St. Particulars of Import Volume/Wt. Fees

No.
r 2 3 4
---------------
J. Planis, Seeds for consumption. (a) Consignments less than 1000 cu. m,
in volume :-'
(i) 1.5 Cubic M. or less in volume Rs. 6/-
of each consignment.
(ii) Additional 1.5 Cubic M. or part . Rs, 2{-
thereof.
(b) Consignments more than 1000 Cu. M.
in volume :-
Supervision chargs only Rs. 1001-
(The importer shall arrange for fumi-
gation, disinfestation of consignment
at his cost, under the supervision of
Plant Protection Adviser or an officer
authorised by him in this behalf).
. ~---------- ------------
32 THE GAZETTE OF INDIA: EXTRAORDINARY [PART Il--SEC. 3(ii)]

2 3 4
2. Dry fruits, fresh fruits and (i) U pto 2 Kgs. Rs. Nil.
vegetables. (ii) Above 2 Kgs.; for every 50 Kg. or Rs.6/-
part thereof.
3. Soil, earth, clay for microbiologi- (i) 1.5 Cu. M. or less in volume of each R.6/-
cal, soil mechanics or minerologi- consignment.
cal investigations and peat for
horticultural purposes.: (ii) Additional 1.5 Cu. M. or part Rs.2/·
thereof:
4. Seeds and plants for sowing and (i) 1.5 Cu. M. or less in volumes of each Rs.6/-
planting. consignment.
(ii) Additional 1.5 Cu. M. or part Rs.2/-
thereof.
Plant Variety Protection in India: Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV
and FR) Act, 2001
India and so many other countries do not protect plants by strict patenting system. India is
signatory to WTO agreements and it has to abide by the TRIPs regulations. As per article 27.3(b)
of the TRIPs which demand that member countries should protect their plant varieties. An Act
named as Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV and FR) Act 2001 was enacted
in India on October 30, 2001. The rules under the Act were notified on September 12, 2003.
Central Government established the PPV and FR Authority on 11th November, 2005 with its
Head Office located at Delhi. The PPV and FR Act is TRIPs compliant and compatible with
UPOV system of plant variety protection. PPV and FR Authority is a body corporate under the
Ministry of Agriculture with chairperson as the Chief Executive. At present Dr. Hanchinal is the
chairperson of the Authority. Besides the chairperson, the Authority has 15 members, notified
by the Government (Anonymous, 2010). The main objective of the Authority is the
establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and
plant breeders and to encourage development of new varieties of plants.

Plant Variety
A plant variety is an assemblage of cultivated individuals which are distinguished by any
character (morphological, physiological, chemical or any other) significant for the purpose of
agriculture, forestry or horticulture and which when reproduced (sexually or asexually), or
reconstituted, retain their distinguishing features.

As per PPV and FR Act, 2001 a ‘variety’ means a plant grouping except microorganism within a
single botanical taxon of the lowest known rank, which can be:
(i) Defined by the expression of the characteristics resulting from a given genotype of that
plant grouping;
(ii) Distinguished from any other plant grouping by expression of at least one of the said
characteristics; and
(iii) Considered as a unit with regard to its suitability for being propagated, which remains
unchanged after such propagation, and includes propagating material of such variety, extant
variety, transgenic variety, farmers’ variety and essentially derived variety.

To promote the development of new varieties of plants and to protect the rights of farmers and
breeders, The PPV and FR Act 2001 provides protection to following types of plant varieties:

1. Newly bred varieties.

2. Extant varieties – The varieties which have been notified under Indian Seeds Act, 1966 and
have not completed 15 years as on the date of application for their protection.
3. Extant - Farmers’ varieties – The varieties which have been traditionally cultivated, including
landraces and their wild relatives which are in common knowledge, as well as those evolved
by farmers.
4. Extant- Variety of Common Knowledge – A variety which is not released and notified under
the Seeds Act, 1966 but is well documented through publications and is capable of satisfying
 the definition of variety, or has become a matter of common knowledge and the variety is
under cultivation or marketing during the time of filing of application for registration.
5. Essentially derived varieties.- In respect of a variety (the initial variety), shall be said to be
essentially derived from such initial variety when it is predominantly derived from such initial
variety, while retaining the expression of the essential characteristics that results from the
genotype or combination of genotypes of such initial variety; is clearly distinguishable from
such initial variety; and conforms (except for the differences which result from the act of
derivation) to such initial variety in the expression of the essential characteristics that result
from the genotype or combination of genotype of such initial variety.
6. Transgenic varieties.

To facilitate the registration of plant varieties, Authority has opened two branch offices of
the Plant Varieties Registry, one at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi and other at Assam
Agricultural University, Jorhat. These branch offices will function within its territorial limits and
will also keep a copy of National Register of Plant Varieties.

Registration of Plant Varieties

All the varieties will be registered with PPV and FR Authority. Under Sec 29(2) of the
Act, the Central Government by notification in the official Gazettes specifies the genera and
species eligible for the purpose of registration of varieties. DUS guidelines for 77 different plant
species which includes cereals, pulses, oilseeds, flowers, spices, vegetables, fruit trees,
ornamentals and medicinal and aromatic plants have been notified by PPV and FR Authority in
the Gazettes. These DUS guidelines have been published in the Plant Variety Journal of India of
the Authority also. PPV and FR Authority has established testing centres for each and every
plant species. In the first phase, the registration of varieties for 12 crop species of cereals and
legumes was started in May 2007. The registration of varieties is now open for 77 plant species.
Once notified, application may be filed for registration of varieties under the category of new
plant varieties, essentially derived varieties (EDV), extant varieties (notified under the Seeds Act
1966), extant (varieties of common knowledge and farmers’ variety).

The Act has laid down the norms for registration of plant varieties, fee structure,
provisions of opposition, DUS testing of material, etc. If any farmer or association of farmers is
applying for registration of a plant variety then this category is not required to pay any fee for
either registration or DUS testing. An affidavit for Rs 100/- on non judicial stamp paper has to be
submitted with the application form indicating that the variety does not contain any GURT or
terminator gene technology.

Eligibility Criteria for a Variety to be Registered

For a new variety to be eligible for registration, it must conform to the criteria of novelty,
distinctiveness, uniformity and stability (NDUS [Section 15 (1)–(3)]. However, an extant variety
shall be registered under this Act within a specified period if it conforms to criteria of
distinctiveness, uniformity and stability (DUS) as shall be specified under the regulations.
Novelty (N)
It is the basic requirement for registration of newly developed plant variety. A variety is
novel, if, at the date of filing of application for registration for protection, the propagating or
harvested material of such variety has not been sold or otherwise disposed of in India, earlier
than 1 year and outside India (in case of trees and vines earlier than six years, or in other cases,
earlier than four years.

Distinctiveness (D)
Any plant variety which is clearly distinguishable by at least one essential characteristic
from any other variety whose existence is a matter of common knowledge in any country at the
time of filing of the application.

Uniformity (U)
Newly developed plant has to give uniform characters subject to the variation that may be
expected from the particular features of its propagation but it is sufficiently uniform in its
essential characteristics.

Stability (S)
Essential characteristics of newly developed variety remains unchanged after repeated
propagation or, in the case of a particular cycle of propagation, at the end of each such cycle.

Varieties that cannot be Protected under the PPV and FR Act

Varieties that shall not be granted protection under the PPV and FR Act are (Section 29):
1. The varieties whose commercial exploitation may affect protection of public order or public
morality; human, animal or plant life and health or may cause serious prejudice to the
environment.
2. The varieties whose genus/species is not notified in the Official Gazette at the time of filing
application but this clause is not applicable for extant and farmers’ varieties.
3. The varieties which involve any technology that is injurious to life and health of human
beings, animals and plants and which includes Genetic Use Restriction Technology
(GURT)/terminator technology.

Things to be Kept in Mind for Making an Application for Registration of Variety

For registration of a plant variety the following points should be kept in mind:
1. Denomination assigned to such variety.
2. Accompanied by an affidavit that variety does not contain any gene or gene sequence
involving terminator technology.
3. Complete passport data of parental lines, geographical location in India and all such
information relating to the contribution, if any, of any farmer, village, community, institution
or organization in breeding, evolving or developing the variety.
4. Characteristics of variety with description on novelty, distinctiveness, uniformity and stability.
5. A declaration that the genetic material for breeding has been lawfully acquired.
6. A breeder or other person making application for registration shall disclose the use of genetic
material conserved by any tribal or rural families in the breeding or development of such
variety.

The application for registration of a variety is to be made in form as prescribed by the

PPV and FR Authority. There is an application form (Form I) for registration of new variety,
extant variety and farmer’s variety and another form (Form II) for essentially derived variety and
transgenics. A technical questionnaire form is also to be filled up giving all the details of the
concerned variety. These filled application forms must be accompanied by the fee prescribed by
the Authority.

Applicant for the Registration of a Plant Variety

Any of the following can apply for registration of a variety:
1. Any person claiming to be the breeder of the variety;
2. Any successor of the breeder of the variety;
3. Any person being the assignee of the breeder of the variety in respect of the right to make such
application;
4. Any farmer or group of farmers or community of farmers claiming to be breeder of the
variety;
5. Any person authorized to make application on behalf of farmers and
6. Any University or publicly funded agricultural institution claiming to be breeder of the
variety.

DUS Testing and Centres

DUS stands for Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability. This is the criteria on the basis
of which the Breeders’ Rights will be granted to a variety by the Authority. DUS test will be
used as one of the main criteria for deciding the novelty of a variety. Present system of DUS
testing involves the comparison of candidate variety with the existing referred varieties by
recording the phenotypic characters, which are (mostly) morphological and physiological in
nature. Usually the DUS examination required more than one independent growing cycle with
reference to ecosystem of the variety for studying the consistency of results (Table 1.1). DUS
testing will be conducted for two years for self-pollinated crops but cross-pollinated crops may
require three years. For some crops such as fruit trees, the same plants are examined over
successive years. In some circumstances authorities can allow only one growing season. The
distinctness of self-pollinated crops can be established using characters which can be assessed by
visual examination and whose expression falls into clearly defined discrete states. In cross-
pollinated crops many of the varietal characteristics are on a continuous scale of expression and
require measurement. Usually, distinctions can be determined only on the basis of statistical
analysis in cross pollinated crops. In order to establish distinctness, it is usually necessary to
compare the candidate variety with existing varieties. For this purpose, the test centres maintain
reference collections of authentic samples of seed of existing varieties. The candidate varieties
and appropriate varieties from the reference collection are compared in field and laboratory tests.
Normally comparisons are limited to group or varieties, which are similar to the candidate
variety. Different DUS testing centres have been identified for crops and notified in the Gazette.

Criteria for Distinctiveness

Statistically a variety can be considered distinct if the difference between it and the
reference varieties exceeds the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at probability level of 1 per
cent, in case of self pollinated and vegetatively propagated crop varieties. The difference should
be consistent consecutively over years/locations. For cross pollinated crops varieties, Combined
Over Year Distinctiveness (COYD) is used to take in to account the difference in variation
between years/locations.

Criteria for Uniformity

For self pollinated and vegetatively propagated crop species, upto 1 per cent off types are
considered as Tolerable Limit which is double in case of often cross pollinated crop species. If
the panicles/ears are to be observed (in case of cereals), Tolerance Limit is maximum 3 variant
panicles/ears out of 100 panicles/ears. For cross pollinated crop species, Combined Over Year
Uniformity (COYU) is used to take in to account the variation between years. The Uniformity
Test is based on comparison of variation in candidate variety with comparable Reference
Variety.

DUS Test for Hybrids

For seeking Protection Rights for a hybrid, it is essential to submit seeds of all its parental
lines along with the seed of hybrid for DUS Testing. Criteria for Distinctiveness of hybrid is
such that, either the hybrid (F1) should be distinct or one of the parents should be distinct from
parents of non distinct hybrids of Reference Collection. For Uniformity Test, different tolerance
limit of variation will be considered as per type of hybrid e.g. Single cross, Three way cross,
Double cross or Multiple cross hybrids.
DUS Test for Genetically Modified Crop Varieties
There are certain requirements/precautions to be taken during DUS Testing of GM
crop/varieties in order to avoid any chance of contamination of non GM crops due to GM crops
through natural cross pollination.

Criteria for Registration of Varieties

New Variety
To qualify for registration under the act, a new variety has to conform to the criteria of
novelty (NDUS). After the candidate variety is accepted for DUS testing and applicant deposits
the prescribed fees for DUS testing and specified seed material alongwith a certified report of
germination test made not more than one month before from an accredited laboratory. Seed
material is sent to respective notified DUS centres for conducting trials consisting of new
varieties in tests referred to as candidate varieties which will be compared with the
characteristics of varieties of common knowledge referred to as reference varieties selected from
the database (Indian Information system – IINDUS 08.1) and Notified and Released Varieties of
India (NORV) developed by Authority. The varieties are grown over two similar growing
seasons in two locations.

Essentially Derived Variety (EDV)

The application of registration of an EDV shall be accompanied by all the relevant
documents along with other details (Sec 18). The Authority has constituted a six member expert
committee which will act as an advisory body to the Authority for evaluation and
recommendation of application filed. Once the Registrar is satisfied regarding the requirements,
then it will be referred to the expert committee which will suggest the tests and procedures for
establishing that the variety is derived from an initial variety. The rights of a breeder of a variety
or an EDV are same provided that the authorization by the breeder of the initial variety to the
breeder of EDV may be subject to such terms and conditions as both the parties may mutually
agree upon.

Extant Varieties
There are three categories under this for which registration is made:

1. Extant Varieties Notified Under Seeds Act 1966

The notified varieties are to be registered under this category. The Authority has
constituted a seven member Extant Variety Recommendation Committee (EVRC) to examine the
suitability for registration of such varieties. On the basis of recommendations of EVRC, extant
varieties will be registered as per Sec 28 of the Act. No field DUS tests are to be conducted for
such varieties as they have already been tested before notification. The passport data of
recommended varieties are published in the Plant Variety Journal (PVJ) of India for calling
objections, if any within a specified time frame. Applicants are required to submit stipulated
quantity of seed material/planting material specified for new varieties of same crop species
before the issue of certificate of registration.

2. Farmers’ Variety
A variety which has been traditionally cultivated and evolved by the farmers in their
field; or is a wild relative or land race or a variety about which the farmers possess the common
knowledge are covered under this category. The criteria of DUS are the same as mentioned for
new varieties. Novelty feature will not be taken because these varieties are not new and are in
public domain. However, uniformity levels for farmers’ variety for the respective plant species
shall not exceed double the number of off-types recommended for new variety and as specified
in the Plant Variety Journal. An application for registration can be made by any person claiming
to be the breeder of the variety, successor of the breeder, assignee, any farmer or group of
farmers or community of farmers, any person authorized for the above mentioned categories or
any University or publicly funded agricultural institution claiming to be the breeder of the
variety. However, an application of farmer variety filed by any farmer or group of farmers or
community of farmers has to be endorsed by any one of the officers viz. District Agricultural
Officer, District Tribal Development Officer, Director Research of the concerned state
Agricultural University, Chairperson/Secretary of the concerned Panchayat Biodiversity
Management Committee. Applicant has to submit half the quantity of seed material specified for
a new variety in the respective crop species, divided in to 5 equal numbers of packets. Field test
is conducted in paired row test for one season at two locations with the limited purpose of
confirming distinctiveness. Since the criteria of DUS for farmers’ variety was notified on 29th
June, 2009, the time limit for filing applications of varieties under this category in case of twelve
crop species notified on 1.11.2006 and six crop species notified on 31.12. 2007 were extended
for a period of five years from 30.6.2009 (PVJI, 2011a).

3. Variety of Common Knowledge (VCK)

A variety which is not released and notified under the Seeds Act, 1966 but is well
documented through publications and is capable of satisfying the definition of variety, or have an
entry in any official register of varieties or in the course of being made, or finds inclusion in a
reference collection or has become a matter of common knowledge and the variety is under
cultivation or marketing during the time of filing of application for registration falls under this
category. DUS test shall be a field test for one season at two locations. Applicant has to submit
half the DUS test fee prescribed for new variety and half the quantity of seed material prescribed
for respective crop species of a new variety in to five equal numbers of packets. Since the criteria
of DUS for VCK was notified on 29th June, 2009, the time limit for filing applications of
varieties under VCK in case of twelve crop species notified on 1.11.2006 and six crop species
notified on 31.12. 2007 were extended for a period of five years from 30.6.2009 (PVJI, 2011a).

Trees and Vines

 The Authority has started the registration of varieties under this category also. The DUS
testing shall be field and multi-location based for at least two crop seasons and special tests will
be laboratory based. There shall be an option on the matter of DUS testing that a panel of three
experts shall visit the On-Farm test sites for two similar crop seasons.

Special Tests
When DUS testing fails to establish the requirements of distinctiveness, then special tests
mechanism has been provided in the Act. Special test has to be laboratory based and the
Authority shall charge separate fees for the special tests which are to be identified on certain set
principles. Broadly, these tests can be classified into five main groups: physical, biochemical,
molecular, organo-leptic and response tests. To begin with Authority has constituted a task force
for identifying special tests for cotton, rice, oilseed, wheat, maize and medicinal and aromatic
plants.

Rights

Breeders Rights
The certificate of registration for a variety issued under this Act shall confer an exclusive
right on the breeder or his successor or his agent or licensee, to produce, sell, market, distribute,
import or export of the variety [Section 28 (1)]. Breeder shall enjoy provisional protection of his
variety against any abusive act committed by any third party during the period between filing of
application for registration and decision by the Authority. Breeders’ rights would not apply in
case when farmers save, exchange or use a part of the seed from the first crop of plants which
they have grown for sowing on their own farms to produce a second and subsequent crops. Plant
breeders would also not be able to exercise their rights in case where plants or propagating
material of the protected varieties is used as initial source of variation for the purpose of
developing new plant varieties (Gautam et al., 2012).

Researchers’ Rights
The researchers have been provided access to protected varieties for conducting
experiments or research and use of a variety as an initial source of a variety for the purpose of
creating other varieties. In case a registered variety is required as a parental line for commercial
production of newly developed variety then authorization from the breeder of the registered
variety is required [Section 30].

Farmers’ Rights
Indian law follows a holistic approach. The sui-generis system adopted by India is unique
in the world in the sense that it has taken farmers’ rights concept a step forward and genuinely
addresses the concerns of farmers as breeders, innovators, conservers, etc. It has tried to
incorporate the features of UPOV and International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) also known as Seed Treaty along with certain distinctive features of
its own as per requirement of farmers (Singh et al., 2011). It is pertinent to note that the Act
recognizes the farmer as a cultivator, conserver and breeder. This embraces all farmers, landed or
landless, male and female. Under the Sec. 2(k) of PPV and FR Act, a farmer means any person
who -i) cultivates crops by cultivating the land himself; or ii) cultivates crops by directly
supervising the cultivation of land through any other person; or iii) conserves and preserves,
severally or jointly, with any person any wild species or traditional varieties, or adds value to
such wild species or traditional varieties through selection and identification of their useful
properties. PPV and FR Act of India recognizes various rights of farmers as per Section 39
(Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Rights Provided to Farmers in PPV and FR Act, 2001 of India

Indian PPV and FR Act allows farmers to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share or sell his farm
produce including seed of a variety protected under this Act, but it prohibits that the farmer shall
not be entitled to sell branded seed of a variety protected under the Act [Sec. 39, 1(iv)]
(Anonymous, 2010). PPV and FR Act distinguishes from UPOV Act which treats this as
farmers’ privilege rather than right. Exemption for farm saved seeds by farmers to save, use and
exchange seed but not sell seed without penalty under plant breeders right system are referred as
farmers’ privilege. Since the use and exchange of saved seeds was considered non-commercial
and hence was considered outside the scope of Plant Breeders’ Rights. In the PPVFR Act the
farmers have been given the right to register farmers varieties themselves [Sec. 39,1(i)]. The Act
treats the farmer as plant breeder so far as farmers’ variety is concerned and they can register
them under the Act without paying any fees. Farmers have the right to claim compensation for
under performance of a protected variety from the promised level [Sec. 39(2)], benefit sharing
for use of biodiversity conserved by farming community [Sec. 41]. According to the concept of
benefit sharing, whenever a variety submitted for protection is bred with the possible use of a
landrace, extant variety or farmers’ variety, a claim can be referred either on behalf of the local
community or institution for a share of the royalty [Sec. 41(1)]. Farmers’ have also been
excluded from paying any fee in any proceeding before the Authority or Registrar or Tribunal or
the High Court. Farmers are also exempted from filing “affidavit sworn by the applicant that
such a variety does not contain any gene or gene sequence involving terminator or GURT
technology”.
Compulsory License
In the Act a provision of compulsory license has also been put. According to this, after
the expiry of three years from the date of issue of certificate of registration of a variety, any
person interested can claim in an application to the authority alleging that reasonable
requirements of the public for seeds or other propagating material have not been satisfied or that
the seed or other propagating material is not available to the public at a reasonable price and pray
for the grant of a compulsory license to undertake production, distribution and sale of the seed or
other propagating material of that variety [Sec. 47(1)].

Community Rights
It is compensation to villagers or local communities for their significant contribution in
the evolution of a variety which has been registered under the Act. Any village or local
community in India can claim the credit for the contribution to a particular plant variety
registered as a new plant variety. Any person or group of persons or any governmental or non-
governmental organization may on behalf of the people of the village or community in India, can
file in any notified centre, claim their contribution in the evolution of a variety [Section 41].
After verification, if the Authority is satisfied, and after giving an opportunity to the breeder to
file an objection and of being heard, subjected to the limit notified by the Central Government, it
may by order grant such compensation to be paid to the claimant. Authority can direct breeder of
a variety to deposit compensation (arrear of land revenue) to the Gene Fund.

Fee Structure
Application for registration of plant varieties should be accompanied with the fee of
registration notified by the Authority [new and essentially derived variety (Individual –Rs
5,000/-; Institutional –Rs 7,000/-; Commercial- Rs 10,000/-), extant variety notified under the
Seeds Act, 1966 – Rs 1,000/- and variety about which there is a common knowledge (Individual
–Rs 2,000/-; Institutional – Rs 3,000/-; Commercial- Rs 5,000/-). No fee is to be paid by a farmer
for registration of a farmers’ variety (Table 1.3)

Table 1.3: DUS Test Fee and Other Fee Structure Payable for different Categories
Annual Fee
A breeder of the registered variety will have to pay annual fee which is determined on the
basis of declaration given by him or his agent or licensee regarding the sales value of the seeds of
the variety registered under the Act during the previous year and royalty, if any, received during
the previous year from the sale proceed of seeds of the registered variety and verified by the
Authority. The Authority with the prior approval of the Central Government has notified the
Annual fee to be paid by the breeder, agent or licensee of the registered variety. Annual fee for a
new variety shall be Rs. 2000/-plus 0.2 per cent of the sales value of the seeds of the registered
variety during the previous year plus 1 percent of royalty, if any, received during the previous
year from the sale proceed of seeds of a registered variety. For extant variety notified under
Section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966 (54 of 1966) the annual fee has been fixed for Rs. 2,000/-plus
0.1 per cent of the sales value of the seeds of the registered variety during the previous year plus
0.5 percent of royalty, if any, received during the previous year from the sale proceed of seeds of
a registered variety (The Gazette of India, 2009).

Certificate of Registration
Once the variety has been tested for its features then the Registrar of the Authority will
issue the certificate of registration. It shall have the validity of nine years initially in case of trees
and vines with renewal up to a period of 18 years. For other crops certificate of registration will
be issued for six years initially with renewal up to 15 years. In case of extant varieties the
validity period is 15 years from the date of notification of that variety by the Central Government
under section 5 of the Seeds Act 1966 [Section 24(6)]. The Authority has also opened a
“National Register of Plant Varieties” having all details of the registered plant varieties and kept
at the Headquarters of the Authority at New Delhi. This Register is an authentication of the plant
breeders rights granted to the applicants. As a requirement under the Act, for the purpose of
benefit sharing, the Authority shall also send a copy of the certificate of registration to the
National Biodiversity Authority and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (The Gazette of
India, 2011).

National Gene Bank and Field Gene Bank

As per the Act it is mandatory to maintain the seed samples/propagating material of
registered plant varieties up to a period of protection provided to the candidate variety and also to
address the issues for intellectual property of plant varieties including legal requirements such as
infringement of plant breeder’s rights, compulsory license, etc. Authority has established the
National Bank at Old Campus of National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New
Delhi for medium term storage of true samples of orthodox seed of all registered varieties for
their entire period of protection. The seed samples kept in the National Gene Bank at low
temperature (3-5°C) so as to maintain genetic purity, viability and health during the period of
protection beyond which the denomination and variety may go under public domain. After the
expiry of protection period, seed material may be submitted to NBPGR/any public repository.
For perennial plants (fruit trees and plantation crops) such as mango, citrus, eucalyptus,
poplar, rubber, coffee, etc. which either produce ‘recalcitrant (which are either short lived or do
not withstand desiccation) seeds to no seeds at all, clonally propagated and have long
regeneration cycles or sexually sterile, ‘Field Gene Bank’ is a practice worldwide as an effective
‘ex-situ’ conservation strategy. Such field gene bank are developed in places concerned, where
suitable agro-climatic conditions like soil, water, area being relatively free from disease/pest
infestation are available. For collection and maintenance of varieties released (referral collection)
of perennial crop species collected from different niches so as to preserve sub species/intra-
varietal variability at one place, Authority has established four Field Gene Banks at Dapoli,
Maharashtra (for tropical and sub-tropical crops), Ranchi, Jharkhand (Eastern ecosystem),
Mashobra, H.P. (for temperate crops) and Jodhpur, Rajasthan (for arid ecosystem).

National Gene Fund

The Central Government has constituted a Fund called the National Gene Fund which
would be enriched through the benefit sharing received in the prescribed manner from the
breeder of a variety or an essentially derived variety registered under the Act, or propagating
material of such variety or essentially derived variety: the annual fee payable to the Authority by
way of royalty by the breeders of the registered variety; the compensation deposited in the Gene
Fund under sub-section (4) of section 41; the contribution from any national and international
organization and other sources. The Gene Fund shall, in the prescribed manner, be applied for
meeting any amount to be paid by way of benefit sharing under sub-section (5) of section 26; the
compensation payable under sub-section (3) of section 41; the expenditure for supporting the
conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources including in-situ and ex-situ collections
and for strengthening the capability of the Panchayat in carrying out such conservation and
sustainable use and the expenditure of the scheme relating to benefit sharing framed under
section 46 of the Act.

Benefit Sharing
The Act provides for benefit sharing involving registered varieties. The first applies
specifically to EDVs. In the second, any village local community can claim benefit for
contributing to the development of a variety registered under the Act [Sec 41]. For a variety
registered as EDV, any person or group of persons, being citizen(s) of India or firm or
governmental or non-governmental organization formed or established in India, within a period
of six months from the date of publication of the contents of the certificate of registration, can
claim a share of benefits that may arise from its commercialization on behalf of any village or
local community. The Authority shall establish the justification of the claims and determine the
amount to be paid as benefit share on the basis of two criteria: a) the extent and nature of the use
of genetic material of the claimant in the development of the variety for which benefit sharing
has been claimed; and b) the commercial utility and demand in the market for the variety. The
amount of benefit sharing, if any, would have to be deposited in the National Gene Fund by the
breeder of the variety. In the second circumstance, any person or group of persons, being
citizen(s) of India or firm or governmental or nongovernmental organization formed or
established in India can make a claim on behalf of a village or local community for the
contribution that they had made in the evolution of any variety registered under the Act.
Applicant is required to provide the complete passport data of the parental lines from which a
variety has been derived along with the geographical location in India from where the genetic
material has been taken and all such information relating to contribution, if any, of any farmer,
village community, institution or organization in breeding, evolving or developing the variety. If,
upon investigation, the claim was found justified, after the breeder was given an opportunity to
file objection and to be heard, the Authority shall, by order, determine the amount of benefit
sharing to a variety taking in to account the criteria: a) the contribution of the claimant in
selecting, conserving and providing the genetic material, b) the contribution of such genetic
material in providing one or more traits which conferred high commercial value to the variety,
and c) the contribution of such genetic material to impart high combining ability to the parents of
the hybrid variety relating to benefit sharing. Amount of compensation as the Authority deems fit
would be deposited by the breeder in the National Gene Fund.

Rewards to Farmers and Farming Communities

To support and reward farmers and farming communities engaged in conservation,
improvement and preservation of genetic resources of economic plants and their wild relatives,
the Authority, under the provision of section 45 of PPV and FR Act, 2001 Rule 70 (2)(a) [PPV
and FR Rules, 2003] has instituted Plant Genome Savior Community Awards. Additionally, as
per section 39 (1)(iii) of PPV and FR Act, 2001, the Central Government has notified the PPV
and FR (Recognition and Reward from the Gene Fund) Rules, 2012 for rewarding and
recognizing farmers by instituting “Plant Genome Savior “Farmer Reward” and “Farmer
Recognition”. These awards are for the farmers engaged in the conservation of genetic resources
of landraces and wild relatives of economic plants and their improvement through selection and
preservation and the material so selected and preserved has been used as donors of gene in
varieties registerable under the PPV and FR Act, 2001. Authority in consultation with Govt. of
India has started “Plant Genome Savior Community Award”. The award consists of Rs 10 lakhs
in cash, a citation and a memento and will be given annually with a maximum of five awards per
year. The award is open to all Indian farming/tribal/rural communities engaged in conservation,
improvement and preservation of genetic resources of economic plants and their wild relatives
(http:/ /www.plantauthority.gov.in).

Infringement and Penalty

If a person infringes the rights of the registered breeder in respect of registered
variety or registered denomination without the permission of breeder then it constitutes
infringement. Conditions have been laid out in the Act which leads to infringement
of rights.

Penalty
Any person who applies any false denomination to a variety or indicates the false name
of a country or place or false name and address of the breeder of a variety registered under the
Act shall be punished with an imprisonment which is initially for three months and may be
extended to two years, or with a fine of rupees fifty thousands which may extend to five lakhs or
both imprisonment and fine can be imposed to the offender.
Any person sells, or has in possession for sale or for any purpose of trade or production
of any variety having false denomination or applies false indication of the country or place in
which such variety was made or produced or the name and address of the breeder of that variety,
in such case he will be punished with an imprisonment of not less than six months which is
extendible up to two years or with a fine not less than fifty thousands rupees which may extend
to five lakhs, or imprisonment and fine.
If any person makes representation with respect to the denomination of a variety or its
propagating material or essentially derived variety or its propagating material as a registered
variety then he shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not less than six months which
may extend to three years or with a fine not less than one lakh which may extend to five lakhs, or
with both.

Surrender, Opposition and Revocation

Surrender
 A breeder of a variety registered under the Act, may at any time by giving notice in the
prescribed manner to the Registrar, can offer to surrender his certificate of registration.

Opposition
Any person within three months from the date of advertisement of an application for
registration may file an opposition based on the grounds provided in the Act. Both opponent and
applicant file their pleading and evidence and the opposition is finally heard by the Registrar. If
the opposition is allowed then the applicants cannot proceed further with the registration. In case
the opposition is rejected then the variety proceeds for registration.

Revocation
Revocation for registration is decided by the Authority on application filed by any
interested person on the grounds provided in the Act. No revocation is done without offering an
opportunity of hearing to the registered breeder. If revocation is allowed by the Authority then
the certificate of registration becomes invalid. Any person aggrieved with decision of the
Authority or Registrar in an opposition or revocation proceeding may file an appeal to the
Tribunal and subsequently to the Higher Court.

Plant Varieties Protection Appellate Tribunal

The Act provides for establishment of Plant Varieties Protection Appellate Tribunal (PVPAT).
All orders or decisions of the Registrar or Authority relating to registration of variety/registration
as an agent or licensee can be appealed in the tribunal. Further all orders or decisions of
Authority relating to benefit sharing, revocation of compulsory license and payment of
compensation can be appealed to the Tribunal. The Tribunal consists of one judicial member and
one technical member. The form of appeal and period within which it must be preferred has been
prescribed in PVPAT (Application and Appeals), Rules 2010. There is a transitory provision by
which it is provided that till PVPAT is established, Intellectual Property Appellate Board
established under section 83 of the Trade Marks Act 1999 shall exercise the jurisdiction of
PVPAT. The decisions of PVPAT can be challenged in High Court. The Tribunal shall dispose
of the appeal within one year.
 SEED POLICY
National Seed Policy, 2002

The Seed Act, 1966, seed control order 1983 and New Policy on Seeds
Development, 1988, from the basis of promotion and regulation of the Indian
Seed Industry.

The “New Seed Policy” of 1988 ushered in a new area of growth and
phenomenal development. Because, it allowed limited import of commercial
seed, remove curbs on imports of seeds of vegetables, flowers and ornamental
plants and even allowed import of seed of course cereals, pulses and oilseeds
for a period of two years.

The important constraints were

• Non existence of National Seed Policy
• IPR laws
• Restrictions and licenses on seed exports and imports
• Lack of incentives for the public and private seed sectors of the country

India later developed the National Seed Policy in 2002. The main
objectives are the provision of an appropriate climate for the seed industry to
utilize available and prospective opportunities, safe guarding of the interests of
Indian farmers and the conservation of agro-biodiversity.

Thrust Areas

1. Varietal Development and PVP

2. Seed Production
3. Quality Assurance
4. Seed Distribution and Marketing.
5. Infrastructure facilities
6. Transgenic Plant Varieties
7. Import of seeds and planting material
8. Export of seeds
9. Promotion of Domestic Seed
10. Strengthening of monitoring system

1. Varietal Development and PVP

To stimulate investment in research and development (R&D) new

varieties an effective sui generic system for IPR will be implemented.

• Establishment of PVPFRA (Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers Rights

Authority, to implement PVPFR Act, 2001.
• Under this Act, Plant Varieties will be registered based on Novelty,
Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) characters.
• Farmers Rights: Farmers can save, use, exchange, share or sell seeds of
protected variety but not under the brand name.
• Researchers Rights: Seed / planting material of protected varieties can
be used for research and breeding new varieties.
• Breeders Rights: Benefit a rising out of use of varieties upon
commercialization of seeds of new variety, will be shared with the
respective breeder.
• Community Rights: Benefit sharing with Farmers / Village communities
will be ensured for contributing in evaluation of plant variety upon
registration.

2. Seed Production

India seed programme will adheres to generation system of

multiplication namely nucleus, breeder, foundation and certified seed.

Public seed sector will be restructured and will continue to have free
access to breeder seed, while Private Seed Sector will have conditional access.
Seed village scheme will be facilitated to upgrade the quality of farmers saved
seeds.
 Seed Replacement will be raised progressively, National Seed Map will
be prepared to identify potential areas of seed production, seed banks will be
established with cold storage facilities, seed minikits will be supplied for
popularizing new varieties and will Seed Crop Insurance will be encouraged.

3. Quality Assurance

1. New Seed Act will be enacted.

2. National Seed Board will be established as apex body in place of existing
Central Seed Committee to implement New Seed Act.
3. National Seeds Register will be maintained varieties will be registered
based on “Value for Cultivation and Usage”. (VCU).
4. Farmers will retain rights to save, use, exchange, share or sell seeds of
any variety but not under the brand name.

4. Seed Distribution and Marketing.

1. Seed Distribution and Marketing of any variety will be subject to registry

in NSB.
2. National Seed Grid will be established as a data base on seed
requirement, production, distribution and farmers preference.
3. Access to finance from commercial banks will be facilitated.
4. Availability of high quality seed will be ensured through improved
distribution system and efficient marketing set up.

5. Infrastructure facilities

1. National Seed Research and Training center (NSRTC) will be set up.
2. Seed processing and storage faculties will be augmented.
3. Computerized National Seed Grid will be established to provide
information on seeds marketing.

6. Transgenic Plant Varieties

 1. All GM crops will be tested for environment and bio safety before
commercial release as per EPA (1986).
2. Seeds of GM crops will be imported only through NBPGR as per the EPA
(1986).
3. Required infrastructure will be developed for testing, identification and
evaluation of transgenic planting material.

7. Import of seeds and planting material

Provision will be made to make available best planting material from

anywhere in the world to Indian farmers without any compromise on
quarantine requirements.

8. Export of seeds

1. Long term policy will be evolved to exploit varied agro climatic condition
of India and strong seed production system, to raise seed export from
present level of less than 1% to 10% by 2020.
2. Seed export promotion zones will be established and strengthened.
3. Data Bank on International Market will be created.

9. Promotion of Domestic Seed Industry

It will be facilitated by providing incentives to domestic seed industry,

financial support through NABARD, commercial and co-operative banks,
considering tax rebate / concessions for R&D, reduction of import duty on
machines and equipment used for seed production and encouragement of
membership in National and International organization related to seed.

10. Strengthening of monitoring system

Strengthening of Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC) will

supervise the implementation of National Seed Policy.
National Seed Policy will be vital in doubling food production of India
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seed drying – importance principle and methods

Most of the agricultural seeds can be stored for long period provided the moisture is
brought down to safer moisture thresh hold level. Seed drying is the reduction of seed moisture
content to the recommended levels for seed storage, using techniques which will not be
detrimental to seed viability. Seed drying is integral part of the seed processing when the seeds
harvested at physiological maturity, the seed moisture content of the seed will range from 20 to
45 %. Seeds which are dry will retain their viability for longer periods of storage in gene banks.
It is recommended that, in general, seeds should be dried to 3-7% moisture content for long-term
storage. For short term open storage, the seed of cereals, pulses, oil seed and vegetables must be
dried to moisture content of 10 to12, 9 to 10, 7to 8 and 6 to 8 percent respectively. The storage of
seed is estimated, as the surviving time does not fall fast after harvesting seed crop. All seed
succumb with time and die, whether it is stored in seed bank, warehouses or liquid nitrogen. The
deterioration of seed that leads to the loss of vigour and eventually viability is termed as seed
ageing. High moisture content in the seed during storage is also undesirable as it will reduce the
self –life, allow the activity of storage fungi and create a medium for storage pest like weevils
and mites. Most of the weevils and insect cannot breed properly below 8 % moisture and tends to
die.
When should seeds be dried?
The drying process should begin as soon as possible after the receipt of the seeds to avoid
unnecessary deterioration. It can take up to several weeks to lower the moisture content to the
low levels required for good storage.
Principles of seed drying
Drying is a normal part of the seed maturation process. Some seeds must dry down to
minimum moisture content before they can germinate. Low seed moisture content is a pre-
requisite for long-term storage, and is the most important factor affecting longevity. Seeds lose
viability and vigor during processing and storage mainly because of high seed moisture content
(seed moisture greater than 18%). High seed moisture causes a number of problems:
1. Seed as a biological system whose viability and vitality must be preserved by taking extra
care in drying to safe guard the welfare of embryo.
2. Moisture increases the respiration rate of seeds, which in turn raises seed temperature.
Eg: in large-scale commercial seed storage, respiring seeds may generate enough heat to
kill the seeds quickly, or to even start a fire if not dried sufficiently. Small-scale growers
are not likely to have such an extreme condition, but seed longevity will, nevertheless be
affected.
3. Mold growth will be encouraged by moisture, damaging the seeds either slowly or
quickly, depending on the moisture content of the seeds. Some molds that don’t grow
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

well at room temperature may grow well at low temperatures causing damage to
refrigerated seeds. In such a case there may be no visual sign of damage.
4. Unless seed moisture is at least eight percent or below, insects such as weevils can breed
causing rapid destruction of seeds in a short period of time.
5. Drying occurs when moisture is evaporated from seed surface to surrounding air, the
process can be explained in terms of vapour pressure difference between the moisture in
the seed and that of in the surrounding air. Vapour pressure is directly dependent on
concentration of water molecules and the drying rate is function of air movement. As the
air flow increases drying rate increases, but only upto a point at which the air is absorbing
all moisture that is available to it. Beyond that point, additional air flow does not have
significant effect on drying rate.
6. When high moisture seed is exposed to low humidity air a vapour pressure gradient is
created away from seed, then evaporation occurs from seed surface. Evaporation will
continue in the direction of vapour pressure gradient until the vapour pressures of the two
systems are equalized. Once equilibrium is reached no further moisture exchanged will
occur unless moist air is removed from the seed and replaced by drier air .
Importance of Drying
The drying of seeds is important from the following sand-points.
1. Permits maintenance of the viability of seeds. By removing moisture the possibility of
heating of the grain with subsequent reduction or destruction of germination is decreased.
2. Permits the farmer to sell a better quality product which is worth more to him and to
those who must use those products
3. Permits long-time storage without deterioration. Extended storage periods are becoming
increasingly imported with the large amount of grain being stored and carried over
through another storage year by the government and industry.
4. Permits farmer to take advantage of higher price a few months after harvest.
5. Permits early harvest by reducing field loss of product from storm and natural shattering
and permits working the soil early for seeding, particularly in the fall. The field
conditions are often better for harvesting (dry and few seed) early in the season.
6. Permits planning the harvest season to make better use of labor. Seed crops can be
harvested when drying conditions are unfavorable.
7. Permits use of waste products.
Orthodox seeds after threshing or extraction have to be dried to optimum moisture
content to avoid rapid deterioration. The seed physiological activity has to be put under check
by reducing the moisture of seeds to maintain the quality standards until seed is sown.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Effect of Seed moisture content on physiological activity of seeds:

Seed moisture content % Activity
(wet weight)
Above 45 – 60 % Germination begins
Above 18 – 20 % The seed may get heated (due to a rapid rate of respiration
and energy release)
Above 12 – 14 % Fungus growth can occur
Below 8 – 9 % Insect activity much reduced
4–8% Sealed storage is safe.

Seed Drying is defined as removal or elimination of moisture from the seed to the
required level is called drying. Seeds with higher moisture will lead to faster lose of vigour and
viability. Depending on the kind and seed composition the safe moisture level varies. Once seeds
reach physiological maturity seeds are allowed on the plants for drying and until it reaches
harvesting maturity. After threshing and seed extraction seed moisture content will be more than
20 % and has to be dried at farm level to reduce the moisture before seed processing. Seed
moisture has to be reduced further to less than 10 per cent to increase the seed storage capability.

Methods of seed drying in bulk:

1. Sun drying(Natural Drying)
2. Forced air drying (Mechanical drying)
3. Use of desiccants (Chemical) for drying

1. Natural Drying (or) Sun drying:

Sun light and heat is used as energy for drying of seeds. Seeds in bulk can be easily dried
under sun. Here the seeds are uniformly spread over clean dried yard and allowed for drying to
the required moisture level. The seeds should not be dried under hot sun during 12.00 noon to
2.00 pm as it causes damage to seeds by heat rays. This method depends on weather
conditions, which are unpredictable one. However, this is most common method used by
farmer for drying of seeds at farm level.

Advantages:
– Drying process is easy. Does not require much skill
– No Cost is involved
– Requires no additional equipment
– Does not require any expenditure on electricity or fuel

Disadvantages
– More chance for mechanical admixture
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

– Seed loss is more while drying due to damage by insects, birds and animals.
– Takes long time for drying.
– Uneven drying.
– High weather risk and damage due to sudden rain or heavy wind.

2. Mechanical drying (or) artificial drying:

This is an artificial mechanisms where drying depends on Airflow and Air temperature.
Further, the efficiency of this mechanism depends on the relative humidity of the drying
environment.
Seeds are highly hygroscopic in nature and has tendency to reduce or increase the moisture
depending on the prevailing environmental conditions. Physical properties of drying air like
relative humidity, wet and dry temperature plays major role in efficient drying. These properties
can be calculated using a equipment known as Psychrometric Chart. This helps in adjusting
the drying machines for quick drying of seeds under controlled conditions. Seeds during
harvesting maturity the seed moisture is in equilibrium with the atmospheric air and for further
reduction in moisture requires forced dry air to pickup moisture from seeds.
Forced air is used for seed drying by the following three means;
a. Natural air drying: Natural air is blown upon the seeds using suitable air blower for drying
of seeds. Continuous drying is possible in this method. In modern seed godowns provisions are
made to forcible circulation of air with the help of electric blower or fan. If the outer air is
comparatively dry, this method is followed. So it is possible only during dry months.
b. Drying with supplemental heat: Small quantity of heat is applied to raise the air temp to 10-
20° F for reducing the relative humidity of air used for drying. In this, drying is performed
quickly due to use of dry air, but continuous drying for long period affects seed quality.
c. Heated air Drying: The air is heated considerably as much as by 100° F (40° C) and used for
drying the seeds. This helps in quick drying of seeds. However, seeds should not be continuously
dried as it causes damage to seed.
Advantages
• Quick method
• Perfect drying is possible even under unfavourable weather condition.
• Seed loss is minimized.
Disadvantages
 Requires specialized equipment and machine, which is costly.
 Care should be taken while drying the seed using hot air, as it causes damage to
the seed.
 Tempering is to be followed while drying the seed in this method.

Types of mechanical drier: When air is forced through the seeds, drying is not uniform though
the drier. Based on the exposure of seeds surface to air, seed moisture escapes to the air.
Different mechanisms has been studied for uniform drying of seeds at industry level.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

There are many kinds of driers and among which following are commonly used.
1. Metal bin drier
2. Vegetable seed drier
3. Batch drier
4. Continuous drier
In seed drier three zones are formed during drying process;
1. The dried zone: seeds are completely dried
2. The drying zone: Under the process of drying
3. The wet zone: Seeds are wet not dried

Fig. 1. Seeds moisture escape mechanism in drying with non perforated bottom drier

Fig. 2. Seeds moisture escape mechanism in drying with perforated bottom drier
Metal bin drier:
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seeds are placed in a metal bin and the heated air is blown in to the bin through the
perforations made at the bottom of the bin. In this uniform drying of all layer is not possible for
which optimum thickness of the seed layer has to be maintained inside the bin and also have to
stir the seed manually or mechanically at regular intervals for uniform exposure of seeds for
heated air and to achieve uniform drying of seeds..

Vegetable seed drier/Batch drier:

In this drier, the seeds are spread separately on the trays by giving gap between trays
which are kept inside chamber or cabin. The heated air is passed to dry the seed in which air
circulated inside the chamber and picks up moisture form seeds. The heat is generated by
electrical source used to heat the air and is passed through trays. This helps in uniform drying of
seeds rapidly.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Batch-Drier:
In bin batch dryers, the seed is placed in a (usually round) bin, and ambient or slightly
heated air is blown through it by a fan. The maximum thickness of the seed layer in the bin
depends on the initial moisture content, the type of seed, the air temperature and RH and fan
horse power. To obtain a uniform airflow through the seeds, a full perforated floor is required.
A layer of seed 0.8 to 1.0 m at 20% moisture can be dried to 14% within 24 hrs without
affecting germination at 30-35°C and 50-60%RH air at a rate of 5-8m3 per minute per m3 of
seed. After the seed in a bin has reached the acceptable average moisture content, a moisture
gradient will remain from the top to the bottom of the seed. The surface layer will have a
moisture content above the average and the bottom layer of the bin will be lower than average.
Thus, proper mixing of the seeds is essential before further storage or packaging. This can be
addressed by installing one or more grain stirrers to mix the entire content of a bin for 3-12
hours.

Continuous seed dryer:

In all other types of driers seeds remain static and air is blown into the seeds. Here in
continuous drier seeds are in motion within the drier. Air is blown from different directions into
the moving seeds. This lead to quick drying before seeds move out of the drier.

Chemicals/Desiccants drying: Partly dried seeds can be slow dried using silica gel. Silica gel
is used as drying agent or desiccant to remove moisture from seeds. Silica gel has a unique
property of absorbing moisture from its surrounding environment hence, seed moisture is slowly
observed when seeds are mixed with silica gel under air tight conditions. However, the process
of drying is very slow and dries the seeds to low moisture level. Slow drying will increase the
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

seed longevity and can be stored for longer period. Germplasm seeds are usually slow dried to
increase the storage capability for long years of storage.
Drying – equilibrium concept
The concept of equilibrium content is directly related to the drying of seed. It helps in
determining whether the seed will gain or lose moisture under given set of temperature and
relative humidity. The relation between relative humidity, temperature and moisture content can
be graphically expressed by means of equilibrium moisture curve called isotherm. The following
table shows equilibrium seed moisture content at various level of relative humidity at 20oC on
wet basis. The air can be pass through the bottom portion of the drying chamber by forcing air up
through layer of seed for more efficient drying . The lower region seeds dry first compared to top
, where it can be checked . When dry air is forced through the seed it encounters resistance of
seed to air flow is called its static pressure. Small seeds offer a greater resistance to air flow than
large seeds.
Table. Percentage moisture content at indicated RH

Crops - RH 15 30 45 60 75 90 100

Maize 6.5 8.5 9.8 12.2 13.6 18.3 23.0

Rice 6.8 8.6 10.7 12.6 14.4 18.4 23.6
Sorghum 6.4 8.6 10.5 12.0 15.2 18.8 21.9
Wheat 6.6 8.5 10.0 11.5 14.1 19.3 26.6
Groundnut 2.5 4.2 5.6 7.6 9.8 13.0 _
Sunflower - 5.1 6.5 8.0 10.0 15.0 _

The rate of moisture removal from the surface of the seed is influenced by .
1. Degree of surface saturation
2. Relative humidity
3. Temperature if drying air

Based on time taken for drying seeds can be grouped into following groups .
1. Quick drying type – grasses ,rape seed ,mustard, sugarbeet
2. Moderate drying type - rice ,wheat ,barley
3. Slow drying type –bean ,lupin ,maize ,pea

The drying of the seeds depends upon the rate of moisture migration from the center of the seed
to surface is influenced by the.
 Temperature of the seed
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 Physical structure
 Chemical composition of seed
 Seed coat permeability
It is advisable to dry seeds at following temperature corresponding to its moisture level.

Seed moisture content range Drying temperature

Over 18% 320C
10-18% 370C
Below 10% 430C
Seeds may also dried with chemicals, desiccants, silica gel, activated aluminum, activated
charcoal, anhydrous calcium sulphate have been used to dry seeds .the safest and frequently
used desiccant is silica gel. Silica gel can pick up moisture from air up to 30 % of its dry weight.

Some important point to be considered for seed drying

 Drying air temperature should not be exceeds to 43.3oc.
 The drying rate should be decide on the basis of cultivar and initial moisture content .
 The final moisture content should be determined on the basis of type of packing and
storage conditions.
 The moisture content of seed should be not measured just after drying .
 Seed drying depth should not be adjusted in accordance with recommended air flow rate
and loss of static pressure of air in the drying process.

How should seeds be dried?

Several methods are available for drying seeds. Some are more suitable in certain
environments and safer for the viability of the seeds than others. Drying seeds in an atmosphere
of reduced relative humidity is recommended. The lower the humidity the faster the seeds will
dry and the lower their final moisture content. A relative humidity of 10 - 15% and a temperature
of 15°C are recommended by the IBPGR Advisory Committee on Seed Storage: try to obtain
these conditions as closely as possible.
Methods of seed drying
The following methods can be used with safety and one should be chosen depending on
the equipment available.
1. Batch or bin dryers
A. Flat bed type
B. Bin type
2. Continuous flow type
A. mixing type - L.S.U type
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

B. non mixing type - Recirculatory type

3. Rotary dryers
4. Tray type dryers
5. Spray dryers
6. Freeze dryers
7. Vacuum dryers
8 .Dielectric dryers
9. Infrared dryers
10. Solar dryers
11. Sack dryers

1. Batch or bin driers:

 The material to be dried is placed in a bin or container and air is forced through mass
until dry.
 This type of dryer is useful when the small quantity of seed to be dried.
 The air may be pushed or pulled through the seed bed and may go from top to bottom.
 The depth of seed bin is limited because the power required to force air through the seed
is equal to the cube of the depth and in deep bins the entering air picks up moisture from
the seed and cools and deposit moisture on the layer of seed as it leaves causing molds
and seed deterioration of this layer

2. Continuous flow dryers:

Non mixing dryers: Obviously these are simplest and there are two types.
Columnar: the wet material is placed in the hopper and flows by gravity between the perforated
retaining walls and is discharged at the bottom by continuously operating melting valve. The
capacity is directly proportional to the column width and material movement rate through the
column .
Recirculatory batch dryer : The grain is fed to the top of the inside cylinder while descending
through the annular space from the feed end by gravity the grain comes in contact with a cross
flow hot air . The exhaust air comes out through the outlet of the hopper. The feed rate if the
grain is controlled by closing or opening the gate provided with the outlet pipe of discharge
hopper. The grain is recirculated till it is desired to the moisture level.

Mixing type: Louisiana State University drier

 This is a continuous mixing type of grain drier which is popular in India. This design
was developed specifically for rice to ensure general treatment, good grain mixing
and good air to grain contact.
 It is a mixing type of continuous flow drier in which a layer of inverted v shaped
channels are installed. The layer alternate between hot air intake and exhaust air
outlet and are staggered to provide mixing .
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

3. Rotary drier:
 Materials usually dried in rotary dryers are not free flowing and damaged by continuous
handling.
 Chopped forage, fruit and vegetable residues for livestock feed and fertilizer component
are example of material dried in this manner.
 The inside of the drum may be fitted with flights that little lift the material and shower it
down through the heated air.
 The flight design varies with the material to be dried. The rate of material movement
through the drum is controlled by the flight design.

Fig. Cross-flow dryer with forced-air dr ying and cooling

Fig. Recirculating batch dryer

 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Fig. Cross-section of a column batch dryer

Horizontal rotary drier:
 This is continuous drier and used in the drying of par boiled paddy. As par boiled paddy
can stand high temperature without significant cracks in grains
 These dryers can be employed for the rapid drying of par boiled paddy using
temperatures as high as 100 – 1100C

4. Tray dryers
 In a tray dryer ,many shallow trays are kept one above the other with a gap in between ,
in the drying chamber .
 Tray dryer is generally used for drying of vegetables and fruits.
 the tray may or may not perforated bottoms .
 The gap in between the group of trays permits air ventilation and product are kept in thin
layers in the trays.

5. Spray dryers
 Spray driers are used to remove water from solutions or suspensions and dry the resulting
powder to a moisture content that approaches equilibrium with the exhaust drying air.
Spray driers are used extensively in the food, chemicals and pharmaceutical industries .
 The grain is placed on the supporting screen and the heated air is forced through the deep
bed of grain. the temperature of the heated air should be limited to45oC . After drying of
the grain to desired moisture level, they are discharge manually.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

6.Freeze dryers: This method of drying is based on the sublimation of frozen moisture from the
wet product placed in a drying chamber .the pressure in the drying chamber is low . Heat is
supplied by radiation or conduction from heated trays and the temperature of product is not
raised above ooc.

6. Vacuum dryers: Drying in vacuum makes possible an increase in the intensity of the drying
process which may be carried at lower temperature of the dried substance. The intensity of
moisture evaporation from the substance is determined by the amount of heat supplied to the
substance, which depends upon the difference between the temperature of the heating surface
and that of the substance. The increase in the vacuum causes decrease in the temperature of the
dried substance, which in turn intensifies the heat exchange between the substance and the
heating surface.

8. Dielectric dryers: The heat energy can be supplied to wet material by electromagnetic waves.
The infrared penetrate the surface of wet material and cause vibration of molecules,which creates
thermal effect . This method is commonly used for thin materials.

10. Solar dryer: This is a traditional method of drying of crops and grains and probably being
followed by farmer since man has developed art of cultivation.

Method of solar drying:

A. Drying of standing crop: Grains are dried on the plant till proper moisture content is attained.
Then the crop is harvested and threshed. But considerable quantity is lost due to shattering. This
drying process is slow and takes about 2to3 weeks after the grains have attained biological
maturity.
B. Drying of grains on stalks: This is an improvement over the previous method. The crop is
harvested at higher moisture content and is left in the field or on bunds of the field till it has dried
to proper moisture content. Another improved method is to dry the harvested crop on racks.
Crops are bundled and hung on a rope exposing to the sun .
C. Drying of threshed grain: The harvested crop at higher moisture content is threshed and the
grains are spread on the floor in 1to3 cm thick layer. It is continuously stirred manually till it has
attained the desirable moisture content. In this process, the grains are subjected to uncontrolled
drying causing cracks in the kernels.

11. Sack dryers: A sack dryer consist if large floors in building with opening over which the
sacks of grain are placed .the opening are covered with perforated material to support the sacks.
A blower is connected to an air chamber beneath the floor to supply the air suitable for drying
seed grain to prevent mixing of varieties and to conserve strain purity and viability.
 It is useful when amount of grain is small and maximum air temperature should be used
only 43.3oc.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 During drying process sacks must be overturned at least once. For supply of air below fan
related to air chamber there is blower. For this work a suitable building having perforated
floors should be used .
References:
Agrawal, R. L., 1996, Seed drying in seed technology. Oxford and IBH publishing Ltd. New
Delhi: 297-331.
Bernal, I. Lugo and Leopold, A.C., 1998, The dynamics of seed mortality. J. of Experimental
Botany. 49 (326):1455-1461.
Kulkarni , G.N., 2002, Principal of seed technology . Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi , p 359-365
Mc Donald, M. B., 1999, Seed deterioration: physiology, repair and assessment. Seed Science
and Technology, 27: 177- 207.
 HOW A PSYCHROMETRIC CHART IS USED
TO DETERMINE AIR PROPERTIES

James M. Beckj/

In seed drying air has two functions: (1) it supplies the heat
that is necessary to evaporate moisture and (2) it is the vehicle for
transporting moisture away from seed being dried and exhausting it
into the atmosphere.

Under storage conditions seed attain a rather characteristic

moisture content when subjected to given levels of air temperature
and relative humidities. This equilibrium moisture content is
directly related to the properties of the air surrounding the seed.

A knowledge of the terms used in psychrometries and use of

the psychrometric chart is essential for an understanding of the
processes involved in seed drying and in analyzing individual re-
quirements for controlled temperature and humidity seed storage.

PSYCBROMETRIC CHART

The psychrometric chart is a device which simplifies the

measurement of air properties and eliminates many time-consuming
and tedious calculations which would otherwise be necessary.
Different air-conditioning manufacturers have slightly different
forms of this chart which may differ in the location of information.
All, however are basically the same in that any psychrometric
I

chart is simply a graphic rresentation of the conditions or properties

of air such as temperature, humidity and dewpDint. (A psychromet-
I I

ric chart supplied by Log E Dyromatic Division Springfield, Virginia,

I I

is attached.)

PSYCHROMETRIC TERMS

The essential terms which are most commonly thought of

in connection with the psychrometric chart are: dry-bulb tempera-
ture; wet-bulb temperature; relative humidity; dewpoint; and
grains of moisture.

l/ Mr. Beck is Engineer Technician Seed Technology

I

Laboratory 1 Mississippi State University.

 2

Dry-bulb Temperature is tre temperature of the air as

measured by an ordinary thermometer such as a household ther-
mometer. (See Figure 1)

Wet-bulb Temperature is the temperature of the air as

measured by an ordinary thermometer whose glass bulb is covered
by a wet cloth or ·gauze. {See figure 2) The temperature is recorded
after the thermometer has been moved rapidly in the air.

A wet-bulb thErmometer is so called because the bulb of the

thermometer is wet when a temperature reading is taken. This is
accomplished by slipping a cloth "sock" on the bulb end of the
thermometer and then dipping both into water. Except for the "sock",
a wet-bulb thermometer is the same as a dry-bulb or ordinary ther-
mometer. ):'o measure wet-or dry-bulb temperatures, a sling
psychrometer is used.

A sling psychrometer (See figure 3) has two thermometers

l.1bunted on a base plate. The one with the "sock" is the wet-bulb
thermometer; the other is the dry-bulb. The wet-.bulb extends, below
the dry-bulb. This is done purposely so that the "sock" can b e
dipped in water without wetting the dry-bulb thermometer.

If the "sock" is wetted as described, and the two thermometers

are moved quickly through the air until the water evaporates from
the "sock" the thermometer with the dry-bulb will register the dry-
. rulb or ordinary temperature, and the thermometer with the wet
sock on the bulb will register a wet-bulb temperature.

Although the air passing over the dry-bulb is the same temp-
erature as the air passing over the wet-bulb, the temperature register-
ed by the two thermometers is not the same. The dry-bulb always
registers the actual air temperature, the w et-bulb registers a temp-
erature that is lower than the dry bulb reading.

The key to the seemingly apparent discrepancy in temperature

readings is the word "evaporation." As moisture evaporates from
a surface, it removes heat from that surface.

In this instance, moisture evaporates from the wet "sock"

on the we't-bulb thermometer and consequently cools the surface
of the thermometer bulb. This is primarily the reason for a lower
wet-bulb thermometer reading.

The temperature spread between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb

readings depends upon the amount of moisture in the air. If moisture
content is high, evaporation at the "sock" on the wet-bulb takes
place at a slower rate. If the moisture content of the air is low,
 3

THE CAPITAL LETTER, F,

WHEN THE TEMPERATURE
FOLLOWING THE NUMBERS
OF THE BULB INCREASES
REFERS TO A SCALE THAT
THE LIQUID IN THE BUlB
IS CALLED
EXPANDS AND RISES IN
THE FAHRENHEIT SCALE
THE STEM

THE BULB IS THE SENSITIVE 180 F RANGE

PORTION OF THE INSTRUMENT

I ~ ~ ~ Q ~

"'
.. I"' "
................ ,
80 90 lOO 10 ~

"' "'
....... ,..... . .. ............... ,....:0)
~ "0 )II) (10 QO :100 10 )

)TEM

- 30 F 0 F 32 F 212 F

DRY-BULB THERMOMETER

Figure 1

THE CLEAN COTTON WICK ABSORBS

WATER. EVAPORATION OF THIS WATER
REDUCES THE TEMPERAl'URE OF THE WICK,
AND THE RESULTANT TEMPERATURE IS
INDICATED BY THE MERCURY IN THE
THERMOMETER STEM

~------ 180 F RANGE-------~

CLOTH

~r
:
* •..:;"·,L; ··~·· •.!,"''i:"'~ " 'id"'~"'J..''".:O'''~ '''~"~· "~' .. '~ )
:
THE MERCURY COLUMN
CHANGES HEIGHT INSIDE
THE THERMOMETER STEM

-30 F OP 32 F
' F
212

WET-BULB THERMOMETER
Figure 2

THE TWO THERMOMETERS SHOULD BE MATCHED

BY THE MANUFACTURER; THAT IS, THE READINGS
OBTAINED WHEN THE WICK IS REMOVED AND BOTH
THERMOMETERS ARE EXPOSED TO DRY.BULB
CONDITIONS SHOULD BE EXACTLY THE SAME

...... ""~"'!""~ ' "' '"' "" .... "" "' ~":..: " ~~·".,."'".!..

''"' '"'"".l./"''""'""!:'•,j""'"''''".!:"'''"'.OO:.:'J.'"i!.
WET
BULB I
DRY
BULB
INSTRUMENT IS ROTATED HANDLE IS FIRMLY
ABOUT 2 TO 3 TIMES PER GRASPED AND
SECOND UNTIL READINGS ToHERMOMETERS
ATTAIN CONSTANT VALUES ARE SWUNG

SLING PSYCHROMETER
Figure 3
 4

the air is dry and can readily absorb moisture. Therefore, evaporation
at the "sock" takes place at a rapid pace and heat is removed in
·larger quantities. This makes the surface of the wet-bulb cool
rapidly. As a result, the reading on the wet-bulb thermometer
is lower than for air that has a high moisture content.

Dry air, or air that has low moisture content, therefore, has
a low wet-bulb temperature; humid air, or air that has a high
moisture content, has a high wet-bulb temperature. In fact, when
the moisture content reaches 100% or 100% relative humidity, the
wet-bulb temperature becomes the same as the dry-bulb temperature.
This can be readily seen on the psychrometric chart. At this con-
dition evaporation ceases because the air cannot absorb more
moisture. Therefore, it is not possible to remove heat by evaporation
from the "sock" on tt e· wet-bulb, ,and the two thermometers register
the same temperature.

Relative Humidity is the actual amount of moisture in the air

compared to the total or maximum moisture the air can hold.

Grains of Moisture is the unit of measurement used to

determine the amount Of moisture in the air. 7000 grains equals
1 lb. of water.

Dewpoint Temperature is the temperature at which moisture

condenses on a surface.
In relation to the Psychrometric Chart, these terms can
quickly tell many things about the condition of the air, for example:

If the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures are known, the

rolative humidity can be read from.,the chart.

If !dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity are known, the

wet-bulb temperature can be determined

If wet-bulb temperature and relative humidity are known,

the dry-bulb temperature can be found.

If wet-bulb and dr y·-bulb temperature are known, the d-ew-

point can be found .

If wet-bulb temperature and relative humidity are known,

dewpoint can be read from tre chart.

If dry-bulb temperature a nd relative hum i dit~,f are known,

dewpoint can be found.
 5

The grains of moisture in the air can be determined from

any of the following combinations:

Dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity

Dry-bulb temperature and dewpoint
\!Vet-bulb temperature and relative humidity
Wet-bulb temperature and dewpoint
Dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures
Dewpoint alone

IDENTIFICATION OF LINES AND SCi\.LES ON THE CHART

Picture the chart as a shoe or boot with the toe on the left
and the heel on the right. · Refer to the Skeleton psychrometric
charts A-F to clarify the following:
I I

A. The dry-bulb temperature scale extends along the sole

from toe to heel. The dry-bulb lines extend straight
up from the sole . . . one for each degree of temperature.

B. The wet-bulb scale extends along the instep from the

toe to the top of the shoe. The wet-bulb lines extend
diagonally downward to the sole and the back of the
shoe . . . one for each degree of temperature.

C. The condensation or dewpoint scale is the same as the

wet-bulb scale. However the dewpoint lines extend
1

horizontally to the back of the shoe . . . one for each

dewpoint temperature.

D. The relative humidity lines are located along the side

of the shoe and follow approximately the same curve as
the instep. The instep line is actually the 100% relative
humidity line.

E. The grains of moisture scale follows along the back of

the shoe from the heel to the top. The lines are the
same as the dewpoint lines.

F. All the properties of air at any given condition can be

represented on a psychrometric chart by plotting a
single point.
 6

SKELETON PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS

® ®
DRY- BULB WET- BULB

WET-BULB
TEMPERATURE
SCALE

020---- -------160
DRY-BULB
TEMPERATURE
SCALE

85

© /L
;f ®
DEWPOINT /I
IL
/z
D EWPOINT ~ DEWI'OINT
TE MPERATURE
SCALE /
,L_ LINES

,/./
20~
[

GRAINS
OF
MOISTURE

0
ill
® L
L
®
G RAINS OF MOISTURE LL "'....
..
u
/ GRAINS OF
"'
L MOISTURE

L LINES

L ... a:l
....
~ a:
0
:>
a:l
[
DRY-BU L B SCALE
 7

RELATIONSHIP OF TERMS

A few examples will illustrate all of the foregoing relationships.

Each example will directly relate to the psychrometric chart, therefore,
the chart should be used to clarify the solution to each example. By
using a sling psychrometer it is determined that the dry bulb temp-
erature is 78°F. and the wet bulb temperature is 65°F.

Example 1: Dry-bulb, ·wet-bulb- Relative Humidity

Given: Dry-bulb - 78F.

\fl! et-bulb - 6 SF.

Find: Relative Humidity

Solution: (See skeleton chart No. l)

1. Locate 78F. on dry-bulb scale at bottom of chart.

2. Draw a line straight up the 78F. line to the curved

line at the instep.

3. Follow down the instep (wet-bulb scale) to 65F.

4. Draw a line diagonally along the 65F. wet-bulb line

until it ·oros·sos the 7 8F. dry-bulb line.

5. Read 50% relative humidity at the intersection of

the dry- and wet-bulb lines.

So, at 78F. dry-bulb and 65F. wet-bulb temperatures, the

relative humidity is 50%. Relative humidity can be read
at the intersection of the dry- and wet-bulb lines.

Example 2. Dry-bulb, Wet-bulb - Dewpoint

Given: Dry-bulb - 78F.

Wet-bulb - 65F.

Find: Dewpoint
 8

Solution: (See skeleton chart No.2)

1. Find the intersection of the 78F. dry-bulb line and

the 65F. wet-bulb line.

2 • Proceed horizontally to the instep line.

3 • Read 5 8F. dewpoint temperature.

At 78F. dry-bulb and 65F. wet-bulb, the dewpoint temperature

is 5 8F.

Example 3: Dry-bulb, Relative Humidity--Dewpoint

Given: Dry-bulb-78F.
Relative Humidity 50%

Find: Dewpoint

Solution: (See skeleton chart No. 3)

1. Find the intersection of the 78F. dry-bulb and 50%

r. h. lines.

2. Proceed horizontally to the instep line.

3. Read 58F. dewpoint temperature.

At 78F. dry-bulb and 50% r.h. the d ewpoint temperature is

58F.

Example 4: Dry-bulb, ·wet-bulb--Grains of Moisture

Given: Dry-bulb-78F.
\1Vet-bulb-65F.

Find: Grains of Moisture

Solution: (See dkeleton chart No. 4)

1. Find the intersection of the 78F. dry-bulb and 65F.

wet- bulb lines •

2. Proceed horizontally along the grains of moisture

line, to the back of the shoe.

3 • Stop at the first column of numbers. This column

is the grains-of-moisture scale. Read 72 grains.
 9

At 78F o dry-bulb and 65F o wet-bulb, the moisture in the air

is 72 grains.

This example shows how to find grains of moisture by using dry-bulb and
wet-bulb temperature. Grains of moisture can also be found on the
psychrometric chart by . i_~singother combinations of psychrometric
properties These combinations are listed below. Simply find the
o

intersection of the lines listed here and then fellow across the chart
to the grains of moisture scale.

Dry-bulb and Relative humidity

Dry-bulb and Dewpoint
Wet-bulb and Relative humidity
Wet-bulb and Dewpoint

Grains of Moisture Per pound of Dry Air cr Per Cubic Foot of Air

Notice at the top of the scale the words "grains of moisture

per pound of dry air." This means that at 78F. dry-bulb and 65F.
wet- bulb, the air holds 72 grains of moisture per pound.

Moisture can be measured per pound of air or per cubic foot

of air. To find the moisture in a cubic foot of air, using the same
conditions (78F. dry-bulb and 65F. wet-bulb), proceed as follows:
(See skeleton chart No.5)

1. Find the intersection of 78F. dry-bulb and 65F. wet-bulb.

2 • Proceed horizontally along the grains of moisture line

to the grains of moisture scale.

3 • Read 72 grains •

4. Find the cubic foot scale along the sole of the shoe. The
scale starts at 12.5 cubic feet and ends at 14.0 cubic feet.
The cubic feet lines extend diagonally from the sole of the
shoe to the instep.

5. Again locate the intersection of the 78F. dry-bulb and 65F.

wet-bulb lines.

6. Draw a line parallel to the cubic foot line, frcm inter-

section located in Item 5, to the sole of the shoe. The line
crosses the sole at a point that is over halfway between
13.5 and 14 on the cubic foot scale, say 13.8 cubic feet.
 10

7. Divide 72 grains by 13.8 cubic feet.

8. Moisture in air = 72 .;- 13 • 8 = 5 grains per cubic feet

{approximately)

So, at 78F. dry-bulb and 65F. wet bulb, the moisture in air
can be read as 72 grains per pound, or 5 grains per cubic foot.
 11

SKELETON PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS

DRY-BULB 71F DRY- BULB 71 F

GRAINS
OF
MOISTURE
,..------, 0

DRY-BULB 71 F 78F

72
GRAINS

13.8 CU FT
 12

SUMl'v1ARY

1. Psychrometries in the study of the properties of air.

2. The Psychrometric chart simplifies the measurement of air

properties.

3. The chart is a picture or graphic presentation of air properties

and air conditions.

4. Dry-bulb, wet-bulb, relative humidity, dewpoint and grains

of moisture are common psychrometric terms.

5. If the value of any two of the psychrometric terms is know,

the value of any other term can be found on the psychrometric
chart.

6. The psychrometric chart is shaped like a boot. The sole is the

dry-bulb temperature scale; the instep curve is the wet-bulb
and dewpoint temperature scale; the humidity lines are
approximately parallel to the instep curve, and following
along the side of the shoe; the grains of moisture scale is
along the back of the shoe.

7. The dry-bulb lines are in a vertical position on the chart; the

wet-bulb lines are diagonal; the dewpoint and grains of
moisture lines are horizontal.

8, A wet-bulb thermometer is so called because the bulb end

of the thermometer is kept moist by a wet "sock" when the
temperature reading is taken.

9. A wet-bulb thermometer registers a lower temperature than a

dry-bulb thermometer except at 100% r.h.

10. The bulb surface of a wet-bulb thermometer is cooled by the

effect of moisture evaporating from the wet "sock" •

11. The wet-bulb temperature is higher in "wet" air than it is in

"dry" air of the same temperature.

12. The amount of cooling that takes place at the bulb depends
upon the amount of moisture in the air. At 100% r. h., cooling
ceases because the air is saturated and can no longer absorb
moisture from the wet "sock" •
 SEED MOISTURE E))UILIBRIUM AT VARIOUS LEVELS OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY

The following t able gives seed moisture (wet weight b as is) equilibrium va lu es for various levels of
relative humidity for fi eld crop and vegetable seeds. This data was compiled from s evera l s ources by the
Miss is s ippi S eed Technology Laboratory.

Percentage Relative Humidity

Seed Kind 10 15 20 30 45 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100

FIELD SEED

Alfalfa ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7.8 9.3 12.5 18.3
Barley ---- 6.0 ---- 8.4 10.0 ---- 12.1 --- ---- 14.4 ---- ---- 19.5 26.8
Bentgra ss Colonial
I ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9.8 ---- 10.7 11.5 12.5 14.0 14.5
Bluegrass Kentucky
I ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9.7 ---- 10.8 11.3 12.7 14.3 16 , 4
Bluegrass Rough
1 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9.4 ---- ---- 11.9 --- 13.9 16.2
Bromegrass SmoothI ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11.0 ---- 12.5 13.1 13.8 16.1 18.4
Buckwheat ---- 6.7 ---- 9.1 10.8 ---- 12.7 --- ---- 15.0 ---- ---- 19.1 24.5
Canary grass Reed I ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11.4 ---- 12.0 12.4 13.5 14.7 15.5
Clover Alsiko
I ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9.3 ---- 15.9 18.9
Clover Crimson
I ---- ---- 7. 5 ---- 9.5 --- 10.9 ---- ---- ---- 22.4 ---- ---- 33.2
Clover La.d·ino
I ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- --- 8.7 10.9 15.4 18.0
Clover Red
I --- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9.1 11.2 15.6 18.7
Clover Sweet
1 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- --- --- 9.3 10.8 12.7 18.3
Corn field
I ---- 6. 5 ---- 8.4 10.5 ---- 12.9 13.0 ---- 14.8 15.0 ---- 19.0 24.2
Corn, pop ---- 6. 8 ---- 8.5 9~8 ---- 12.2 ---- ---- 13.6 ---- ---- 18.3 23.0
Cotton 2.0 ---- 4.5 6.0 7.5 8.8 9.1 ---- 10.2 -- -· 13.2 . . 18.0
Fescue, Alta - --- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10.5 ---- 11.9 12.5 13.2 15.0 17.3
Fescue, chewings ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10.0 ---- 11.2 12.1 ---- 14.5 16.9
Fescue, creeping red ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10.7 ---- 11.9 12.6 13.8 15.4 18.0
Flax ---- 4.4 ·---- 5.6 6.3 ---- 7.9 9.0 ---- 10.0 12.0 ---- 15.2 21.4
Oats ---- 5.7 ---- 8.0 9.6 ---- ll. 8 ---- ---- 13.8 ---- --- 18.5 24.1
Orchardgrass --- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9. 8 ---- 10.5 11.1 12.0 13.0 14.9
Peanut ---- 2. 6 ---- 4.2 5.6 ---- 7.2 ---- ---- 9. 8 ---- --- 13.0
~"

h •• -.,·--o--··- ·----··- - --- -- -- - ~-- - ··-·-- - ·- - ·- · ---- -- ~··-

P erc 2ntag 2 Re lative Humidit y

.ii~e d Kind 10 15 20 30 45 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 10 0
1
Re d To p ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10.0 ---- 10.7 11.012. 5 13. 5 15. 0
Ric e ---- 6.8 ---- 9.0 10.7 ---- 12.6 ---- ----14. 4 16.0 ---- 18.1 23.6
Rye --- - 7.0 ---- 8.7 10. 5 -·-··-·- 12.2 13.0 ----14 . 8 - -·-- -- -··- 20 .6 26 .7
Hy ag ro.ss, P er e nnial ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11.0 ---- 12 .1 12.813 . 4 14.9 16.6
Ryegrass, Annual ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11.0 ---- 12 .1 12.814 .1 15 . 7 16.3
Sorghum ---- 6.4 ---- 8.6 10.5 ---- 12.0 13.0 ----15.2 ---- ---- 18.8 21.9
Soyb eans ---- 4.3 ---- 6.5 7.4 ---- 9.3 11.0 ----13 .1 16.0 ---- 18.8
S uda.ngrass, Pipe r ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10.8 ---- ---- 11.8
---- 14.4 15.6
Sunflow e r ---- ---- ---- 5 .1 6.5 ---- 8.0 ---- ---- 10.0 ---- ---- 15.0
Timothy
Tr e foil, Birdsfoot
----
----
----
----
----
----
---- ---- 10.9
---- ---- ---- ----
--- -- ll. 8 12.6 13.6
---- 8.3 10.4
14.5 16. 1
13.9 17 . 2
Vetch, crown ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9.9 ---- 14.2 18.1
Vetch, hairy ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11.0 13.0 17 . 4 18.7
VI/heat vVhit e I ---- 6. 7 ---- 8.6 9.9 ---- 11.8 ---- ---- 15 .0 ---- ---- 19.7 26.3
W heat, Durum ---- 6. 6 ---- 8. 5 10.0 ---- 11.5 ---- ---- 14 .1 ---- ---- 19.3 26.6
-vv heat, Soft Red winter---- 6.3 ---- 8.6 10.6 -- -;- - 11.9 ---- ---- 14.6 ---- ---- 19.7 25.6
\A!heat, Ha td red \A!intel"--- 6. 4 ---- 8.5 10. 5 ---- 12.5 ---- ---- 14.6 ---- ---- 19.7 25 .0
Wheat, HaJ;"d red spring---- 6. 8 ---- 8. 5 10. 1 ---.- 11.8 ---- ---- 14.8 ---- ---- 19.7 25.0

VEGETABL E SEED

Bean, Broa d 4.2 ---- 5.8 7.2 9.3 ---- 11.1 ---- ---- 14.5
Be an, Lima 4. 6 ---- 6.6 7.7 9.2 ---- 11.0 ---- ---- 13.8
Bean, Snap 3.0 ---- 4 .8 6.8 9.4 ---- 12.0 ---- ---- 15.0 16.0
Beet, Gard e n 2 .1 ---- 4 .0 5 .8 7.6 ---- 9 Ll - - - - - - - - 11.2

Cabbag e 3.2 ---- 4. 6 5 .4 6.4 ---- 7.6 8. 0 ---- 9.6 10.0

Cabbag e , Chin e s e 2 .4 ---- 3.4 4.6 6.3 ---- 7. 8 ---- ---- 9.4
Carrot 4. 5 ---- 5 .9 6.8 7.9 ---- 9.2 10.0 ---- 11.6 13.0
C e lery 5.8 ---- 7.0 7.8 9.0 ---- 10,4 11 . 0 ---- 12 .4 14.0
Corn, Swe et 3. 8 ---- 5 .8 7.0 9.0 ---- 10 .,6 11.0 ---- 12.8 14.0
,..,. . , . . .

-
Percentage Relativ e Humidity
Se ed Kind 10 15 20 30 45 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100

Cucumber 2. 6 ---- 4.3 5.6 7.1 ---- 8.4 8. 5 ---·- 10.1 10.4
Eggplant 3.1 ---- 4.9 6.3 8. 0 ---- 9.8 ---- --- 11.9
l e ttuce 2. 8 ---- 4.2 5.1 5. 9 ---- 7.1 8.0 ---- 9.6 10.0
Mustard Leaf I 1. 8 ---- 3.2 4.6 6.3 ---- 7. 8 ---- ---- 9.4
Okra 3. 8 ---- 7.2 8.3 10.0 ---- 11.2 12.0 ---- 13.1 15.0
Onion 4. 6 ---- 6.8 8.0 9.5 ---- 11.2 ---- ---- 13.4 14.0
Onion Welsh
1 3.4 ---- 5.1 6.9 9. 4 ---- 11 . 8 ---- ---- 14.0
Parsnip 5. 0 ---- 6.1 7.0 8.2 ---- 9. 5 ---- ---- 11.2
Pea 5.4 ---- 7.3 8.6 10.1 ---- 11.9 12.0 ---- 15.0
Pepper 2.8 ---- 4.5 6.0 7. 8 ---- 9.2 10.0 ---- 11.0 12.0
Radish 2. 6 ---- 3.8 5.1 6.8 ---- 8.3 ---- ---- 10.2
Spinach 4.6 ---- 6.5 7.8 9. 5 -- - - 11.1 12.0 ---- 13.2 14.5
Squash Winter
1 3.0 ---- 4.3 5.6 7.4 ---- 9. 0 ---- ---- 10.8
Tomato 3.2 ---- 5.0 6.3 7. 8 ---- 9.2 10.0 ---- 11.1 12.0
Turnip 2. 6 ---- 4.0 5.1 6.3 ---- 7.4 8. 0 --- 9.0 10.0
Watermelon 3. 0 ---- 4.8 6.1 7. 6 --- 8.8 9 •.o ---- 10.4 11.0
DUS Testing of crop varieties-Principles and Procedures

Introduction
Crop variety improvement research and development based on conventional breeding as
well as biotechnological methods (GM varieties) require considerable investments, in terms of
both scientific manpower and financial expenditure. Therefore, in order to attract investment and
encourage progress and development, plant-breeding programs have to be protected from
misuse, and ensure appropriate incentives to the breeders. Thus, an effective system of Plant
Variety Protection (PVP) will not only be a safeguard against unlawful commercial exploitation
of the new varieties but also stimulate the development of new varieties.
The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties (UPOV), with 54 member
countries ( as in 2004),provides and promotes an effective system of Plant Variety Protection
(PVP) with the aim of encouraging development of new plant varieties for the benefit of
mankind in member states. India is not yet a member. UPOV has developed guidelines for
testing of more than 200 plant species before granting them protection. These Test Guidelines
are used as standard reference document worldwide in relation to the description of plant
varieties and testing of plant varieties to be qualified for Protection in UPOV member states.

Plant variety protection

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) recognized Agriculture as ‘an
enterprise of investment and profit making’ and included it in the negations for the first time in
Uraguay Round (1986-1994). This round led to the establishment of world Trade Organisation
(WTO) in 1995 of which India is a signatory. The provisions of the Trade Related Intellectual
Property Aspects (TRIPS) of WTO require that plant varieties need protection, either by
parenting or by a ‘sui-generics’ system or by a combination of both (Mauria,2000). The Indian
Patents Act of 1970 does not permit patenting of plants or varieties. Patents on plants, considered
a strong form of protection, are available in advanced countries like USA, Japan under certain
conditions. But in developing countries, patents are replaced by PVP (Plant Variety Protection)
in recognition of the fact that ‘variety development ‘involves improvement of already existing
ones and not de novo creation. Involves improvement of already existing ones and not de novo
creation. Accordingly, India had enacted its own PVP law, “Protection of Plant Varieties and
Farmers’ Rights Act” in 2001, with provisions for protecting both breeders and farmers rights.
This act provides protection of new varieties including extant and farmer’s varieties. The grant of
plant breeders rights (PBR) entitle the breeder (or his successor, agent, licensee) to exclude
others from producing, selling, marketing, distribution, export or import of propagating material
of protected varieties for a period of 15 years. The act also permits a breeder to use a protected
variety for research purpose. The act allows the farmer to save, sow, resow, exchange, share or
sell farm produce including seed of a protected variety.

DUS Testing
Thus, under the “Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act”, a new plant
variety can be registered and protected for a specific duration; 15 years for annuals and 18 years
for vines and trees. Registration and protection can be granted to a variety only if it conforms to
the criteria of Distinctness, Uniformity and stability. It means that the new variety has to
Distinct-Uniform-Stable (DUS) in its characteristics. This requires the examination of the variety
if it conforms to the standards of DUS test. The examination of a variety for DUS generates a
description of the Varity, using its relevant characteristics. This examination of a variety is either
conducted by the Plant Variety Protection Authority (‘Official testing’) or by the breeder seeking
protection (‘Breeder testing’). In some countries (Japan, New Zealand), both government or
official testing and breeder testing are done. Official testing is common in European countries.
Under breeder testing (as in USA, Australia), the applicant has to conduct the tests and
demonstrate to the PVP examiner that his new variety meets the criteria of distinctness,
uniformity and stability.

National Test Guidelines

The principles and methods on various aspects of DUS testing of new crop varieties have
been documented as National Test Guidelines (NTG).NTG has been developed for 35 crops by
the National Core Committee constituted by ICAR. NTG contains details on plant material
required, conduct of tests, methods and observations, grouping of varieties, characteristics and
symbols, table of characteristics, literature and technical questionnaire. Usually the DUS
examination requires at least two independent growing cycles. Not less than two centers have
been identified for each crop for conduction the tests.

Distinct-Uniform-Stable (DUS):

Distinct means a variety should be clearly distinguishable by one or more essential

characteristics from any other existing variety. The variety is deemed Uniform if it is
sufficiently uniform in its relevant characteristics, subject to variation that may be expected from
the particular features of its population. The basis of assessment is normally the number of off-
types in the variety, judged on the basis of a population standard and an acceptable probability
fixed in the corresponding species. To identify off-types in a population, generally visual
observation on characteristics may suffice. However, in a few cases/ crops, it may be necessary
to make measurements of each plant to apply statistics to decide or not whether a plant is an off-
type. In most of the crops, acceptance probability of 95% has been suggested. For vegetatively
propagated and self-pollinated varieties, the following standard has been suggested:

Sample size Off-types (permissible)

<5 0
6-35 1
36-82 2
83-137 3

Generally, cross-pollinated varieties exhibit wider variation within the variety. Relative
tolerance limits can be found by comparing with comparable varieties. The standard deviation or
variance may be used as the criteria for comparison. Recently, UPOV has proposed a statistical
method called ‘Combined Over Year Uniformity (COYU)’ that takes into account variations
between years for dealing uniformity in measured (quantitative) characters. The variety is said to
be Stable if its relevant characteristics remain unchanged after repeated propagation. Though it
is not usually possible to assess stability with in a period of 2 or 3 years, the variety can be
considered stable if is shown to be uniform.

Characterization
 The requirement of distinctness, uniformity and stability are assessed on the basis of
characteristics. The characteristics are a feature of whole plant or part of plant. Such
characteristics may be morphological, biochemical, molecular or any other nature. The table of
characteristics chosen by experts forms the main part of test guidelines and of DUS testing. In
Genetic resources, the term ‘characteristic’ is known as descriptors (with descriptor states) and
describing a plant based on such descriptor is known as ‘characterization’.

a) Morphological characterization: This is based on botanical or morphological descriptors or

characters of the plant or plant part.

Types of characteristics
1. Qualitative characteristics: Truly qualitative characteristics show discrete discontinuous
states and are stable, heritable and uniformly expressed in all environments
(Ex. Shape, Flower colour, etc)

2. Pseudo-qualitative characteristics: Here, the range of expression is at least partly continuous

varying in more than one dimension. In some cases, intermediate states of expression such as
‘weakly expressed’ are included between ‘absent’ and ‘strongly expressed’.
(Ex. Pubescence, Pigmentation, etc.).

Qualitative characteristics are assessed visually while quantitative characteristics are

usually measured. The following types of assessments are recommended:

VG: Visual assessment by a single observation of a group of plants or parts of plant.

VS: Visual assessment by observation of individual plants or parts or plants.
MG: Measurement by a single observation of a group of plants or parts of plant.
MS: Measurement of a number of individual plants or parts or plant.

a) Grouping characteristics can be universally used, either individually or collectively, for

grouping the similar varieties. These characteristics are considered to be most reliable in
distinguishing or discriminating varieties.

b) Biochemical characterization: Isozyme based descriptors have been widely used for
identification of crop varieties because of their reliability (Smith & Smith 1992, Cooke
1995).UPOV has also included electrophoresis of isoenzymes in maize, soybean, sunflower and
of seed proteins in barley, wheat as additional characters for establishing distinctness of varieties.
Selection of an appropriate electrophoresis technique provides a potential tool for variety
identification, DUS test or grouping of varieties.

c) Molecular characterization: Biotechnology has widened the possibilities for applying such
technologies to the problem of characterization, varietal identification and protection (Smith,
1995). The two commonly adopted approaches in the use of molecular markers are essentially
either probe based such as RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism), or amplification
based like RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA), AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length
Polymorphism), STMS (Sequence Tagged Microsatellites), etc. At present, molecular markers
are not being used in DUS testing anywhere, but they are reliable, fast and cost effective to
discriminate an EDV (essentially derived variety). Data from these methods may help resolve
disputes on identity of germplasm or hybrids (Santhy et al, 2003).

DUS test design

The use of experimental design with respect to the number of growing cycles, lay out
of,the trial, number of plants to be examined and method of observation is largely determined by
the,number and nature of varieties to be examined in a particular trial. In DUS trials, because of
the presence of only one treatment factor (variety), the following designs are used

1. Completely Randomised Design- if total number of test varieties is small. Several varieties
are examined in a number of replications.

2. Randomised complete Block Design- the number of plots per block equals the number of
varieties and all varieties are placed in each block. The advantage is that Standard Deviation
between plots does not contain variation due to difference in blocks.

3. Randomised incomplete Block Design- in case of large number of varieties. Here, the
number of plots per block is less than the number of varieties. In Poland, performed analysis of
variance of the results of experiment concerning seven characters in pea varieties showed that
randomized complete block and completely randomized designs were more effective than
incomplete block (Pilarczyk, 1999).

Reference collection
To test whether a candidate variety meets the DUS criteria, it is compared with varieties
whose existence is a matter of common knowledge. To satisfy the requirement of distinctness, a
candidate variety must be clearly distinguishable from all other existing varieties. These varieties
are called the Varieties of Common knowledge, which includes:

1) Protected varieties
2) Varieties listed in official register
3) Varieties, subject of an application for protection
4) Varieties listed in any commercial document in which varieties are offered for marketing in its
territory as propagating or harvested material, specially where there is no official registration
system.
5) Ecotypes and land races
6) Publicly available varieties within plant germplasm collection (genetic resources, old
varieties, etc.)

Hence, the competent authority before conducing DUS testing, is expected to collect, establish
and maintain the collections of these Common knowledge varieties, in the form of viable seeds
or of vegetative plant material of varieties. These will form the ‘Reference Collection’.
Theoretically, varieties in common knowledge have to be considered on a world wide basis and
it is necessary to examine DUS criteria in relation to all varieties of common knowledge known
worldwide. But, in practice, this can never be realized, as there are limitations in assembling all
varieties on a national basis and every nation has to define strategy to produce a National
Reference Collection for each crop. Therefore, it is obvious that the list of common knowledge
varieties for a given species/crop will include a very large number of entries. It is also very
important to ensure the authenticity of the collections as well as the source of collections. The
issues on setting up and use of reference collections for DUS testing has been given by UPOV
(1997) Maintenance of a reference collection of known varieties is essential for efficient DUS
testing. For vegetatively propagated species such as rose, potato, sugarcane, though regeneration
of varieties is easy, the clones have to be field-maintained in a disease free condition and without
loss of vigour. In vitro conservation could be an alternative and serve as a backup collection. In
case be an alternative and serve as a backup collection. In case of other crops, viable seeds of
reference varieties are placed in cold storage. The quantity of seed of some crops to be stored are
given below
Crop Seed quantity (g) Crop Seed quantity(g)
Cotton variety/hybrid 4000 Groundnut 7000
Cotton parental lines 4000 Pigeon pea 2000
Rice-variety/hybrid 3000 Soybean 3000
Rice-parental lines 1500 Linseed 500

After the establishment of the reference collection, documentation on the passport and
characteristics (morphological, isozyme or molecular) is essential. A proper database on the
collection has to be created so that searching and identifying varieties most similar to be
candidate variety for examination of distinctness is made easy. Wherever necessary, those
similar varieties may be grown and directly compared with the candidate variety in case of doubt
or dispute.

Use of statistical procedures in DUS testing

DUS tests are conducted to compare the varieties and the absolute determination of the
characteristics. The measurement or observation of the characteristics are analyzed and based on
analysis results, decision is taken on DUS criteria. In DUS testing, an experimental unit is a plot
with certain plant population. The plot is a subdivision of the field about which the varieties are
randomized. Within a plot, the observations are recorded on some characteristics on certain
plants in each replication for estimating the variability of the variety. The mean of the individual
plant observations in a plot can be considered as the plot measurement for that character. To
address the variation of the data within a variety, the following statistical procedures may be
adopted

1. Frequency Distribution or Histogram can be used to describe the values of measurement of

quantitative characters.

2. Population mean, Variance and Standard deviation: The mean is the sum of all the expressions
of the characters in the population divided by total number of observations. The square root of
variance is called standard deviation. For quantitative normally distributed characters, the means
of two varieties can be calculated. The comparison of two varieties can be made by computing
least significant difference (LSD) between two means. If the difference between two means is
greater than LSD, the two means are said to be different.

3. Combined-Over-Years-Distinctness (COYD): This is a procedure for computing maximum

distance for establishing DUS. For testing of varieties for distinctness based on measured
characters, there is a need to establish a minimum distance between varieties. The pair of
varieties showing difference greater than the minimum are said to be regarded as Distinct in
respect of that character. The method helps in analyzing quantitative data for open pollinated
crops where intra-varietal variation occurs. In most countries, tests are conducted in one testing
center for 2 or 3 years. For distinctness, the difference between pairs of varieties is tested on
character-by-character basis. To determine the minimum difference analysis of variance is used
to calculate LSD for comparing variety means. If the over years/locations mean difference
between two varieties is greater than the LSD, then the varieties are considered to be distinct in
respect of that character. If more consistency between years/location occurs for the position of
different varieties, the minimum distance, which is required for assessing distinctness, will be
smaller. On the other hand, if there is a strong interaction, the minimum difference will be
enlarged. In COYD analysis, the stability of the relative varieties value is taken into account.
This combines the information from different environmental conditions rather than considering
centers separately. The basic values to be used in the analysis are the annual location variety
means. For bulk sampling which gives at least one value for each variety per year / location, it
will usually still be possible to use COYD method for distinctness for any degree of bulking as
long as at least one value is recorded for each variety in each year/ location and that the bilk
samples are representative for the variety. This method replaces a previous method (ANOVA
based on individual experiment) in which analysis was year-by-year or location-by-location
basis.

4. Combined-Over-Years-Uniformity (COYU): When the uniformity is judged based on

measurement; the standard deviation (SD) can be used to summarize the spread of observations.
A new variety can then be tested for uniformity by comparing its SD with that of reference
variety. However, in some species or crops, varieties with large plants tend to be less uniform
than those smaller plants. If the same standard is applied to all varieties then it is possible that
some will have to meet very strict criteria while the other face standard, which are easy to
satisfy. Above-mentioned problem with SD is addressed by the use of COYU. This procedure
adjust the relationship that exists between uniformity, as measured by plant to-plant SD, and the
expression of the characteristics, as measured by the variety mean, before setting a standard. The
main advantages of COYU are that all varieties can be compared on the same basis and that
information from several years of testing may be combines into a single criterion.
 Bill No.LII of 2002

THE SEEDS BILL, 2004

ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
CLAUSES
1. Short title, extent, application and commencement.
2. Definitions.
CHAPTER II
THE CENTRAL SEED COMMITTEE, REGISTRATION AND OTHER
SUB-COMMITTEES
3. Constitution of the Central Seed Committee.
4. Composition of the Committee.
5. Powers and functions of the Committee.
6. Powers of Committee to specify minimum limits of germination, purity,
seed health, etc.

7. Registration and other Sub-Committees of the Committee and their

functions.
8. Procedure of the Committee and its Sub-Committees.
9. Secretary and other officers of the Committee.
10. Meetings of the Committee.
11. State Seed Committee.

CHAPTER III

REGISTRATION OF KINDS AND VARIETIES OF SEEDS, ETC.

12. Maintenance of National Register of Seeds of kinds and varieties.

13. Registration of seeds of any kind or varieties.
14. Procedure for registration.
15. Special provision for registration of transgenic varieties.
16. Cancellation of registration of seeds of kinds and varieties.
17. Notification of cancellation of registration of seeds of kinds and varieties.
18. Exclusion of certain kinds or varieties of seed from registration.
19. Evaluation of performance.
20. Compensation to farmers.
21. Seed producers and processing units to be registered.
22. Seed dealers to be registered.
23. Horticulture nursery to be registered.
24. Duties of registration holder of horticulture nursery.

CHAPTER IV
REGULATION OF SALE OF SEED AND SEED CERTIFICATION
AGENCIES

25. Regulation of sale of seeds of registered kinds and varieties.

26. State Seed Certification Agency.
27. Accreditation of Seed Certification Agencies.
28. Grant of certificate by the State Seed Certification Agency.
29. Revocation of certificate.
30. Recognition of seed certification agencies in foreign countries.
CHAPTER V
APPEALS
31. Appeals.
CHAPTER VI
SEED ANALYSIS AND SEED TESTING
32. Central and State Seed Testing Laboratories.
33. Seed Analysts.
34. Seed Inspectors.
35. Powers of Seed Inspector.
CHAPTER VII
EXPORT AND IMPORT OF SEEDS
36. Import of seeds.
37. Export of seeds.
CHAPTER VIII

OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENT

38. Offences and punishment.
39. Forfeiture of property.
40. Offences by companies.

CHAPTER IX
POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
41. Power of the Central Government to give directions to the State
Governments.

42. Power of the Central Government to issue directions to the Committee.

43. Exemptions from registration
 CHAPTER X
MISCELLANEOUS

44. Protection of action taken in good faith

45. Power to remove difficulties.
46. Power of Central Government to make rules.
47. Power of the Committee to make regulations.
48. Rules and regulations to be laid before Parliament.
49. Repeal and savings.
THE SCHEDULE
 THE SEEDS BILL, 2004
A
BILL

to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and export and to
facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-Fifth Year of the Republic of India as follows:-

CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY

Short title, 1.(1) This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 2004.
extent,
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
application and
commencement.
(3) Save as otherwise provided in this Act, it shall apply to-

(a) every dealer; and

(b) every producer of seed except when the seed is
produced by him for his own use and not for sale.

(4) It shall come into force on such date as the Central

Government may, by notification, appoint.

Provided that different dates may be appointed for different

provisions of this Act and any reference in any such provision to the
commencement of this Act shall be construed as a reference to the
coming into force of that provision.

Definitions. 2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, -

(1) "agriculture" includes horticulture, forestry and cultivation of

plantation, medicinal and aromatic plants;

(2) “Central Seed Testing Laboratory” means the Central Seed

Testing Laboratory established or declared as such under sub-section
(1) of section 32;

(3) "Certification Agency" means an agency established under

section 26 or accredited under section 27 or recognised under section
30;

(4) “Chairperson” means the Chairperson of the Committee;

(5) “Committee” means the Central Seed Committee constituted

under sub-section (1) of section 3;

(6) “container” means a box, bottle, casket, tin, barrel, case,

receptacle, sack, bag, wrapper or other thing in which any article or
thing is placed or packed;

(7) “dealer” means a person who carries on the business of

buying and selling, exporting, or importing seed, and includes an
agent of a dealer;

(8) “essentially derived variety”, in relation to a variety or an initial

variety means a variety of seeds essentially derived from such initial
variety when it-

(a) is predominantly derived from such initial variety, or from

a variety that itself is predominantly . derived from such
initial variety, while retaining the expression of the
essential characteristics that result from the genotype or
combination of genotypes of such initial variety;

(b) is clearly distinguished from such initial variety; and

(c) conforms (except for the differences which result from the
act of derivation) to such initial variety in the expression
of the essential characteristics that result from the
genotype or combination of genotypes of such initial
variety;

(9) “export” means taking out of India by land, sea or air;

(10) “extant variety” means a variety available in India which-

 (a) had been notified under section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966
and remains as such on the date of commencement of this 54 of 1966
Act; or

(b) is a farmers’ variety as defined in clause (1) of section 2 53 of 2001

of the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act,
2001; or

(c) is a variety about which there is common knowledge; or

(d) a variety other than a variety referred to in sub-clauses

(a) to (c) and is in the public domain;

(11) “farmer” means any person who cultivates crops either by

cultivating the land himself or through any other person but does not
include any individual, company, trader or dealer who engages in the
procurement and sale of seeds on a commercial basis;

(12) “horticulture nursery” means any place where horticulture

plants are, in the regular course of business, produced or propagated
and sold for transplantation;

(13) “import" means bringing into India by land, sea or air;

(14) “kind” means one or more related species or sub-species of

crop plants each individually or collectively known by one common
name such as cabbage, maize, paddy and wheat;

(15) “member” means a member of the Committee;

(16) “misbranded” - A seed shall be deemed to be misbranded if-

(i) it is a substitute for, or resembles in a manner likely to deceive,

another variety of seed under the name of which it is sold, and is not
plainly and conspicuously labelled so as to indicate its true nature;

(ii) it is falsely stated to be the product of any place or country;

(iii) it is sold by a name which belongs to another kind or variety of

seed;

(iv) false claims are made for it upon the label or otherwise;

(v) when sold in a package which has been sealed or prepared by, or
at the instance, of the dealer and which bears his name and address,
the contents of each package are not conspicuously and correctly
stated on the outside thereof within the limits of variability prescribed
under this Act;

(vi) the package containing it, or the label on the package bears any
statement, design or device regarding the quality or the kind or variety
of seed contained therein, which is false or misleading in any material
particular or if the package is otherwise deceptive with respect to its
contents;

(vii) it is not registered in the manner required by or under this Act;

(viii) the label contains any reference to registration other than the
registration number;

(ix) its label does not contain a warning or caution which may be
necessary, and sufficient, if complied with, to protect human, animal
and plant life and health or to avoid serious prejudice to the
environment;

(x) the package containing it or the label on the package bears the
name of a fictitious individual or company as the dealer of the kind or
variety; or

(xi) it is not labelled in accordance with the requirements of this Act or

the rules made thereunder;

(17) "notification" means a notification published in the Official

Gazette;

(18) “prescribed” means prescribed by rules made under this Act;

(19) “producer” means a person, group of persons, firm or
organisation who grows or organizes the production of seeds;

(20) “registered kind or variety”, in relation to any seed, means any

kind, or variety thereof, registered under section 13;

(21) “Registration Sub-Committee” means the Registration Sub-

Committee constituted under sub-section (1) of section 7;

(22) “regulation” means a regulation made by the Committee under

this Act;

(23) “seed” means any type of living embryo or propagule capable

of regeneration and giving rise to a plant of agriculture which is true to
such type;

(24) "Seed Analyst" means a Seed Analyst appointed under sub-

section (1) of section 33;

(25) "Seed Inspector" means a Seed Inspector appointed under

sub-section (1) of section 34;

(26) “seed processing” means the process by which seeds and

planting materials are dried, threshed, shelled, ginned or delinted (in
cotton), cleaned, graded or treated;

(27) “spurious seed” means any seed which is not genuine or true
to type;

(28) “State Government” ,in relation to a Union territory, means the

administrator thereof;

(29) “State Seed Testing Laboratory”, in relation to any State,

means the State Seed Laboratory established or declared as such
under sub-section (2) of section 32 for that State;

(30) “transgenic variety” means seed or planting material

synthesized or developed by modifying or altering the genetic
composition by means of genetic engineering;

(31) “variety” means a plant grouping except micro-organism within

a single botanical taxon of the lowest known rank, which can be-

(a) defined by the expression of the characteristics resulting from a

given genotype of that plant grouping;

(b) distinguished from any other plant grouping by expression of at

least one of the said characteristics; and

(c) considered as a unit with regard to its suitability for being

propagated, which remains unchanged after such propagation,

and includes propagating material of such variety, extant variety,

transgenic variety, farmers' variety and essentially derived variety.
 CHAPTER II

THE CENTRAL SEED COMMITTEE, REGISTRATION AND

OTHER SUB-COMMITTEES

Constitution of 3. (1) The Central Government shall, by notification, constitute, for

Central Seed the purpose of this Act, a Committee to be called the Central Seed
Committee. Committee.

(2) The headquarters of the Central Seed Committee shall be at

New Delhi.

Composition of 4.(1) The Committee shall consist of a Chairperson, members, ex-

the Committee. officio and other members, to be nominated by the Central
Government.

(2) The Secretary to the Government of India in the Department

of Agriculture and Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, shall be
Chairperson, ex officio.

(3) The Committee shall consist of the following ex officio

members, namely:-

(i) the Agriculture Commissioner, Department of Agriculture and

Co-operation, Government of India;

(ii) the Deputy Director General (Crop Sciences), Indian Council

of Agricultural Research;

(iii) the Deputy Director General (Horticulture), Indian Council of

Agricultural Research;

(iv) the Joint Secretary in charge of seeds in the Department of

Agriculture and Co-operation, Government of India;
(v) the Horticulture Commissioner, Department of Agriculture and
Co-operation, Government of India;

(vi) a representative of the Department of Bio-technology,

Government of India, not below the rank of Joint Secretary to the
Government of India;

(vii) a representative of the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India, not below the rank of Joint Secretary to the
Government of India.

(4) The Committee shall consist of the following other members to

be nominated by the Central Government, namely:-

(i) the Secretary (Agriculture) from five States, one each from
three out of the five geographical zones of the country as mentioned
in the Schedule on rotation basis;

(ii) Director, State Seed Certification Agency from one State

which is not represented under clause (i);

(iii) Managing Director, State Seeds Corporation, from one State

which is not represented under clause (i) or clause (ii);

(iv) two representatives of farmers;

(v) two representatives of seed industry;

(vi) two specialists or experts in the field of seed development.

(5) The Committee may associate with it, in such manner, on such
terms and for such purposes as it may deem fit, any person whose
assistance or advice it may desire in complying with any of the
provisions of this Act, and a person so associated shall have the right
to take part in the discussion of the Committee relevant to the
purposes for which he has been associated, but shall not have the
right to vote and shall be entitled to receive such allowances or fees
as may be fixed by the Central Government.

(6) A Member nominated under sub-section (5) shall, unless his

seat becomes vacant earlier by resignation, death or otherwise, be
entitled to hold office for two years from the date of his nomination but
shall be eligible for re-nomination provided that the said member shall
hold office only for so long as he holds the appointment by virtue of
which his nomination was made.

(7) Save as otherwise provided, the terms and conditions of

appointment of the members shall be such as may be prescribed.

(8) A member other than an ex officio member may resign his

office by giving notice in writing to the Central Government and on
such resignation being accepted, he shall be deemed to have
vacated his office.

(9) A person shall be disqualified for being nominated or

appointed as a member if he-

(i) has been convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for an

offence which, in the opinion of the Central Government, involves
moral turpitude; or

(ii) is an un-discharged insolvent; or

(iii) is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent

court.

(10) No act or proceeding of the Committee shall become invalid

merely by reason of –

(i) any vacancy therein, or any defect in the constitution thereof;

or

(ii) any defect in the appointment of a person acting as the

Chairperson or a member of the Committee; or

(iii) any irregularity in the procedure of the Committee not

affecting the merits of the case.

(11) The Central Government may, at any time, remove from office
any member other than member, ex-officio after giving him a
reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the proposed
removal.
Powers and 5. The Committee shall be responsible for and shall have all the
functions of the
powers for the effective implementation of this Act and shall advise
Committee.
the Central Government and the State Governments on matters
relating to-

(a) seed programming and planning;

(b) seed development and production;

(c) export and import of seeds;

(d) standards for registration, certification and seed testing;

(e) seed registration and its enforcement;

(f) such other matters as may be prescribed.

Powers of
6. The Committee may, by notification, specify–
Committee to
specify minimum
limits of (a) the minimum limits of germination, genetic and physical purity,
germination,
and seed health, with respect to any seed of any kind of variety;
purity, seed
health, etc.
(b) the mark or label on the packet or container to indicate that such
seed conforms to the minimum limits of germination, genetic and
physical purity, and seed health specified under clause (a), and
other particulars, such as expected performance of the seed in
accordance with the information provided by the producer under
section 14 which such mark or label may contain.

Registration and 7.(1) The Committee shall constitute a Sub-Committee to be called

other Sub-
the Registration Sub-Committee consisting of a Chairman and such
Committees of
the Committee number of other members, to assist him in the discharge of the
and their
functions of the Committee, as may be prescribed.
functions.

(2) It shall be the duty of the Registration Sub-Committee-

(a) to register seeds of varieties after scrutinizing their claims as

made in the application in such manner as may be prescribed;

(b) to perform such other functions as are assigned to it by the

 Committee.

(3) The Committee may appoint as many other Sub-Committees

including a Sub-Committee on Seed Certification as it deems fit
consisting wholly of the members of the Committee or wholly of other
persons or partly of members of the Committee and partly of other
persons as it thinks fit to exercise such powers and perform such
duties as may be delegated to them.

Procedure of the 8. The Committee may, subject to the previous approval of the
Committee and
Central Government, make regulations for the purpose of regulating
its Sub-
Committees. its own procedure and the procedure of any Sub-Committee thereof.

Secretary and 9. The Central Government shall –

other officers of
the Committee.
(a) appoint a person to be the Secretary of the Committee; and

(b) provide the Committee with such technical and other officers and
employees as may be necessary for the efficient performance of the
functions of the Committee under this Act.

Meetings of the 10. (1) The Committee shall meet as and when necessary at such
Committee.
time and place and shall observe such procedure in regard to
transaction of business at its meetings (including the quorum at
meetings) as may be provided by regulations.

(2) The Chairperson or, in his absence, the Agricultural

Commissioner or, in the absence of both the Chairperson and the
Agricultural Commissioner, any member chosen by the members
present from amongst themselves, shall preside at a meeting of the
Committee.

(3) All questions at a meeting of the Committee shall be decided

by a majority of votes of the members present and voting and in the
case of an equality of votes, the Chairperson or, in his absence, the
Agricultural Commissioner or, in the absence of both the Chairperson
 and the Agricultural Commissioner the person presiding shall have
and exercise a second or casting vote.

State Seed 11. Every State Government shall establish a State Seed Committee
Committee.
to –

(a) advise the Committee on registration of regional or local seeds of

any kind or variety;

(b) advise the State Government on registration of seed producing

units, seed processing units, seed dealers and horticulture nurseries;

(c) maintain, in each district, a list of seed dealers, seed producers,

seed processing units and horticulture nurseries;

(d) seek information from persons engaged in the production,

supply, distribution, trade or commerce in seeds of any kind or variety
regarding stocks, prices, sales and other information in the manner as
may be prescribed;

(e) advise the State Government and the Committee on all

matters arising out of the administration and implementation of this
Act; and

(f) carry out other functions assigned to, by, or under this Act.
 CHAPTER III
REGISTRATION OF KINDS AND VARIETIES OF SEEDS, ETC.

Maintenance of 12.(1) For the purposes of this Act, a register of all kinds and
National Register
varieties of seed to be called the National Register of Seeds shall be
of seeds of
kinds and kept by the Registration Sub-Committee wherein all specifications, as
varieties.
may be prescribed, shall be maintained.

(2) Subject to the directions of the Committee, the Register shall

be kept under the control and management of the Registration Sub-
Committee.

(3) The Registration Sub-Committee shall, within such intervals and

in such manner as it thinks appropriate, publish the list of kinds and
varieties of seed which have been registered during that interval.

Registration of 13.(1) No seed of any kind or variety shall, for the purpose of sowing
seeds of any
or planting by any person, be sold unless such seed is registered
kind or variety.
under sub-section (2) by the Registration Sub-Committee in such
manner as may be prescribed.

(2) Subject to the provisions of sections 14 and 15, the

Registration Sub-Committee may register or refuse to register any
kind or variety of seed on the basis of information furnished by the
producer who develops the variety on the results of multi-locational
trials for such period as may be prescribed to establish the
performance of that seed:

Provided that no application for registration shall be refused

under this sub-section unless the applicant has been given an
opportunity to represent his case:

Provided further that seeds of any kind or variety in respect of

which a valid registration exist on the date of commencement of this
Act are not required to be registered again under this section on basis
of the information on the results of multi-location trials.

(3) The Registration Sub-Committee may grant provisional

 registration to the varieties of seeds, which are available in the market
on the date of commencement of this Act.

(4) Registration made under this Act shall be valid for a period of
fifteen years in the case of annual and biennial crops, and eighteen
years for long duration perennials.

(5) At the expiry of the period granted under sub-section (4), the
kind or variety of seed may be re-registered for a like period by the
Registration Sub-Committee on the basis of information furnished by
the producer on the results of such trials as may be prescribed under
sub-section (2) to re-establish the performance of the kind or variety
of seed.

(6) The Registration Sub-Committee shall have the power to issue

such directions to protect the interests of a producer against any
abusive act committed by any third party during the period between
the date of filing of application for registration and the date of decision
by the Committee on such application.

Procedure for 14.(1) Every application for registration under sub-section (2)
registration.
section 13 shall be made in such form and contain such particulars
and be accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed.

(2) On receipt of any such application for the registration of a kind or

variety of seed, the Registration Sub-Committee may, after such
enquiry as it deems fit and after satisfying itself that the kind or variety
of seed to which the application relates conforms to the claims made
by the importer or by the seller, as the case may be, as regards the
efficacy of the kind or variety of seed and its safety to human beings
and animals, register the kind or variety, as the case may be, of the
seed on such conditions as may be specified by it and allot a
registration number thereto and issue a certificate of registration.

(3) The Registration Sub-Committee may, having regard to the

efficacy of the seeds and its safety to human beings and animals,
vary the conditions subject to which a certificate of registration has
been granted and may, for that purpose, require the certificate holder
 by notice in writing to deliver the certificate to it within such time as
may be specified in the notice.

Special provision 15. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in section 14, no seed of
for registration of any transgenic variety shall be registered unless the applicant has
transgenic obtained clearance in respect of the same as required by or under the
29 of 1986
varieties. provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986:

Provided that the Registration Sub-Committee may, subject to

clearance under the said Act, grant provisional registration, for a
period not exceeding two years on the basis of information furnished
by the producer on the results of multi-locational trials conducted in
the prescribed manner.

(2) Save as otherwise provided in sub-section (1), the form and

manner in which and procedure for registration of transgenic variety
of seed and the fee payable thereto shall be the same as applicable
in case of registration under section 14.

Cancellation of 16.(1) The Registration Sub-Committee may cancel any registration

registration of
granted under section 13 or section 15 or any one or more of the
seeds of kinds
and varieties. following grounds, namely:-

(a) that the holder of the certificate has violated any of the terms and
conditions of the registration; or

(b) that the registration has been obtained by misrepresentation or

concealment of essential data; or

(c) that the variety is not performing in accordance with the

information furnished by the producer under sub-section (2) of section
13 or has become obsolete or has outlived its utility and be made
available for sale in the market in the public interest; or

(d) that prevention of commercial exploitation of such variety of

seeds is necessary.

(i) in the public interest;

(ii) to protect public order or public morality; or
 (iii) to protect human beings, animal and plant life and health to avoid
serious prejudice to the environment.

(2) No order of cancellation of registration under this section shall

be made unless the holder thereof or the affected person concerned
has been given a reasonable opportunity of showing cause in respect
of the grounds for such cancellation.

Notification of 17. The Registration Sub-Committee shall notify the cancellation of

cancellation of
registration of any kind or variety of seed made under section 13 or
registration of
seeds of kinds any registration made under section 15 in the Official Gazette
and varieties.

Exclusion of 18. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, no registration

certain kinds or
of any kind or variety of seed shall be made under this Act, if
varieties of seed
from registration. prevention of commercial exploitation of such kind or variety is
necessary to protect public order or public morality or human, animal
or plant life and health, or to avoid serious prejudice to the
environment.

(2) A kind or variety of seed containing any technology, which is

harmful, or potentially harmful, shall not be registered.

Explanation.- For the purposes of this sub-section, the expression

“technology” includes genetic use restriction technology and
terminator technology.

Evaluation of 19. The Committee may, for conducting trials to assess the
performance.
performance, accredit centers of the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, State Agricultural Universities and such other
organizations fulfilling the eligibility requirements as may be
prescribed, to conduct trials to evaluate the performance of any kind
or variety of seed.

Compensation to 20. Where the seed of any registered kind or variety is sold to a
farmer.
farmer, the producer, distributor or vendor, as the case may be, shall
disclose the expected performance of such kind or variety to the
farmer under given conditions, and if, such registered seed fails to
provide the expected performance under such given conditions, the
 farmer may claim compensation from the producer, dealer, distributor
or vendor under the Consumer Protection Act, 1986.

Seed producers 21.(1) No producer shall grow or organize the production of seed
and seed
unless he is registered as such by the State Government under this
processing
units to be Act.
registered.
(2) No person shall maintain a seed processing unit unless such
unit is registered by the State Government under this Act.

(3) The State Government shall register a producer or seed

processing unit if he or it meets the specifications prescribed by the
Central Government in terms of infrastructure, equipment and qualified
manpower.

(4) Every application for registration under sub-section (3) shall be

made in such form and manner and shall be accompanied by such fee
as may be prescribed.

(5) The State Government may, after making such enquiry and
subject to such conditions as it thinks fit, grant a certificate for
maintaining a seed producing or a seed processing unit in such
form as may be prescribed.

(6) Every seed producing unit and every seed processing unit shall
furnish periodic returns on the quantity of seeds of different kinds or
varieties produced or processed by it to the Seed Certification Agency
in such form and at such time as may be prescribed.

(7) The State Government may, after giving the holder of certificate
of registration under sub-section (1), or sub-section (2), as the case
may be, suspend or cancel the registration if 

(a) such registration has been obtained by misrepresentation as to a

material particular relating to the specification in terms of
infrastructure, equipment or availability of qualified manpower; or

(b) any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder has
been contravened.
Seed dealers to 22.(1) Every person who desires to carry on the business of selling,
be registered.
keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering, import or export or
otherwise supply any seed by himself, or by any other person on his
behalf shall obtain a registration certificate as a dealer in seeds from
the State Government .

(2) Every applicant for dealership under sub-section (1) shall be

required to furnish information about seed stocks, sales and other
related information as may be prescribed.

(3) Even application for registration under sub-section(1) shall be

made in such form and manner and shall be accompanied by such fee
as may be prescribed.

(4) The State Government may, after making such enquiry and
subject to such conditions as it thinks fit, grant a certificate of
registration as a dealer in seeds in such form as may be prescribed.

(5) Every dealer registered under this section shall furnish to the
State Government such information and returns regarding seed stocks,
seed lots, expiry date of seed lots and other related information as may
be prescribed.

(6) The State Government may, after giving the dealer an

opportunity of being heard, suspend or cancel a certificate granted
under this Act if-

(a) such registration had been obtained by misrepresentation of any

material fact;

(b) contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made
thereunder.

Horticulture 23.(1) No person shall conduct or carry on the business of

nursery to be
horticulture nursery for any of the purposes of this Act unless such
registered.
nursery is registered with the State Government.

24. Every application for registration under sub-section (1) shall

 be made in such form and contain such particulars and shall
be accompanied by such fee as may be prescribed.

Duties of 24. Every person who is a holder of a registration of a

registration
horticulture nursery under section 23 shall-
holders of
horticulture
nursery.
(a) keep a complete record of the origin or source of every
planting material and performance record of mother trees in
the nursery;

(b) keep a layout plan showing the position of the root-stocks and
scions used in raising the horticulture plants;

(c) keep a performance record of the mother trees in the nursery;

(d) keep the nursery plants as well as the parent trees used for
the production or propagation of horticulture plants free from
infectious or contagious insects, pests or diseases affecting
plants; and

(e) furnish such information to the State Government on the

production, stocks, sales and prices of planting material in the
nursery as may be prescribed.
 CHAPTER IV
REGULATION OF SALE OF SEED AND
SEED CERTIFICATION AGENCIES

Regulation of 25. No person shall himself, or by any other person on his behalf,
sale of seeds of
carry on the business of selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell,
registered kinds
and varieties. bartering, import or export or otherwise supply any kind of seed of
any registered kind or variety unless-

(a) such seed is identifiable as to its kind or variety;

(b) such seed conforms to the minimum limit of germination and

genetic, physical purity, maximum seed health specified
under clause (a) of section 6;

© the container of such seed bears in the prescribed manner, the

mark or label bearing the correct particulars thereof, specified
under clause (b) of section 6;

(d) the container of such seed, in the case of transgenic varieties,

bears a declaration to this effect; and

25. he complies with such other requirements as may be

prescribed.

State Seed 26. The Committee may, in consultation with the State
Certification
Government, by notification, establish a State Seed
Agency.
Certification Agency for the State to carry out the functions
entrusted to the State Seed Certification Agency by or
under this Act:

Accreditation of 27. (1) The Committee may in consultation with the State
Seed
Government and the State Seed Committee, accredit –
Certification
Agencies.
(a) organizations to carry out certification, on the fulfillment of such
criteria, as may be prescribed, or

(b) individuals or seed producing organisations to carry out self-

 certification, in such manner as may be prescribed.

(2) The accredited individuals and seed producing organisations

shall be subject to such inspection and control of the Committee, the
concerned State Government and State Seed Certification Agency,
as may be prescribed.

(3) The accreditation may be withdrawn by the Committee, for

reasons to be recorded in writing and after giving to the concerned
organization or individual, as the case may be, a reasonable
opportunity of being heard.

Grant of 28.(1) Any person selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering
certificate by the
or otherwise supplying any seed of any registered kind or variety
State Seed
Certification may, if he desires to have such seed certified by the State Seed
Agency.
Certification Agency, apply to that Agency for the grant of a certificate
for the purpose.

(2) Every application under sub-section (1) shall be made in such

form, shall contain such particulars and shall be accompanied by
such fee as may be prescribed.

(3) On receipt of an application under sub-section (1), the State

Seed Certification Agency may, after such enquiry as it thinks fit and
after satisfying itself that the seed to which the application relates
conforms to the prescribed standards, grant a certificate in such form
and on such conditions as may be prescribed:

Provided that such standards shall not be lower than the

minimum limit of germination, genetic and physical purity specified for
that seed under clause (a) of section 6.

Revocation of 29. If the State Seed Certification Agency is satisfied, either on a

certificate.
reference made to it in this behalf or otherwise, that-

(a) the certificate granted by it under section 28 has been

obtained by misrepresentation as to an essential fact; or

(b) the holder of the certificate has, without reasonable cause,

 failed to comply with the conditions subject to which the certificate
has been granted or has contravened any of the provisions of this Act
or the rules made thereunder,

then, without prejudice to any other penalty to which the holder of the
certificate may be liable under this Act, the State Seed Certification
Agency may, after giving the holder of the certificate an opportunity of
showing cause, revoke the certificate.

Recognition of 30. The Central Government may, on the recommendation of the

seed certification
Committee and by notification, recognise any seed certification
agencies in
foreign countries. agency established in any foreign country, for the purposes of this
Act.
 CHAPTER V
APPEALS

Appeals. 31.(1) Any person aggrieved by a decision of the Registration Sub-

Committee under section 14, section 16 or section 27 or of the State
Seed Certification Agency under section 28 or section 29 may, within
thirty days from the date on which the decision is communicated to
him prefer an appeal to such authority (hereinafter referred to as the
appellate authority) as the Central Government may think fit to
constitute:

Provided that the appellate authority may entertain an appeal

after the expiry of the said period of thirty days if it is satisfied that the
appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from filing the appeal in
time.

(2) An appellate authority shall consist of a single person or three

persons as the Central Government may think fit, to be appointed by
that Government.

(3) The form and manner in which an appeal may be preferred

under sub-section (1), the fee payable for such appeal and the
procedure to be followed by the appellate authority shall be such as
may be prescribed.

(4) On receipt of an appeal preferred under sub-section (1), the

appellate authority shall, after giving the appellant and the other party
an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the appeal as expeditiously
as possible.
 CHAPTER VI
SEED ANALYSIS AND SEED TESTING

Central and 32.(1) The Central Government may, by notification, establish a

State Seed
Central Seed Testing Laboratory or declare any seed-testing
Testing
Laboratories. laboratory as the Central Seed Testing Laboratory to carry out the
functions entrusted to the Central Seed Testing Laboratory by or
under this Act in the prescribed manner.

(2) The State Government may, in consultation with the

Committee, and by notification, establish one or more State Seed
Testing Laboratories or declare any seed testing laboratory in the
Government or non-Government sector as a State Seed Testing
Laboratory where analysis of seed of any kind or variety shall be
carried out under this Act in the prescribed manner.

(3) Every Seed Testing Laboratory referred to in sub-section (1)

shall have as many Seed Analysts as the Central Government may
consider necessary.

(4) Every Seed Testing Laboratory referred to in sub-section (2)

shall have as many Seed Analysts as the State Government may
consider necessary.

Seed Analysts. 33.(1) In case of the Central Seed Laboratory, the Central
Government and in other cases the State Government may, by
notification, appoint such persons as the concerned Government
thinks fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be Seed
Analysts and define the local limits of their jurisdiction.

(2) Every Central Seed Testing Laboratory established or

declared under sub-section (1) of section 32 and every State Seed
Testing Laboratory established or declared under sub-section (2) of
that section shall have as many Seed Analysts as the Central
Government or the State Government, as the case may be, specify.
Seed Inspectors. 34.(1) The State Government may, by notification, appoint such
persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications, to be
Seed Inspectors and define the areas within which they shall exercise
jurisdiction.

(2) Every Seed Inspector shall be subordinate to such authority

as the State Government may specify in this behalf.

Powers of Seed 35.(1) The Seed Inspector may-

Inspectors.
(a) take samples of any seed of any kind or variety from-

(i) any person selling such seed; or

(ii) any person who is in the course of conveying, delivering

or preparing to deliver such seed to a purchaser or a
consignee; or

(iii) a purchaser or a consignee after delivery of such seed

to him;

(b) send such sample for analysis to the Seed Analyst of the area
within which such sample has been taken;

(c) enter and search, at all reasonable times, with such

assistance, if any, as he considers necessary, any place in which he
has reason to believe that an offence under this Act has been or is
being committed and order in writing the person in possession of any
seed in respect of which the offence has been or is being committed,
not to dispose of any stock of such seed for a specific period not
exceeding thirty days or, unless the alleged offence is such that the
defect may be removed by the possessor of the seed, seize the stock
of such seed;

(d) examine any record, register, document or any other material

object found in any place mentioned in clause (c) and seize the same
if he has reason to believe that it may furnish evidence of the
commission of an offence punishable under this Act; and
(e) exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying
out the purposes of this Act or any rule or regulation made
thereunder.

(2) The power conferred by this section includes the power to

break-open any container in which any seed of any kind or variety
may be contained or to break-open the door of any premises where
any such seed may be kept for sale:

Provided that the power to break-open the door shall be

exercised only after the owner or any other person in occupation of
the premises, if he is present therein, refuses to open the door on
being called upon to do so.

(3) Where the Seed Inspector takes any action under clause (a)
of sub-section (1), he shall, as far as possible, call not less than two
independent and respectable persons to be present at the time when
such action is taken and take their signatures on a memorandum to
be prepared in such form and manner as may be prescribed.

(4) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, or in

relation to the State of Jammu and Kashmir, the provisions of any
corresponding law in force in that State, shall, so far as may be, apply
to any search or seizure under this section as they apply to any
search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under
section 94 of the said Code, or, as the case may be, under the
corresponding provisions of the said law.
 CHAPTER VII
EXPORT AND IMPORT OF SEEDS

Import of seeds. 36. (1) All import of seeds –

(a) shall be subject to the provisions of the Plant Quarantine

(Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003, or any
corresponding order made under section 3 of the Destructive
2 of 1914.
Insects and Pests Act, 1914;

(b) shall conform to minimum limits of germination, genetic and

physical purity, and seed health as prescribed under section 6;
and

(c) shall be subject to registration as may be granted on the basis of

information furnished by the importer on the results of multi-
locational trials for such period as may be prescribed to establish
the performance.

(2) The Central Government may, by notification, permit to import

an unregistered variety in such quantity and subject to fulfilling such
conditions as may be specified in that notification for research
purposes.

Export of seeds. 37. The Central Government may, on the advice of the Committee,
restrict, by notification, the export of seeds of any kind or variety if it is
deemed that such export may adversely affect the food security of the
country, or if it is felt that the reasonable requirements of the public
will not be met, or on such other grounds as may be prescribed.
 CHAPTER VIII
OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENT

Offences and 38. (1) If any person –

punishment.

(a) contravenes any provision of this Act or any rule made

thereunder; or

(b) imports, sells, stocks or exhibits for sale or barter or otherwise

supplies any seed of any kind or variety deemed to be misbranded ;
or

(c) imports, sells, stocks or exhibits for sale or barter, or

otherwise supplies any seed of any kind or variety without a certificate
of registration; or

(d) obstructs the Committee, Registration Sub-Committee or

Seed Certification Agency or Seed Inspector or Seed Analyst or any
other authority appointed or duly empowered under this Act in the
exercise of its powers or discharge of their duties under this Act or the
rules made thereunder,

he shall, on conviction, be punishable – with fine which shall not be

less than five thousand rupees but which may extend to twenty five
thousand rupees.

(2) If any person sells any seed which does not conform to the
standards of physical purity, germination or health or does not
maintain any records required to be maintained under this Act or the
rules made thereunder he shall, on conviction, be punishable with fine
which shall not be less than five thousand rupees but which may
extend to twenty- five thousand rupees.

(3) If any person furnishes any false information relating to the

standards of genetic purity, misbrands any seed or supplies any
spurious seed or spurious transgenic variety, sells any non-registered
seeds he shall, on conviction be punishable with imprisonment for a
 term which may extend to six months or with fine which may extend
to fifty thousand rupees or with both.

Forfeiture of 39. When any person has been convicted under this Act for the
property.
contravention of any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made
thereunder, the seed in respect of which the contravention has been
committed shall be forfeited to the Central Government.

Offences by 40.(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a
companies.
company, every person who at the time the offence was committed
was in charge of, and was responsible to the company for the
conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company,
shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be
proceeded against and punished accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render

any such person liable to any punishment under this Act if he proves
that the offence was committed without his knowledge and that he
exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such
offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an

offence under this Act has been committed by a company and it is
proved that the offence has been committed with the consent or
connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any
director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such
director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to
be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against
and punished accordingly.

Explanation. – For the purpose of this section,-

(a) “company” means any body corporate and includes a firm or

other association of individuals; and

(b) “director”, in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

 CHAPTER IX
POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

Power of Central 41. The Central Government may give such directions to any State
Government to
Governments as may appear to the Central Government to be
give directions to
the State necessary for carrying into execution in the State any of the
Governments.
provisions of this Act or of any rule made there under.

Power of Central 42.(1) Without prejudice to the foregoing provisions of this Act, the
Government to
Committee shall, in the discharge of its functions and the
issue directions
to the performance duties under this Act, be bound by such directions on
Committee.
questions of policy as the Central Government may give in writing to it
from time to time.

(2) The decision of the Central Government whether a question is

one of policy or not shall be final.

Exemption from 43. (1) Nothing in this Act shall restrict the right of the farmer to save,
registration.
use, exchange, share or sell his farm seeds and planting material,
except that he shall not sell such seed or planting material under a
brand name or which does not conform to the minimum limit of
germination, physical purity, genetic purity prescribed under clause
(a) or clause (b) of section 6.

(2) The Central Government may, by notification, and subject to

conditions, if any, as it may specify therein, exempt from all or any of
the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder, any
educational, scientific or research or extension organization.
 CHAPTER X
MISCELLANEOUS

Protection of 44. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against
action taken in
the Government or any person for anything which is in good faith
good faith.
done or intended to be done under this Act.

Power to remove 45. (1) If any difficulty arises in giving effect to the provisions of this
difficulties.
Act, the Central Government may, by order published in the Official
Gazette, make such provisions not inconsistent with the provisions of
this Act as may appear to be necessary for removing the difficulty:

Provided that no order shall be made under this section after the
expiry of two years from the date of commencement of this Act.

(2) Every order made under sub-section (1) shall be laid before
each House of Parliament.

Power of Central 46.(1) The Central Government may by notification, make rules to
Government to
make rules. carry out the provisions of this Act.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the

foregoing power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following
matters, namely:-

(a) the terms and conditions of appointment of members of the

Committee under sub-section (7) of section 4;

(b) the matters to be prescribed under clause (f) of section 5;

(c) the number of other members who shall assist the Chairperson
of the Registration Sub-Committee to discharge its functions
under sub-section (1) of section 7;

(d) the manner of scrutinizing the claims as made in the

applications under clause (a) of sub-section (2) of section 7;

(e) the manner of seeking information by a State Seed Committee

under Clause (d) of Section 11;
(f) the specifications which shall be maintained in the National
Register of Seeds of kinds or varieties under sub-section (1) of
section 12;

(g) the manner of registration of seed of any kind or variety under

sub-section (1) of section 13;

(h) the period which required to establish performance of seeds on

the results of multi-locational trials conducted under sub-
section (2) of section 13;

(i) the form of application and the particulars which should be

furnished, and the fee which should accompany, such
application under sub-section (1) of section 14;

(j) the eligibility requirement which an organization shall fulfil for

accreditation under section 19;

(k) the specification required to be fulfilled for registration as a

producer or seed producing unit under sub-section (3) of
section 21;

(l) the form and manner in which an application for registration

under sub-section (3) of section 21 shall be made and the fee
with which such application shall be accompanied under sub-
section (4) of said section ;

(m) the form in which a certificate for maintaining a seed producing

or seed processing unit may be granted under sub-section (5)
of section 21;

(n) the form in which and time within which periodic returns shall be
filled under sub-section (6) of section 21;

(o) the information which an application for dealership in seeds

shall be furnished under sub-section (2) of section 22;

(p) the form and manner in which an application for registration as

seed dealer under sub-section (1) of section 22 shall be made
and the fee which shall accompany such application under sub-
section (3) of that section;

(q) the form in which a certificate of registration as a dealer in

 seeds shall be granted under sub-section (4) of section 22;

(r) the information and return which a registered dealer shall

furnish to the State Government under sub-section (5) of
section 22;;

(s) the form in which an application for registration of a horticulture

nursery shall be made, the particulars which such application
shall contain and fee which shall accompany such application
under sub-section (2) of section 23;

(t) the information on production, stocks, sales and prices of

planting material in a nursery shall be furnished to the State
Government under section 24;

(u) the manner in which the container of seeds shall bear the mark
or label under clause (c) of section 25.

(v) the requirement which a person carrying on business of selling,

etc. of any registered kind or variety of seeds shall comply with
under clause (e) of section 25;

(w) the criteria to be fulfilled under clause (a) and the manner of
carrying out self-certification under clause (b) of sub-section(1)
of section 27;

(x) the inspection and control which Committee, the concerned

State Government and the State Seeds Certification Agency
shall carryout or have on an accredited individuals and seed
producing organizations under sub-section (2) of section 27;

(y) the form of application and the particulars to be furnished in

such application and the fee which shall accompany such
application under sub-section (2) of section 28;

(z) the form in which and the conditions subject to which a

certificate shall be granted under sub-section (3) of section 28;

(za) the form and manner in which an appeal shall be preferred and
the fee which such appeal shall accompany and the procedure
which the Appellate Authority shall follow under sub-section
(3) of section 31;
 (zb) the manner in which a Central Seed Testing Laboratory
established or declared under sub-section (1) of section 32
shall carry out its functions;

(zc) the manner of carrying out analysis of seeds shall be made

under sub-section (2) of section 32;

(zd) the qualifications which a person to be appointed as Seed

Analysts shall possess under sub-section (1) of section 33;

(ze) the qualifications which a person to be appointed as Seed

Inspector shall possess under sub-section (1) of section 34;

(zf) the form and manner in which the memorandum shall be

prepared under sub-section (3) of section 35;

(zg) the grounds on which the Central Government may restrict

export of seeds under section 37;

(zh) any other matter which is to be or may be prescribed.

Power of 47. (1) The Committee may, with the previous approval of the
Committee to
Central Government, by notification, make regulations not
make
regulations. inconsistent with the provisions of this Act and the rules made
thereunder, to provide for all matters for which provision is necessary
or expedient for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of this
Act.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the

foregoing power, such regulations may provide for all or any of the
following matters, namely:-

(a) the procedure for conduct of business to be transacted by the

Committee or any Sub-Committee thereof under section 8;

(b) the procedure in regard to transaction of business at meetings of

the Committee (including the quorum at meetings)under sub-section
(1) of section 10.

(c) any other matter in respect of which regulations are to be or may

be made
Rules and regu- 48. Every rule and every regulation made under this Act shall be
lations to be laid
laid as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of
before
Parliament. Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which
may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive
sessions, and if, before the expiry of the session immediately
following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both
Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or regulation or
both Houses agree that the rule or regulation should not be made, the
rule or regulation shall, thereafter, have effect only in such modified
form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so, however, that any
such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the
validity of anything previously done under that rule or regulation.

Repeal and 49. (1) The Seeds Act, 1966 is hereby repealed. 54 of 1966
savings.

(2) Without prejudice to the provisions contained in the General

10 of 1897
Clauses, 1897, with respect to repeals, no such repeal shall affect-

(a) the previous operation of the law so repealed or anything duly

done or suffered thereunder; or

(b) any right, privilege, obligation or liability acquired, accrued or

incurred under the law so repealed; or

(c) any penalty, forfeiture or punishment incurred in respect of any

offence committed against the Act so repealed; or

(d) any investigation, proceeding, legal proceeding or remedy in

respect of any such right, privilege, obligation, liability, penalty,
forfeiture or punishment as aforesaid; and any such investigation,
proceedings, legal proceeding or remedy may be instituted, continued
or enforced; any such penalty forfeiture or punishment may be
imposed as if this Act had not been passed:

Provided further that, subject to the first proviso and any

saving provisions made elsewhere in this Act anything done, any
action taken, any rule made, any notifications or orders issued under
the provisions of the Act so repealed shall, in so far as they are not
inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, be deemed to have been
done, taken, made or issued under the corresponding provisions of
this Act, and shall continue to be in force accordingly, unless and until
expressly or implied repealed by any thing done, action taken, rules
made or, notification or orders issued under this Act.

(2) Notwithstanding such repeals any kind or variety of seeds that

has been notified under the law as so repealed shall be deemed to
have been registered under this Act, and any seed certification
agency established under section 18 of the Seeds Act, 1966 shall be
deemed to have been established or recognized, as the case may be,
under this Act.
 THE SCHEDULE
[See section 4(4)(i),(ii) and (iii) ]

GEOGRAPHICAL ZONES

ZONE-I ANDHRA PRADESH, KARNAKATA, KERALA, LAKSHADWEEP,

PONDICHERRY AND TAMIL NADU.

ZONE-II ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, BIHAR, CHHATISGARH,

JHARKHAND, MADHYA PRADESH, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL.

ZONE-III ARUNACHAL PRADESH, ASSAM, MANIPUR, MEGHALAYA, MIZORAM,

NAGALAND, SIKKIM AND TRIPURA.

ZONE-IV DADRA AND NAGAR HAVELI, DAMAN AND DIU, GOA, GUJARAT,
RAJASTHAN AND MAHARASHTRA.

ZONE-V CHANDIGARH, HARYANA, HIMACHAL PRADESH, JAMMU AND

KASHMIR, NATIONAL CAPITAL TERRITORY OF DELHI, PUNJAB,
UTTRANCHAL AND UTTAR PRADESH.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

SEED PROCESSING: Objectives and Principles

Seed processing: is post harvest method to remove unwanted materials form the seed lot and to make
them ready for marketing without affecting the vigour and viability of seeds. Seed processing will
results in seed lot with high planting value. This includes various steps like drying, precleaning-
preconditioning, cleaning, grading, treating, packing, labeling and storage of seeds.
Seeds after harvest and threshing usually physically admixture with inert matters like remaining
of florets, fruit remaining, plant debris, sand or soil particles which will affect the physical purity and
seed standards. This seed processing will remove all undesirable and unwanted materials form the lot and
make seeds value for money.
The seed lot is heterogeneous due to the following reasons
1. The soil is heterogeneous and there is a lot of variability in the fertility status of soil due to
availability of nutrients, physical, chemical and biological properties.
2. Variability is introduced due to position of seed set on the plant / fruit , time of pollination
and fertilization over a period of time
3. Variability is created by biotic factors like pest and variability infestation.
4. Variability is also due to the management practices like water, land preparation, leveling,
staggered sowing, uneven distribution of fertilizer and irrigation water, uneven plant
protection sprays and uneven maturity at harvest.
Objectives of seed processing:
1) To remove inert materials and undesirable such as chaffy seeds, broken seeds, straw, clods,
stones, seeds of other crop etc.

2) To obtain restricted / uniform sized seeds for quick planting.

3) To remove weeds seeds to avoid introduction to new areas and to reduce the competition between
weeds and crops plants.

4) Dry the seeds to optimum level of moisture content to maintain their vigour and viablity

5) To treat seeds with protectancts to avoid damage by insects and microbs.

6) Packing and labeling to avoid miss handling of seeds during seed storage and transportation.
Operations in seed processing:
Seed processing are done in separate unit which are registered under seed act 1996. This includes many
steps using different operations either manually or mechanically. This steps will help to handle the seeds
in a easier way without damaging the physical and genetic purity of seeds.
Steps of Seed processing:
1) Receiving counter
2) Weighing sampling and labeling
3) Drying (if necessary)
4) Pre-conditioning and pre-cleaning
5) Basic cleaning and grading
6) Seed sampling for testing
7) Seed treating and packing
8) Labeling and storage
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Flow chart of seed flow in seed processing unit

Physical characteristics used to separate seeds are;

1. Size : Based on size it can be separated with air screen cleaner cum grader
2. Length : Disc or indented cylinder separator
3. Weight : Specific gravity separator
4. Shape : Spiral separator or draper separator for round and flat seeds
5. Surface texture : Rough from smooth surface seed- dodder mill
6. Colour : Electronic colour separator
7. Electrical conductivity: Seed differing in their ability to conduct electrical charge can be
separated with electronic separator.
8. Affinity to liquid: The seed coat of seed will absorb water, oils etc., which provides a means of
separating seed on the magnetic separator.

Fig. Seed cleaning machine/ grading machine used in seed processing unit
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

1. Seed drying and Pre cleaning;

Seeds once received are labeled and are identified with seed lot number. Based on the seed
moisture content drying will be taken up or stored in the unit until it is processed. MC of the seeds are
more than the optimum seeds are dried before cleaning. Below table will illustrate the level seed
moisture content for drying before cleaning;
Crop Moisture content
Cereals >12%
Pulses/legumes >9%
Oilseeds <7 %
Vegetables >7 %

Seeds with optimum moisture content they are pre-conditioned and pre-cleaned to avoid
mechanical damage to the seeds and to increase the efficiency of cleaning machines. Commonly pre-
cleaning machines used are scalpers, debearders, huller-scarifier, buckhorn, maize sheller etc. This will
remove trash, stones, clods, etc., No pre-cleaning is usually required on hand harvested and winnowed
seed lots. Once pre-conditioned is completed by removing clods and extra glumes in crops like fodder
and carrot seeds are cleaned further to remove undesirable materials based on the physical properties of
seeds.
2. Seed Cleaning
This process will remove inert matter, weed seeds and other crop seeds based on the seed size, density
and shape. This cleaning process is done by using Air Screen Cleaner which operates with three
principles;
1. Aspiration by suction air - removal of light particles from the mass of seed. Aspiration can be
before or after screening - or both before and after.
2. Scalping – larger materials bigger than the seeds are removed. Seeds are dropped through screen
3. Fine cleaning/grading – good seeds ride over screen and removal of oversized and undersized
seeds, cut, shriveled, broken seeds and other particles. The cleaned seed goes into the outlet for
bagging or further processing.
The screens in scalping and fine cleaning should be changed and adjusted as per the seed physical
properties. After cleaning it is mandate to clean the whole air screen cleaner before next use to avoid
physical admixture with other crop seeds.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Air Screen Cleaner

Adjustments;
• Flutted roller: The speed of this roller can be adjusted so as to increase (or) decrease the flow of
seeds the hopper to the sieves.
• Slope (or) inclination of the screen: The angle of inclination of the screens can be adjusted
according to nature of seeds.
• Rate of vibration of sieve : This can be adjusted either to increase or to decrease the speed of the
rolling seeds on the screen.
• Volume of air flow: By increasing (or) decreasing the air inlet.
• Choice of screens: According to variety we have to change the screen
• Screen dams: Small check dams, which can be provided here and there on the screens so that the
seeds can be stopped a while and takes the charge either to pass or to roll.
3. Grading- Upgrading
Cleaned seeds has to be graded for further maintenance of the seed quality, cleaning of seeds is
basically done based on the seed length and width. This will includes impurities with similar size as that
of seeds like, unfilled, immature, undeveloped seeds which has direct impact on seed germination and
planting value. Seed germination of the lot can be improved by grading of seeds based on the specific
physical character.
Commonly used upgrading machines are:
1. Specific gravity separator
2. Disc separator
3. Indent cylinder
4. Colour sorter
5. Spiral separator
Grading of seeds will not only improve the germination or physical purity but also seed longevity.
To deliver good quality seeds with high vigour and to meet minimum seed standards grading is followed.
Among different grading machineries Specific Gravity Separator is most commonly used grading
machine which works on the principle that it takes advantage of the difference in size , shape and
specific gravity of particles.
The actual separation takes place in two steps . The first is in the vertical direction by stratification of
the seeds and the second is in the horizontal direction by the table motion and gravity. Both of these
actions take place at the same time all across the deck of the separator to give a continuous grading of
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

material till it leaves the table. The stratification of material is accomplished by air being blown thru the
porous deck and in effect floating the light material away from the heavies.
The second step, the separation in the horizontal direction, is accomplished by gravity and by the
deck motion. The deck of the machine is slanted in two directions; from the feed zone up to the heavy
end discharge and from the feed zone down to the discharge edge. This slanting of the deck allows the
light material floating in air to flow downhill by gravity , while the table motion conveys the heavy
materials , in contact with the deck, uphill.

Figure. Deck load should appear when properly stratified.

Adjustments to be made to increase the efficiency of machine and to reduce the rejection loss are;
1. Feed rate 2) Air flow 3) End slope 4) Side slope 5) Deck oscillation speed
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Different Upgrading equipments and their use

• Sound seeds may be distinguished from inert matter, sterile and empty seeds
by size and shape, specific gravity, colour and surface texture.
• Processing has well been mechanized and based on the physical characters of
seed, separate machines are available for grading and upgrading, and these
machines can be used either singly or in combination.

Physical characteristics of seed and the processing equipments available for

grading
1 Size : Based on size it can be separated with air screen cleaner
cum grader

2. Length : Disc or indented cylinder separator

3. Weight : Specific gravity separator

4. Shape : Spiral separator or draper separator for round and flat

seeds

5. Surface texture : Rough from smooth surface seed-dodder roll mill

6. Colour : Electronic colour separator

7. Electrical : Seed differing in their ability to conduct electrical charge

conductivity can be separated with electronic separator

Materials separated during processing

• The second stage of cleaning is carried out with air blasts and vibrating screens
and is applicable to all kinds of seeds.
• It is essentially the same as scalping but more refined.
• It is performed mostly by one machine known as air-screen cleaner.

1. Air screen cleaner

• This is the most important machine of every cleaning plant.
• It uses screens and aspiration (air blow) for two separations (Fig.1).
• A coarse upper screen removes larger material, a lower fine screen stops the
seeds and lets through fine matter and then the seed fraction passes through a
transverse or nearly vertical air stream which can separate light impurities such
as empty or partly filled seeds, husks and glumes from the seed.
• In most cases a number of sieves with different sized perforations are used and
the cleaning is a process of gradually shifting out smaller particles.
• Factors which determine the quality and quantity of seed cleaned include
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

1. size of the perforations,

2. the precision of the perforation,
3. the angle at which the sieves operate,
4. the amplitude and speed of movement of the sieves and
5. correct cleaning and maintenance of the equipment.

Introduction
• Seed lots require further cleaning treatment to remove adulterants that are
similar to pure seed in size and shape, to be separated by air screen cleaner.
• Removal of seeds larger or smaller than required size (sizing) and removal of
cracked, damaged or otherwise defective seeds (grading) is accomplished in this
final stage of processing.

1. Specific gravity separation

• This method makes use of a combination of weight and surface characteristics
of the seed to be separated.
• The principle of floatation is employed here.
• A mixture of seeds is fed onto the lower end of a sloping perforated table.
• Air is forced up through the porous deck surface and the bed of seeds by a fan,
which stratifies the seeds in layers according to density with the lightest seeds
and particles of inert matter at the top and the heaviest at the bottom.

• An oscillating movement of the table causes the seeds to move at different rates
across the deck.
• The lightest seeds float down under gravity and are discharged at the lower
end, while the heaviest ones are kicked up the slope by contact with the
oscillating deck and are discharged at the upper end.
• This machine separates seeds of the same density but of different size and
seeds of the same size but of different densities

2. Indented cylinder
• This helps to separate seeds according to the length.
• The equipment consists of a slightly inclined horizontal rotating cylinder and a
movable separating trough.
• The inside surface has small closely spaced hemispherical indentations.
• Small seeds are pressed into the indents by centrifugal force and can be
removed.
• The larger seeds flows in the centre of the cylinder and is discharged by gravity

3. Magnetic Separator
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

• The magnetic separator separates seed according to its surface texture or

related seed characteristics.
• First, seed is treated with iron filings, which adhere to rough surface alone.
• The treated seed lot is passed over a revolving magnetic drum and separated
from smooth, uncoated seed.
• It may help to add varied amounts of water while mixing seed and powder,
depending on the seed type.
• At any rate , the effectiveness of magnetic separation depends on the
components of the seed lot and on the powder and water used in the treating
operation.
• The greater the difference between surface textures of the seed lot’s
components, more effective will be the separation.

4. Colour Separator
• The colour separator is used to separate discoloured seed, greatly of lower
quality.
• Separation based on colour is necessary because the density and dimensions of
discoloured seed are the same as those of sound seed, so other machines are not
effective for separation.
• Electronic colour separation uses photocells to compare the seed colour with
“background” which are selected to reflect the same light as the good seed.
• Seed that differs in colour is detected by the photo cells, which generate an
electric impulse.
• The impulse activates an air jet to blow away the discoloured seed.

5. Friction Cleaning
• The air-screen combinations cannot remove debris that has a size and density
similar to the seeds.
• However, if the debris has a different surface texture, it may be possible to
remove by friction cleaning.
• Any object rolling or sliding over a sloping surface encounters a certain friction
depending on the texture of itself and that of the sloping surface.
• Separation is made on a velvet cloth or rubber belt with variable inclination,
which ensures that the slope necessary for the run off of the seed is different from
the slope necessary for run -off of the debris.
• The belt continuously moves upwards and removes the debris while the seeds
roll down the slope.

6. Spiral Separator
• The separator, which classifies seed according to its shape and rolling ability,
consists of sheet metal strips fitted around a central axis in the form of a spiral.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

• The unit resembles an open screw conveyor standing in a vertical position.

• The seed is introduced at the top of the inner spiral.
• Round seeds roll faster down the incline than flat or irregularly shaped seeds,
which tend to slide or tumble.
• The orbit of round seed increases with speed on its flight around the axis, until
it rolls over the edge of the inner flight into the outer flight where it is collected
separately.
• The slower moving seed does not build up enough speed to escape from the
inner flight. Most spirals have multiple inner flights arranged one above the other
to increase the capacity

7. Liquid flotation
• Cleaning by flotation relies on the principle that the density of the seed of a
given species is specific both for filled and ill filled seed. In this method, liquids
with a density or specific gravity between that of the full and empty seed are used.
• The specific gravity of the liquids used is such that the full seed sinks and the
empty seed and light debris float.

The following factors to be taken in to consideration when designing a seed – cleaning

plant:
1. Handling and cleaning of the seeds should be possible without mixing or
damaging seed with a minimum of equipment, personnel and time.
2. Seed separators, elevators, conveyors and storage bins should be arranged so
that seeds can flow continuously from beginning to end, yet be flexible enough
to bypass a machine or return part for recleaning.
3. Other factors to be considered are kinds of crop seeds to be cleaned, nature of
contaminants and weed seeds, volume of seed to be handled, method of
handling, type of conveying system and location of shipping and receiving
facilities

Cleaning usually requires a succession of operations, which can be regarded as

proceeding in three stages
1. Conditioning or pre-cleaning,
2. Basic cleaning and
3. Separation and grading.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

PNEUMATIC AND ASPIRATORS:

• Pneumatic and aspirators use the movement of air to divide seeds according to their
terminal velocities. Terminal velocities refer to the velocity of air required to suspend
particles in rising air current.
• In pneumatic separator, the fan is placed at the intake end of the machine, which creates
higher pressure than the atmospheric pressure. The higher-pressure air blast separates the
materials. The mixture of products is introduced into a confined rising air stream, the
particles with low terminal velocities are lifted by the air current where as the particles
with higher terminal velocities than air velocity fall down. The velocity can be adjusted
by altering the speed of fan or by changing the opening of air inlet.
• The aspirator separator has a fan at the air discharge point, which creates a vacuum or
negative pressure within the machine. The scalping separator is a type of aspirator
separator in which rough separation is performed. The mixture of the grain is dropped
into a rising air column, which has a velocity slightly lower than the terminal velocity of
the heavy grains. The leaves, trash and lighter particles rise with the air and are deposited
in an enlarged setting chamber.
• The fractionating separator is another type of separator. The mixture of grain is fed into
the lower end of an expanding air column, the heavy grains fall against the airflow while
the lighter particles are lifted. The grains with high terminal velocity are dropped in the
expanding column. The lighter fractions of grains are discharged as per the relative
weight through different out-let positioned in th column. Thus the mixture is separated
into various fractions.
GRAVITY OR WEIGHT SEPARATOR:

• The gravity separator employs a flotation principle in which seeds are vertically stratified
in layers on the desk according to density and this separator which works on two
principles, (1) the characteristics of grains to flow down over an inclined surface, (2) the
flotation of the particle due to upward movement of air.
• Seeds of same size are stratified and separated by differences in their specific gravity and
size. The oscillating movement of the table ‘walks’ the heavy seeds in contact with the
desk uphill, while the air floats the light seeds downhill.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

• The mixture of grains is fed into the seed box. The air is blown up through the porous
deck surface and bed of the grain by a fan at such rate that the material is partially lifted
from contact with the desk surface. The lightest materials re lifted to the top of the
stratified mass, the heavier particles are not lifted by the air and the stratified mass moves
along the direction of conveyance due to oscillation motion of the desk and discharged at
the right edge of desk.
SPIRAL SEPARATOR:

• The spiral separator makes a division of seeds according to shape, or degree of its ability
to roll. The separator resembles a stationary, open-screw conveyor standing on end.
• A mixture, fed onto the spiral at the top, slides or rolls down the inclined surface.
• The fast rolling seeds gain speed and thrown by centrifugal force into an outer housing,
which directs them to a chute below while slow rolling seeds or the non-round materials
are remain on the inner inclined surface and enter a second chute at the bottom.
• There is no moving part in the spiral separator. The rate of feeding is the only adjustable
component.
• The main limitation of the spiral is lack of flexibility. This device is less versatile as
compared to other mechanical cleaners, but it is simple, inexpensive and quite useful for
seed cleaning purposes.
INDENTED CYLINDER SEPARATOR:

The indented cylinder separators also separate the materials on the basic of relative lengths like
disk separators. It consists of horizontal rotation cylinder which has indents on the inside surface.
The indents are closely spaced and hemispherical in shape. When the mixture of grain is fed into
one end of the cylinder, short grains are picked up by the combined effect of lifting in to the
indent s and centrifugal force. These grains are dropped int and adjustable trough inside the
cylinder near the top of rotation. A screw conveyor is provided in the bottom of the trough which
conveys the material. Generally, the cylinder is kept at slight inclination to facilitate gravity flow
of long grains in the cylinder.

The cylinder with indents of different sizes are available, but the size of all indents in a particular
cylinder is same. For different separation needs, indented cylinder has to be changed.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

The speed of operation cylinder and position of adjustable trough are important adjustments for
obtaining the desired level of separation. Since the centrifugal force helps to handle the grain in
the pocket, it affects the distance traveled by grains before they fall.

The excessive speed will not allow grains to drop from the indents. Too slow speed will not loft
short grains from the mixture. The position of separation edge of the adjustable trough should be
such that it can catch the desired fraction of the dropping grain.

MAGNETIC SEPARATOR:

The magnetic separator performs separation on the basic of surface texture and stickiness
properties of the grain. Since the grains do not contain any free iron, therefore, are not attracted
by the magnet. A selective pretreatment of mixing finely ground iron powder to feed mass is
given. The grain mixture is fed to a screw conveyor or other tumbles and mixes the grain with a
proportioned amount of water. Due to moisture, iron powder adheres to rough, cracked, broken
and sticky seed coats. Moisture does not remain on smooth grains so no iron powder adheres to
smooth surfaced grains.

The grain mixture is fed onto the top of a horizontal revolving magnetic drum, the smooth grains
that are relatively free of powder fall along the drum simply by gravity. The materials with iron
powder are attracted by the magnetic drum and stick to it and are removed by rotary brush or
break in the magnetic field.

Most magnetic separators have two or three revolving magnetic drums operation is series. The
grain mixture is passed over these magnetic drums to increase the efficiency of operation. The
extent of difference in seed coats, amount of water mixed, amount of iron powder and
thoroughness of powder-water mixing operation affect the degree of successful separation by
magnetic separators.

CYCLONE SEPARATOR:

The cyclone separator is a device for collecting the end product in processing operations. It is
most commonly used for collection of dust and wastes during processing of grains. It can also be
used with air screen cleaners to collect light particles, which could be carried, by air steam. The
application of cyclone separator is conveyor. In operation of separator, the air and material both
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

enter the cyclone tangentially at the top of the separator where pressure drop occurs and air
forms a vortex around the center and is delivered out through the top opening. The heavier
materials slide down along the walls of the cyclone and are discharged at the bottom.

In a cyclone separator two forces, the centrifugal force and the weight of the particle act upon a
particles. The centrifugal force can be described as under.

Cf=WV2/gR

Where, Cf: centrifugal force, kg

W: weight of particle, kg

G: acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2

R: radious of rotation, m

DESTONER OF STONE SEPARATOR :

The stone separator is a form of specific gravity separator. It separates the grain mass int two
fractions as per the difference in specific gravity. The mixture is fed onto the center of a
perforated deck. The air coming through the deck from bottom stratifies the materials while the
reciprocating action of the deck separates the heavy particles from the lighter particles.

The heavier materials move towards the top end of the deck whereas the lighter particles are
discharged from the low end of deck, without any middling product. The separation can be
controlled by adjusting the feed rate, slope of the deck, deck vibration and the air flow rate.

INCLINED DRAPER :

The separation by inclined belt draper takes place due to difference in shape and texture of the
material. This technique of separation is used when all other methods fail.

The texture to be separated is fed over the center of an inclined draper belt moving in upward
direction. The round and smooth grains roll or slide down the draper at faster rate than the
upward motion of the belt, and these are discharged in a hopper. The flat shape or rough surfaced
particles are carried to the top of the inclined draper and dropped off into another hopper.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

The belt of different degrees of roughness may be used as a draper for separate materials. If
rolling tendencies of the grain are predorminant, the rough canvas belt may be used. The smooth,
plastic belt may be used in case sliding action is desired for lower fraction. Feed rate, speed of
draper and angle of inclination are other important variables for effective separation of dissimilar
materials.

The feed rate is kept low enough to give opportunity to each grain for separation. The speed of
the draper may be varied to simulate with the lengh of incline. The angle of inclination is
adjusted to assure rolling or sliding of the desired lower fraction.

To increase the capacity of the separator, number of belts may be used one above another in a
single machine.

VELVET ROLL SEPARATOR:

The velvet roll separator or roll mill separates grains on the basic of differences in shape and
surface texture. It is a finishing machine and should be used only after cleaning and separation of
grain from the chaff and trash. It is effective in separating grain with a rough seed coat or sharp
angles from smooth surface grain.

The separator consists of two parallel inclined rolls covered with velvet cloth and placed side in
contact with velvet cloth and placed side by side in contact with velvet cloth and placed side by
side in contact with each other. The rollers rotate in opposite directions. An adjustable curved
shield is provided just above the rollers.

The mixture to be separated is fed onto the upper and of the rollers. As the rollers rotate, the
smooth grains bounce down the inclined trough and discharged at the lower end of the machine.
The rough surfaced grains or the grains having sharp or broken edges are caght in the velvet.
These grains are thrown up against the shield and take a bouncing path between shield and
rollers and are finally thrown over the sides.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

For achieving desired separation, adjustments can be made in feed rate, speed of rollers,
characteristics of cylinder roughness and roll inclination. To increase the capacity of machine,
the number of roll pairs one above another can be increased.

COLOUR SEPARATOR:

The colour separator separate the fruits, vegetables of grains due to difference in colour or
blightness. The colour separators are generally used for larger crop seeds like peas and beans.
These seeds differ in colour because of varietal differences and also due to immaturity or disease.
The mud balls and discoloured or defective seeds can be removed with the help of electronic
separator.

The grain mixture is fed uniformly in to the optical chamber of the separator. Two photo cells are
fixed at a particular angle which direct both beams to one point of the parabonic trajectory of the
grains. A needle is placed on the other side which is connected to a high voltage souce. When a
beam falls on a dark object through photoelectric cells, current is generated on the needle. The
needle end receives a charge and imparts it to dark seeds. The grains are then passed between
two electrodes with a high potential difference between bhem. The seed is compared with a
selected background or colour range, and is separated into two fractions according to difference
in colour. Sonce each grain is viewed individually by this machine,the capacity is low.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

SEED TREATMENT
What is a seed treatment?

Seed treatment is a biological, chemical, mechanical or physical process designed to

mitigate externally or internally seed or soil borne micro organisms, resulting in the
emergence of healthy seedling and subsequently a healthy plant. Seeds may be treated to
promote good seedling establishment, to minimize yield loss or to maintain and improve
quality and to avoid further spread of pathogens.
Seed treatments are defined as chemical or biological substances that are applied to
seeds or vegetative propagation materials to control disease organisms, insects, or other pests.
Seed treatment pesticides include bactericides, fungicides, and insecticides. Most seed
treatments are applied to true seeds, such as corn, wheat, or soybean, which have a seed coat
surrounding an embryo. However, some seed treatments can be applied to vegetative
propagation materials, such as bulbs, corms, or tubers (such as potato seed pieces).
Seed treatment

Objectives of seed treatment

• Protection against seedborne and soilborne pathogens
• Protection of emerging seedlings from damage by herbicides
• Physical treatments to control deep-seated pathogens including viruses.
• Stimulation of germination and/or enhancement of growth during seedling stage by
application of nutrients.
• Speedy establishment of beneficial microorganisms on the roots for fixing
nitrogen, enhancing nutrient uptake or stimulating growth by bacteria.
• Making the seeds uniform for sowing by drill. eg. Pelleting

History of seed treatment

Some of the first recorded uses of Seed Treatment are from the Egyptian and Roman
periods and involved a technique of using sap from onion ( Allium spp.). In the middle ages,
Seed Treatments were made with liquid manure and chlorine salts. Salt water treatments have
been used since the mid-1600s and the first copper products were introduced in the mid-
1700s. The “still used today” technology of hot water treatment is documented from as early
as 1765 in Wittenberg, Germany. Seed was placed in 45oC water for 2 hours, this provided
control of certain fungal pathogens on the outer surface of the seed.

A Time of Transition to Modern Seed Treatments

The seed industry is continuously in a time of transition and improvement. Key
milestones in the history of Modern Seed Treatment are the introduction and ban of arsenic
(used from 1740 until 1808), the introduction and ban of Mercury (used from 1915 until
1982). The launch of the first systemic compound in 1960; until then, Seed Treatments had
been only seed sterilants and did not move into the plant. During the 1970’s the first systemic
Seed Treatment fungicides for air-borne pathogens were introduced. In the 1990’s, new
modern classes of fungicide and insecticide chemistry were launched.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Today’s Modern Seed Treatment

The objectives of modern Seed Treatment products are the superior control of certain insects
and diseases while improving crop safety leading to good establishment of healthy and
vigorous plants. Modern Seed Treatment formulations must also contribute to improvements
in farmers’ and workers’ safety and stewardship of the environment.
Based on purpose, the types of seed treatments are
i) Pre sowing
ii) Pre storage and
iii) Mid storage treatments.

PRESOWING TREATMENT

For any crop the time from sowing to seedling establishment is a crucial period in which the
seed is exposed to a wide range of environmental stress that can adversely affect its
performance. The presowing treatments helps the seed to cope with such problems .The
presowing treatments are classified as the following :
Pre sowing Treatment
i..Dormancy breaking treatments
1. Soaking in water
2. Mechanical scarification
3. Acid scarification
4. Bio scarification
5. Scorching
6. Warm stratification
7. Cold stratification
8. Electrical seed treatment
ii. Germination augmenting treatments
1. Seed fortification/infusion
2. Dry permeation
3. Seed hardening
4. Seed priming
5. Humidification
6. Irradiation
7. Magnetic seed treatment
iii. Seed coating treatments
1. Seed pelleting
2. Seed coating / film coating
3. Seed colouring
4. Fluid drilling or gel seeding
iv. Seed protection treatments
1. Biological seed treatment
2. Seed dressing
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Benefits and Risks/ Importance of seed treatment

Seed treatments are used on many crops to control a variety of pests. Seed treatments
are commonly used to ensure uniform stand establishment by protecting against soil borne
pathogens and insects. In fact, they are considered so essential for corn stand establishment
that virtually all corn seed is treated. Seed treatments have had phenomenal success in
eradicating seed borne pathogens, such as smut or bunt, from wheat, barley, and oats. Seed
treatments can be used to suppress root rots in certain crops. Finally, some newer systemic
seed treatments can supplement or may provide an alternative to traditional broadcast sprays
of foliar fungicides or insecticides for certain early-season foliar diseases and insects.
Although seed treatments have important benefits, they also pose certain risks. One risk is
accidental exposure of workers who produce or apply seed treatments. Another risk is
contamination of the food supply by accidental mixing of treated seed with food. or feed
grain. A third risk is accidental contamination of the environment through improper handling
of treated seeds or seed treatment chemicals. All of these risks can be minimized by proper
training and proper use of seed treatment pesticides.

Types of seed treatment: There are two main types of seed treatment.
1. Physical 2. Chemical
1. Physical treatments:
a. Hot water treatment: After pre-soaking, the seed is held in water at a definite temperature,
often a little above 500C and close to the maximal temperature of both pathogen and host for
a definite period of time. Heat appears to be the effective agent.

Table 1. Hot water treatment is commonly used against following diseases.

Crop Disease Casual organism
Wheat Loose smut Ustilago trilici
Barley Loose smut Ustilage nuda
Crucifers Black leg Phoma lingam
Crucifers Black rot Xanthomonas compestris
Celery Black rot Septoria apiicola

This technique can also be used to control parasitic nematodes in rice and stem eelworm,
Ditylenchus dipsaci in lucerne. The treatment is also effective for seed of onion, tomato and
some other vegetables.
b. Anaerobic water treatment: The seed is soaked in water and held under anaerobic
conditions for a time. For instance, barley was efficiently treatment against loose smut by
being soaked in water at 240C and at 280 for 6 hours and then drained and stored in air tight
containers for 42 hours and 31 hours, respectively. With one half of the container filled with
the grain.
c. Dry heat treatment: This has been little used, although different combinations of
temperature have given promising results against certain pathogens. Eg., Colletrotrichum
gessypii in cotton, Puccinia antirrhini in snap dragon while attempts against other fungal
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

pathogens gave negative results. For pre-treatment in seed health testing of oats positive
results were obtained by Malone (1962).
Dry air treatment of tomato seed at 700C for 3-4 days is partly effective against
tobacco mosaic virus, treated seed lots must be treated before being accepted as virus free.
Lettuce mosaic virus can be inactivated by dry air treatment of lettuce seed for 80-120 days
at 550C without material reduction of the germination capacity of the seed.
d. Solar heat treatment (Solar energy method): In countries with a hot climate, grain (wheat
and barley) is pre-soaked in water for 4-5 hours in the shade or in a room and then dried on
ground in thin layers in sum for one hour, usually at noon. The procedure has proved
effective against loose smut of barley and wheat, but has been used only to a limited extent
in practice in India, particularly in the northern areas such as Punjab, where the procedure is
applied mainly in May or June and in Pakistan.
This procedure is also used against smuts on sorghum in Burma, India and Tanzania,
but certainly fungicidal treatment is preferable for this type of smut.
e. Aerated steam treatment: The principle is to treat dry seed moving vapour by pressure
flow. Baker (1969) mentions the following successful treatments.
Treatment
Crop Causal organism Duration
(Temp 0C)
Beat Phoma batae 56 20 min. after humidification
Aster Alternaria tenuis Botrytis cinerea 53 30 min no humidification
Cabbage Alternia brassicae Phoma lingam 56 30 min after humidification
Pursnip Itersonilia pastinacea 45 30 min no humidification
Stock Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. 54 26 min no humidification
Zinnia Alternaria zinniae 57 30 min no humidified
f. Aerobic fermentation (Biological Treatment)
As a regular procedure for separating tomato seeds from the moderated fruit pulp, the mixture is
fermented for 96 hour at 200C, this treatment is effective against the bacterial canker organism
owing to the increase in acid content of the matrix. As a derivative procedure, freshly extracted
seed may be disinfected by soaking in 0.8% acetic acid for 24 hours. If however, alkali is used
for seed extraction, virus infection is not killed.
2. Chemical treatments:
a. Steep water treatment: The seed is soaked in a fungicidal liquid solution or suspension,
for a definite period of time and then drained and dried.
b. Sprinkle treatment: The seed is sprinkled with a fungicidal liquid, solution or suspension
left damp with this for a definite period of time and then dried.
c. Dust treatment: The seed is mixed with a dust fungicide in a mixing device until the seed
is well coated; usually about 2 g of mercurials per kg seed is used. Handling hazards must
be considered.
d. Slurry treatment: The seed is mixed with a dust fungicide in a special treater in which
small calibrated amounts of liquid (5-20 ml/kg grain or seed) are added, thus forming a soap
like slurry to ensure coating without undue wetting.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

e. Wet treatment: The seed is mixed with a relatively small amount of concentrated liquid
(about 100-300 ml/kg of seed). There is no recovery of liquid after treatment, but drying is
necessary.
f. Quick wet (short wet) treatment: The seed is mixed with a relative small quantity of a
concentrated, usually volatile liquid fungicide about 20-40 ml/kg seed), ensuring good
coating. The treated seed usually requires no drying, at least not when it is sown within a
few days.
g. Oil fungicide (panogen) treatment: The seed is mixed with a slightly volatile mercurial
germicide in an oily suspension in extremely small quantities (1-3 ml/kg seed). No
subsequent drying is needed. The process is used also with slightly volatile pesticides other
than panogen Eg. chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide.
h. Fumigation: The seed is treated in an air tight container or chamber for a definite period of
time by use of volatile material, a fungicide, nematicide (or insecticide).
i. Pelleting: Application of a sticker prior to mixing the seed with a dust which may container
pesticides, fertilizers or other suitable materials. The seed is coated first with methacel, a
cellulose acetate sticker in dilute solution and is then agitated with the dust in such a way
that each seed becomes a pellet containing an outer zone of protectant. Sometimes, seed is
treated with a fungicide before pelleting, such as sugar beet seed which is usually steeped in
ethyl mercuric phosphate before the process. The seeding rate is decreased when pelleting
seed is used; consequently there is a bigger demand for high quantity seed than when natural
seed is used.

Seed treatment equipments

The basic principle in any chemical seed treatment is mixing seed and chemical in order to
obtain adequate coating and for some treatments, adequate penetration.
1. The shovel method: The simplest implement for treating seed is the shovel. The seed is
piled on a floor, fungicide dust is scattered over the pile and mixed by portions until even
coating of the seed appears to be obtained. The procedure may also be used with liquids as
in application of formaldehyde to oat seed. The method is primitive, not very efficient and
not without danger to the operators.
2. Stationary upright gravity treater: It is simplest form, homemade treater for small
quantities of seed, consists of a cylinder, usually a metal oil drum, containing a hopper with
a funnel shaped through which a regulated flow of grain falls in the apex of a screen cone to
allow dust to pass through a chute into bags. This gravity feed type is not a efficient in
producing an even mixing as the rotational drum.
3. Hand rotated treater: This is a revolving drum or barrel and is provided with baffles
inside to increase agitation. Homemade treaters are often made from metal drums. The
container may be placed in a diagonal position by which further agitation in rotating is
obtained. The rotary treater should be turned slowly for about 50 revolutions for the seed to
rumble from one end of the container to the other, so as to given even distribution of the
agent. It is suitable for small seed lots of small grain and is general of seed that is not easily
injured. For large seeded legumes and similar kinds of seed, sensitive to damage, this
procedure might be unsatisfactory. The treater lends itself well to small farming and is
widely recommended.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

4. Dust treater: This type of machine was the first to be developed after World War I as a
consequence of the wider use of copper carbonate in wheat against bunt. The seed is mixed
with the dust in different types of chambers, in rotating drums or by gravity through chutes
provided with baffles. Accurate metering of dust is not providing hence, it can be seen
either with insufficient or excessive coverage of seed at the discharge end of the treater.
Large scale application of dust treatment to seed has inevitably serious disadvantages –
dustiness around the treater and consequently, danger to operators of continual operations.
Most dust is use cause irritation to skin or to the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract.
5. Slurry treater: To overcome difficulties faced in dust use, wettable powders were
developed for slurry application. The dust is applied as heavy suspension in water to the
surface of the seed. The machine is provided with seed and slurry metering devices which
mix the seed and fungicide in calibrated amounts from small buckets drawn on an endless
chain. Slurry machines are adaptable to all types of seed and rates of treating up to 20 q per
hour. Bagging can be done directly because a drying process in unnecessary.
6. Liquid treater: These have been designed for direct (undiluted) application of liquid
preparations such as mercury preparations in concentrated formulations. Eg. Panogen and
ceresin liquid in an ethylene glycol or similar carrier. The machine is provided with an
adjustable hopper to control seed flow, calibration devices for metering seed and fungicide
and an inclined drum with baffles at the discharge and to control the time the seed is retained
in the rotating drum mixing chamber. The capacity of this type is 20 q per hour.
7. Mist treater: This type is a further development of the slurry and liquid treaters in an
attempt to obtain complete coverage of the seed by less volatile preparations. The best
known brand of these machines is the mist-o-matic seed treater. In addition to seed and
fungicide devices the machine is provided with rapidly spinning dishes that break the
fungicide solution into small drop lets, the dispersal of which ensures complete and uniform
coverage when the machine is properly adjusted and used.
8. Spray treater: In this treater the fungicide suspension is introduced through spray nozzles
into the mixing chamber with the seed. This treater type was originally developed for
treatment type was originally developed for treatment of sugar beet seed. The capacity is
near 20 q per hour for small grains.
9. Hot water treaters: The seed is treated in 20 kg to 80 kg loosely woven jute bags, tie3d at
the top. It pre-soaked for a period of 5 hours in water at 210C. The bags are then attached to
an endless belt that slowly passes through a tank of water at 520C. It is held in this tank for
11 min. A false bottom in the tank which moves in the opposite direction to the carrier belt,
forces the water through the loose barley so that it is all equally and evenly heated. The seed
is cooled quickly by immersing the bags in cold water for a few minutes, then placing it on a
draining rack for a short time before moving it to the dryer. The dryer consists of a
rectangular through, measuring 5x5x5x5cm, with wire covered openings in the top, over
which the bags of seed are spread. Warm air, controlled to 350C is forced into the through
and thus up through the seed. The capacity of the hot water unit is 1200 kg/hour and of the
dryer about 360 kg/hour. The operating rates of the latter various with atmospheric
conditions.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Direct Treaters
Direct treaters are the most recent development and include the Panogen and Mist-O-
Matic treaters. These two were initially designed to apply undiluted liquid treatment. Instead
of applying 23 cc of material per 10 pounds of wheat, as in slurry treaters, they apply 14 to
21 cc (1/2 to 3/4 ounces) per bushel of "wheat. This small quantity of material is suitable
only with liquid materials which are somewhat volatile and do not require complete, uniform
coverage for effective action.
Later modifications for direct treaters include dual tanks that permit simultaneous
addition of a fungicide and an insecticide, and adaptations for the application of slurries. The
metering device used in both types of direct treater is similar to that of the slurry treater,
since it is attained through synchronization of a treatment cup and seed dump. Otherwise, the
two direct treaters differ decidedly from the slurry treater and from each other. Both of these
direct treaters have an adjustable dump pan counter weight to adjust the weight of the seed
dump. This is not practical with slurry treaters.
Panogen Seed treater: The operation of the Panogen treater is relatively simple. A small
treatment cup, operating from a rocker arm directly off the seed dump pan and out of a small
reservoir, meters one cup of treatment with each dump of the seed pan. Fungicide flows
through a tube to the head of the revolving drum seed mixing chamber. It flows in with seed
from the dumping pan and is distributed over the seed by the rubbing action of the seed
passing through the revolving drum.
The desired treating rate is obtained by the size of the treatment cup and by adjusting
the seed dump weight. Treatment cup sizes are designated by treating rate in ounces and not
by actual size-e.g., the 3/4 ounce cup applies 3/4 ounce (22.5 cc) of treatment per bushel with
six dumps per bushel. The actual size of this cup is approximately 3.75cc.
Mist-O-Matic Seed Treater: The "mist-o-matic" treater applies treatment as a mist directly
to the seed. The metering operation of the treatment cups and seed dump is similar to that of
the "Panogen" treater. Cup sizes are designated by the number of cc's they actually deliver-
e.g., 2 ½ , 5, 10, 20 and 40. The treater is equipped with a large treatment tank, a pump and a
return that maintains the level in the small reservoir from which the treatment cups are fed.
After metering, the treatment material flows to a rapidly revolving, fluted disc mounted
under a seed-spreading cone. The disc breaks droplets of the treatment solution into a fine
mist and sprays it outward to coat seed falling over the cone through the treating chamber.
Just below the seed dump are two adjustable retarders designed to give a continuous flow of
seed over the cone between seed dumps. This is important since there is a continuous misting
of material from the revolving disc. The desired treating rate is obtained through selection of
treatment cup size and proper adjustment of the seed dump weight.

Integrated Pest Management

Seed treatments should be considered as tools in an integrated pest management (IPM)

plan. IPM is the use of a combination of cultural practices, host resistance, biological control,
and chemical control methods to simultaneously (1) minimize economic losses due to pests,
(2) avoid development of new pest biotypes that overcome pesticides or host resistance, (3)
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

minimize negative effects on the environment, and (4) avoid pesticide residues in the food
supply. An IPM plan should identify important pests, determine pest management options,
and blend together various management options to achieve the goals listed above. To use
seed treatments effectively, it is important to understand the purposes of seed treatment,
alternatives or supplements to seed treatments, and the various advantages and disadvantages
of seed treatments.

Purposes of Seed Treatment

Control of Seed borne Pathogens Seed borne, disease-causing pathogens may occur on
the surface of seed, hidden in cracks or crevices of seed, or as infections deep inside the intact
seed. These pathogens may be important for three reasons. First, some pathogens do not
survive in soil or crop residue and are dependent on the seed borne phase for survival
between crops. An example is the fungus that causes loose smut of wheat. Second, even if a
pathogen can survive in soil or residue, being seed borne may allow it to get a head start and,
thus, result in more severe disease. An example would be the fungus that causes Septoria leaf
blotch of wheat. Third, seed borne pathogens may hitch a ride to new localities in seed
shipments (such as the fungus that causes Karnal bunt of wheat or the bacterium that causes
black rot of crucifers). Seed treatments can often be used to control pathogens that occur on
or in the seed. The choice of seed treatment may be dictated by whether the pathogen is borne
externally or internally. For example, both systemic and nonsystemic (contact) fungicides can
eliminate surface contamination of wheat seed, by spores of the common bunt fungus.
However, the fungus causing loose smut of wheat is borne within the seed embryo and cannot
be controlled with a contact fungicide. In that case, a systemic fungicide is required to control
the internal pathogen.

Protection of Seeds and Seedlings

Seeds and seedlings are vulnerable to many soil borne and foliar pests. Insects and
pathogens can destroy germinating seeds and young plants, which are relatively tender and
lack food reserves to recover from injuries or to survive extended periods of stress. Examples
of stress include heavy rains, crusted soils, compaction, deep planting, cool soil, very dry
soils, and some post emergence herbicides. Under stressful conditions, a number of
aggressive or even fairly weak pathogens can become active and cause plant population and
yield losses. Seed treatments can protect the seed and seedling from attack by certain insects
and pathogens. Non systemic fungicides or insecticides form a chemical barrier over the
surface of the germinating seed. This barrier protects the germinating seed from chewing
insects, such as wireworms, or soil borne pathogens, such as pythium. Certain systemic seed
treatments can protect aboveground parts from sucking insects, such as aphids, or foliage
diseases, such as rust. Systemic fungicides and biological seed treatments can also protect
young plants from root rot. Although the duration of protection may be limited, a delay in
infection can reduce the losses. For chronic diseases, such as root rots, the earlier that the
infection takes place, the greater will be the damage. Typically, seed treatments will last only
about 10 to 14 days beyond planting, with pesticide breakdown being most rapid under warm,
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

moist conditions. However, certain active ingredients can protect seedlings considerably
longer when applied at the highest labeled rate.

Advantages of seed treatment

 Protects germinating seeds and seedlings against soil and seed borne pathogens/insects.
 Seed germination enhancement.
 Early and uniform establishment and growth
 Enhances nodulation in legume crop.
 Better than soil and foliar application.
 Uniform crop stand, even in adverse conditions (less/high moisture)

Disadvantages of Seed Treatments

 Accidental poisoning. Treated seed looks like food to some animals. Hungry livestock
that find carelessly handled treated seed will probably eat it. Birds, such as pheasants or
quaility, may consume spilled treated seed. Even young children may find and eat
improperly stored treated seed.
 Cropping restrictions. Just like other pesticides, some seed treatments may have
significant grazing or rotation crop restrictions.
 Limited dose capacity. The amount of pesticide that can be applied is limited by how
much will actually stick to the seed. Seed coating technologies are helping to overcome
this limitation, but phytotoxicity may still be a problem.
 Limited duration of protection. The duration of protection is often short due to the
relatively small amount of chemical applied to the seed, dilution of the chemical as the
plant grows, and breakdown of the chemical.
 Limited shelf life of treated seed. Producing excess treated seed is undesirable because
the shelf life of treated seed may be limited. Surplus treated seed cannot be sold for
grain. This is a particularly serious limitation for seeds such as soybean, where seed
germination and vigor decline relatively quickly.
 Phytotoxicity. Pesticide injury to plant tissues is called phytotoxicity. Since seed
treatments must exist in high concentrations on the tender tissues of germinating seeds
and seedlings, they generally have very low phytotoxicity. A few seed treatments are
partly phytotoxic when applied at high rates. Lower germination and/or stunting may
occur if application rates are not carefully controlled. Cracked, sprouted, and scuffed
seeds may be particularly susceptible to toxic effects. A few seed treatments may reduce
the length of the sprout and, therefore, affect the choice of planting depth.
 Worker exposure. In the course of treating and handling large volumes of seed, workers
may be exposed to seed treatment chemicals as aerosols. Inhalation of aerosols and skin
contact with seed treatments must be prevented in the seed treatment process.

Procedure for Seed Treatment

Seed treatment is a term that describes both products and processes. Seed treatment can be
done in one of the following types.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

1. Seed dressing: This is the most common method of seed treatment. The seed is dressed with
either a dry formulation or wet treated with a slurry or liquid formulation. Dressings can be
applied at both farm and industries. Low cost earthen pots can be used for mixing pesticides
with seed or seed can be spread on a polythene sheet and required quantity of chemical can
be sprinkled on seed lot and mixed mechanically by the farmers.
2. Seed coating: A special binder is used with a formulation to enhance adherence to the seed.
Coating requires advanced treatment technology, by the industry.
3. Seed pelleting: The most sophisticated Seed Treatment Technology, resulting in changing
physical shape of a seed to enhance palatability and handling. Pelleting requires specialized
application machinery and techniques and is the most expensive application.
Recommendation of seed treatment for crops
Crop Pest/Disease Seed Treatment Remarks
Sugarcane Root rot, wilt Carbendazim (0.1%) 2 g/kg seed For seed
Trichoderma spp. 4-6 g/kg seed dressing metal
seed dresser /
earthern pots or
polythene bags
are used.
Rice Root rot disease Trichoderma 5-10 g/kg seed (before -do-
transplanting)
other insects/pests Chloropyriphos 3g/kg seed.
Bacterial sheath Pseudomonas fluorescens 0.5% W.P. 10
blight gm/kg.
Root knot nematode Seed soaking in 0.2% of Monocrotophos -do-
for 6 hours
White tip nematode Seed soaking in 0.2% solution of -do-
Monocrotophos
Chillies Anthracnose spp. Seed treatment with Trichoderma -do-
Damping off viride4g/kg, Carbandazim @ 1g/100 g
seed.
Soil borne infection Trichoderma viride @ 2 gm/kg. seed -do-
of fungal disease and Pseudomonas
flourescens, @ 10g/kg,Captan 75 WS @
1.5 to 2.5 g a.i./litre for soil drenching.
Jassid, aphid, thrips Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 10-15 gm a.i./kg
seed
Wilt, Trichoderma spp. @ 4 g/kg. seed For seed
Blight and Root rot dressing metal
Pigeon pea seed
dresser/earthern
pots or
polythene bags
are used.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Pea Root rot Seed treatment with -do-

- Bacillus subtilis
- Pseudomonas fluorescens
Soil application @ 2.5 – 5 kg in 100 kg
FYM or
Carbendazim or Captan 2 g/kg seed
White rot Thiram + Carbendazim 2 g/ kg seed
Carbendazim or Captan 2 g / kg seed
Bhendi Root knot nematode Paecilomyces -do-
lilacinus andPseudomonas fluorescens @
10 g/kg as seed dresser.
Tomato Soil borne T. viride @ 2 g/100gm seed. For seed
infection of fungal Captan 75 WS @ 1.5 to 2.0 g a.i./litre for dressing metal
disease soil drenching. seed
Early blight Pseudomonas fluorescens and V. dresser/earthern
Damping off clamydosporium @ 10g/kg as seed pots or
Wilt dresser. polythene bags
are used.
Coriander Wilt Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg seed. -do-
Brinjal Bacterial wilt Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg. -do-
Leguminous Soil borne infection Trichoderma viride @ 2 gm/100g seed. -do-
Vegetables Nematode Carbofuran/Carbosulfan 3% (w/w)
Sunflower Seed rot Trichoderma viride @ 6 g/kg seed. -do-
Jassids, Whitefly Imidaclorprid 48FS @ 5-9 g a.i. per kg
seed
Imidacloprid 70WS @ 7 g a.i. per kg seed
Wheat Termite Treat the seed before sowing with any one For seed
of the following insecticides. dressing metal
Chlorpyriphos @ 4 ml/kg seed or seed dresser /
Endosulfan @ 7ml / kg seeds earthern pots or
Bunt/False Thiram 75% WP polythene bags
smut/loose Carboxin 75 % WP are used
smut/covered smut Tebuconazole 2 DS @ 1.5 to 1.87 g a.i. per
kg seed.
T. viride 1.15 % WP @ 4 g/kg.
Cruciferous vegetables Soil / Seed treatment with Trichoderma viridi @
(Cabbage, Cauliflower, Seed borne diseases 2 g / 100 g seeds
Broccoli, Knol-khol, (Damping off) Captan 75% WS @ 1.5 to 2.5 g a.i./litre -do-
radish) for soil drenching.

Pseudomonas fluorescens and Verlicillium

Root knot nematode clamydosporium @ 10g/kg seed as seed
dresser.
Gram Wilt and damping off Seed treatment with Trichoderma
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

viridi 1% WP @ 9 g/kg seeds

Combination of Carbendazim with
Carbosulfan @ 0.2% Carbendazim with
Thiram with Carbosulfan @ 0.2%
Treat the seed with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
@ 15-30 ml a.i./kg seed.
Potato Soil and Tuber borne Seed treatment with MEMC 3% WS @
diseases 0.25% or boric acid 3% for 20 minutes
before storage.
Barley Loose smut Carboxin 75% WP
Covered smut Thiram 75% WP @ 1.5 to 1.87 gm a.i./kg
Leaf stripe seed.
Termite Treat the seed with Chlorpyriphos @ 4
ml/kg seed.
Capsicum Root knot nematode Pseudomonas fluorescens 1% WP,
Paecilomyces lilacirius and Verticillium
chlamydosporium 1% WP @ 10g/kg as
seed dresser.

Category of seed treatment chemicals

1 Inorganic copper compounds Copper, sulphate, copper sulphate, copper oxalate, copper dry
chloride

2 Inorganic sulphur compounds Lime sulphur, wettable sulphur and sulphuric acid

3 Inorganic mercuric compounds Mercuric chloride

4 Inorganic silver compounds Silver nitrate

5 Formaldehyde compounds Formaldehyde

6 Organic mercuric compounds Methyl, ethyl, phenyl and methy ethyol groups

7 Organic sulphur compounds Thiram

8 Phenyl groups Quinous, chlorinol

9 Polychlorobenzene group Methyl bromide

10 Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds captan

Types of fungicidal and insecticidal seed treatments

1. Seed disinfection
2. Seed disinfestation
3. Seed protectants
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

1. Seed disinfection
It refers to the eradication of fungal spores that have become established with in the seed coat
(or) in more deep seated tissues. For effective control, the fungicidal treatments must be
penetrate the seed in order to kill the fungus that is present.

2. Seed disinfestation
It refers to the destruction of surface borne organisms that have contaminated the seed surface
but not infected the seed surface. Application of chemicals through chemical dips, soaks, and
fungicides applied as dust, shiny or light have been found successful.

3. Seed protection
The main purpose is to protect the seed and young seedlings from organisms in the soil,
which might otherwise cause decay of the seed before germination.

Study questions:
1. What are the different fungicides and insecticides available for seed treatment?
2. List out the designated diseases for seed standards of major horticultural crops?
3. Differentiate between seed infection and infestation.
4. Write the difference between seed film coating and seed pelleting?
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

PRESOWING TREATMENT

Dormancy Breaking Treatments

i) Soaking in water: It refers to soaking of seeds in cold or hot water for a period ranging
from few hours to several days. It is intended to break physical or chemical dormancy. In
case of cold water soaking, seeds are soaked in cold water for one to three days; but once in
12 h water should be changed to avoid fermentation. Sometimes seeds can be soaked in
running water for a day to leach out the inhibitors eg., coumarin in coriander; hydrocyanic
acid in sunflower.
In case hot water treatments, seeds should be soaked in boiled water just removed
from the heat source for one to 80 minutes. Physical dormancy caused by hard seed coat is
overcome by softening of the seed coat. Chemical dormancy caused by presence of inhibitors
is overcome by leaching of the inhibitors.

ii) Mechanical scarification: This denotes rubbing or aberration of seeds against hard
surface.It is done to partially damage the hard seed coat.
Mode of action: During the scarification the seed coat is aberrated thereby the hard seed coat
is made permeable to water.
iii) Acid scarification: Treating the seeds in sulphuric acid for a pre- standardized duration.
It is done in order to overcome physical dormancy caused by hard seed coat
It is done by soaking the seeds in concentrated or diluted sulphuric acid for a pre-
standardized duration with often stirring and washing the seeds for 5-10 minutes to remove
all traces of acid. Shade dry the seeds.

iv) Bioscarification: It is subjecting the seeds to pretreatment by making use of animals and
microorganisms as an important factor in the breakdown of seed coat impermeability. It is
done to break down seed coat impermeability.
a) Animals: Pods of Acacia nilotica are fed to penned sheep or goats and the seeds are
collected from the droppings. The combination of moisture, warmth and chemical action of
the digestive juices softens the hard seed coat and it become permeable.
b) Insects: Termites are an important agent for breaking down seed coat dormancy in many
parts of tropics as it feed and remove the exocarp eg. Terminalias.

v.)Stratification: It is a method of exposing imbibed seeds to higher temperatures for a

period of time. It is done to overcome mechanical and morphological dormancy. Soak the
seeds in several times of their volume of cold water at approximately 3-5°C for 48 h. Drain
off the water and mix the seeds with two to four times their volume of a moistened, water
retained medium such as sand, sand peat mixture or vermiculite. Store at a warm temperature.
A constant temperature of 20-25°C or alternating temperature of 20°C and 30°C is suitable
for many species. Open the containers weekly, mix seeds and if surfaces show signs of
drying, remoist with water spray. Periods of treatment vary form 2 weeks to 16 weeks
depending on species.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

vi) Cold stratification: It is a method of exposing imbibied seeds to lower temperatures for a
period of time. It is done to overcome physiological dormancy. Seeds should be soaked in
several times their volume of water before prechilling, at 3-5°C for 48 h. After soaking, the
water is drained off and moist seeds are stored at 3-5°C for the period appropriate to each
species. Storage may be without any medium i.e. seeds as such or the seeds may be mixed
with 2-4 times its volume of a medium such as moist sand, peat or a mixture of these two.
Containers shall be opened and mixed if surfaces dry off. eg., Abeis spp, Eucalyptus
delegatensis etc.

Germination augmenting treatments

i) Seed fortification/infusion: It is the process of enriching the seeds with bioactive
chemicals for improving the germination and seedling vigour. To the known volume of seeds
one third volume of the nutrient solution is added and allowed to imbibe for short duration.
The imbibed seeds should be dried under shade.

ii) Dry permeation: It is soaking of seeds in organic solvents like acetone, petroleum ether
and dichloromethane containing desired hormonal and non hormonal chemicals for 2-3 h
followed by evaporation of the solvent in air. It is an approach to improve germinability and
vigour of the seed by infusion of bioactive chemicals into the seed without altering seed
moisture content.

iii) Seed hardening : It is the process of hydrating the seed to initiate the pre-germinative
metabolism followed by dehydration which fixes the biochemical events. It is done in order
to impart resistance against stress conditions viz., drought and cold, to the emerging seedlings
Seeds or grains are allowed to take up a certain amount of water, and then they are kept
moist at 100 - 250C for several hours before drying in a steam of air. The best results can gain
in two - three cycles of wetting and drying, although for some one cycle is sufficient.
Different amounts of water are recommended for different species and cultivars of seed or
grain.

iv) Seed priming: It is the process of controlled hydration of seeds to a level that permits
pre-germinative metabolic activity to proceed, but that prevents actual emergence of the
radicle. Seeds are soaked in variety of solutes, including solutions of various inorganic salts,
sugars and polyethylene glycol (PEG) a chemically inert, high molecular weight compound
does not penetrate the cell walls. The temperature suggested during priming is between 100 -
150C. The duration of priming varies with the crop.
Heydecker et al (1973) used different terms depending upon the methods adopted for
priming.
1. Osmopriming - Soaking the seeds in osmotic solutions
2. Halopriming - Soaking the seeds in salt solutions
3. Biopriming - Coating the seeds with biological agents like bacteria
4. Solid matric priming - This consists of mixing seeds with an organic or inorganic
carrier and water for a period of time. The moisture content of the matric is brought
to a level just below what is required for radicle protrusion. Seed water potential is
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

regulated by the matric potential of the seed and during priming the water is largely
held by the carrier. Seeds can imbibe water from the carrier till the equilibrium is
reached.
vi) Irradiation: Pre sowing irradiation of the seeds is a novel measure to increase the yield
potential by improving germination and vigour. Air dried seeds are irradiated by using
experimental gamma units. The unit consists of a definite configuration of irradiator such as a
hollow cylinder or a linear or flat irradiator and maintaining an accurate time exposure for
conducting the experiment.
In the process of the growth and development of plants raised from irradiated seeds,
beginning from seedling emergence and ending with the ripening, there appears new, quite
diverse changes manifested in the acceleration of the cell division rate, enhancement of
growth and development, change of organogenesis, yield increase and its quality change, ie.,
there emerges a very complicated sequence of changes which has been termed as the effect of
distant irradiation action.

vii) Magnetic seed treatment: It is a simple treatment which involves exposure of seeds to a
magnetic field to improve germination and vigour for specified duration. Magnetically treated
seeds respire slowly but register higher respiration quotient values with increased enzyme
activity viz., α -amylase and nitrate reductase
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seed testing

Definition-Seed testing

Seed testing is the science of evaluating the planting value of seeds that has been
developed to achieve certain objectives for minimizing the risks of planting low quality
seeds. It is the ‘hub’ of seed improvement programs.

• Seed testing is the cornerstone of all other seed technologies.

• It is the means by which we measure the viability and all the physical factors that
regulate the use and maintenance of seeds. Everything that is done with seeds
should have some test information to guide the work and ensure high quality.

• Seed tests tell if a crop of seeds is worth collecting, if handling procedures are
correct, and how many potential seedlings are available for regeneration.
• Seed testing is the science of evaluating the planting value of seed.
• Seed quality in India is legally controlled by the Seed Act, 1966.
• The seed Act is enforced by Govt. of India through the Central Ministry of
Agriculture and Co-operation and State Department of Agriculture. According to
this Act all the seeds of notified varieties / kinds when sold to farmers must meet
the minimum standard of germination, genetic purity and physical purity.
• The seed should be packed in a suitable container and a label has to be affixed on
the container. Information about germination, physical purity, variety, date of
test and name of the seed producer has to be given on the label.
• The germination as given on the label is valid for 9 months and after which it has
to be revalidated.
Objectives of seed testing

1. To determine their quality, that is, their suitability for planting.

2. To identify seed quality problems and their probable cause.
3. To determine the need for drying and processing and specific procedures that
should be used.
4. To determine if seed meets established quality standards or labelling
specifications.
5. To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination
among lots in the market.

Brief history of seed testing

International

• Organized seed testing started more than a hundred years ago as to avoid
unscrupulous practices prevalent in the seed trade during the nineteenth century.
The first lab for seed testing was established in Thrandt, in Saxony, Germany, in
1869 under the direction of Frederick Nobbe.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

• A few years later in 1871, a seed testing laboratory was opened in Copenhagen,
Denmark, under the direction of E. Moller Holst.
• Seed testing spread rapidly in Europe during the next twenty to thirty years.
• At the beginning of the twentieth century (1900) about 130 seed testing stations
were operating in Europe.
• In the United States, the first seed testing laboratory was opened in 1876.
• In India, the first seed testing station was established in 1961.

International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)

• As seed testing developed, it necessitates for the establishment of common

methods of testing that would secure uniformity in evaluation and test results.
This leads to the formation of the International Seed Testing Association in 1924.
• The primary object of ISTA is to develop, adopt and publish standard procedures
for sampling and testing seeds, and to promote uniform application of them for
the evaluation of seeds moving in the international seed trade. In addition, it also
promotes research in all aspects of seed science and technology, including
sampling, testing, storing, processing and distribution, ISTA, developed the
International Rules for Seed Testing based upon scientific evidence.
• The ISTA Rules for testing seeds are followed by its member countries. In
carrying out seed testing work. The introduction of the International Seed
Analysis Certificate, widely used in the international seed trade, is another
important achievement.

Association of Official Seed Analysis (AOSA)

• The need for standardization of seed testing methods led to the formation of an
organization in 1908, then known as Association of Official Seed Analyst of North
America. The basic objectives of AOSA are to develop, adopt and publish rules for
testing seeds, and to encourage research in seed technology.

Seed Testing Laboratory

• The seed testing laboratory is the hub of seed quality control. Seed testing
services are required from time to time to gain information regarding planting
value of seed lots. To carry out these responsibilities effectively, it is necessary
that seed testing laboratories are established, manned and equipped in a manner
such that whatever samples are received could be analysed in the least possible
time, so that the seed quality control work and the need of seed industry are
effectively met.

Brief History of Seed Testing in India

Seed testing has been in practice since time immemorial. Farmers have developed and
inherited considerable skill to judge the quality of seed by evaluating its physical
characteristics, such as, appearance and smell. However, seed testing principles
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

developed in a fully equipped seed-testing laboratory are used for seed quality
evaluation.

1961- The first Seed Testing Laboratory (STL) was established in India.
1967- The first Seed Testing Manual was published for uniform testing.
There are 102 Officially Notified Seed Testing Laboratories in the country with an
annual testing capacity of about 7.24 lakh seed samples. Uttar Pradesh has maximum of
15 notified STLs whereas Maharashtra has the highest private seed testing labs.
Karnataka state has 7 notified STLs and two ISTA accredited labs in Bangalore and
several private seed companies have also set up seed testing laboratories for their
internal quality control.

Procedure of seed testing

Seed testing procedures evaluate seed lots for all those quality parameters that
determine the value of seed as progenitor of the next crop. Therefore, the procedure for
seed testing is based on standard tests acceptable all over the world, and uses
representative samples from the seed lots under investigation. For uniformity, the
procedure for seed testing is based on International Rules for Seed Testing (ISTA, 1976)
and other publications of the host country issued in support of the standard procedure.
Generally, these tests are performed at the time seed packaging and before the issue of
seed tags. This period generally corresponds to the period just preceding the beginning
of the crop sowing.

Important Component of Seed Testing: The important components of seed testing

include seed sampling, purity analysis (physical and genetic) germination testing,
moisture test, seed health testing and TZ test for viability.

SEED SAMPLING: The main objective of seed sampling is to obtain requisite sample
of suitable size. Some of the terminologies involved in sampling are:

Sample: It is the process of obtaining a sample of required size for test in which the
same constituents are present as in the seed lot and is the same proportion. The sample
is obtained from the seed lot by taking small portion at random from the sealed bags in
the lot and combining them.

Seed lot: A lot is a specific quality of seed, physically identifiable, in respect of which
the analysis report may be issued.

Primary sample: It is a small portion taken from a lot at a particular stage, with the
object of forming a composite sample
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Composite sample: is formed by combining and mixing the entire primary samples
taken from a lot and a part of this sample is sent to laboratory for test.

Submitted sample: A composite sample is usually larger in quality than what is

required for testing and so reduced in quantity for being sent to the testing station, is
called a submitted sample.

Working sample: It is a part taken from the submitted sample in the laboratory, to be
subjected to various quality tests as described in the ISTA rules.

Sampling will be done with the help of seed triers of various lengths by inserting them in
to the seed bags or bins. The intensity of sampling varies with the seed lot size and type
of storage (bin or bag).

Some of the equipments required for seed sampling includes Seed triers of
different sizes and shapes; Seed divider (Gravity, Soil type and Centrifugal/ gamete
type) Seed Sample pans / bags of different sizes and Pan type weighing balance.

Types of samples received at STL

1. Service sample - Sample received from the farmers

2. Certified sample - Sample received from certification agencies or officers
3. Official sample - Sample received from the seed inspectors.

Purity Test

The objective of purity test is to determine the actual proportion of seed in the total
seeds lot that belong to the variety for which testing is being done. In this test the
composition of a seed lot is examined to find out the magnitude of purity or that of
impurity. Purity tests reveal the two features of the seed lot being tested. They are: the
composition of the seed lot expressed in weight by percent and it identifies various
constituents, i.e., seed of the variety under test and the other impurities.

Working procedure: It is based on separation of the various impurities from the bulk
seed and determining their weights relative to the weight of the working sample. Purity
separations are usually done by hand, but mechanical devices, such as blower or
vibrator separators can also be used.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

SEED PURITY EQUIPMENTS: Purity table; Purity work board, Spatula / Forceps,
Purity dishes, Magnifying lens, Fluorescent / UV lamp, Single pan electric balance (up
to 3 decimals) are required for purity test.

Seed Moisture Test

The main purpose of moisture determination of seeds is to prevent loss in seed

viability till it is planted for commercial or other purposes. Moisture test is performed
on the seed sample. Therefore, sample is handled taking full care so that there is no
change in its moisture till the test is over. Normally, such seeds are kept in moisture-
proof containers and are not exposed to the external environment.

SEED MOISTURE ESTIMATING EQUIPMENTS: Seed moisture can be estimated

in two ways viz., rapid method by using moisture meters and hot air oven method.
However, hot air oven method is quite accurate compare to rapid method although it is
time consuming.

I. RAPID ESTIMATION METHOD

1. Electronic moisture meter

2. Universal moisture meter
3. Infrared moisture balance

II. HOT AIR OVEN METHOD

1. Low constant temperature method (103º C for 17 hours)

2. High constant temperature method (130º C for 2 hours)

TZ test for viability

TZ test is a biochemical test and one of the quick methods to predict seed
viability. This test is based on the reaction of 2, 3, 5- tri phenyl tetrazolium chloride
(bromide) salt with dehydrogenase enzyme that is active during respiration in living
tissues of seed and the hydrogen ions so released, reduce tetrazolium chloride to a red
stable substance, ‘formazan’, resulting in the coloring of the tissues. Thus, it makes
possible to distinguish the red colored living tissues of the seed from the colorless dead
ones.

Evaluation of the stained seeds

After the expiry of the staining period, the seeds are removed from the TZ
solution and washed in water 2-3 times properly and evaluated. For evaluating the
legume seeds, their seed coats are removed and the cotyledons are opened, but they
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

should not be separated, other seeds may be evaluated with their seed coat in tact. The
seeds, which were not bisected before staining, are now bisected and one half of the seed
is evaluated. The seeds are classified into germinable and non-germinable groups. The
large seed can be evaluated with naked eyes, but small seeds are evaluated with the help
of magnifying devices. The evaluation is made in the staining dishes with the help of
forceps and needles.

In classifying the stained seed as viable or dead, a seed analyst must understand
the importance of different parts of the embryo, particularly meristamatic tissues and
their role in the growth of a seedling. Some seeds are neither completely dead nor
completely alive, so the evaluation must be based on the different parts of the seed and
the seed as a whole. Injured seeds stain darker then the healthy seeds, so the staining
patterns should be examined critically. However, skill and experience is required in
evaluating the stained seeds.
Advantages of the TZ test
1. Rapid test
2. More reliability
3. Few equipments needed

Disadvantages of the TZ test

1. More time required in seed preparation
2. Skilled workers needed
3. Vague results

Other viability tests:

1. X-Ray test
2. Embryo culture method
3. Potassium permanganate method
4. Indigo carmine method
5. Ferric chloride test

Germination Test
Germination test is done to determine the actual planting value of the seed
produced. A pure seed lot having low germination has no value in crop production.
Therefore, besides purity, germination is considered as the most important attribute
of improved seed. The ideal test for germination would be to sow the seeds in the
field under optimal conditions, but this is usually not done due to the following two
reasons:

 The results of germination test are always required before the optimum sowing
time of the crop
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 The results of germination test should always be reproducible.

Therefore, germination tests are done under controlled and standardized laboratory
conditions. Such tests provide the maximum germination potential of a seed lot but
the field stand is generally lower than that indicated by the laboratory tests because
the field stand is generally lower than that indicated by the laboratory tests because
the field conditions are generally more severe than those in the laboratory.

Seed Germination Tests Requirements: It requires suitable substrate (sand /

soil / paper) that is non-toxic to germinating seeds, adequate moisture, optimum
temperature, adequate light and a germinating cabinet (germinator) or walk in
germinator to regulate these conditions.

Methods of Germination Testing

Germination test may be done on top of paper, between the papers or by using
pleated paper. For germination on top of paper, filter paper or blotter paper is used.
Germination towels are used for seed germination between the papers. The paper
substrates can be placed on Petri plates or trays in germination chamber or in a
room with humidity near saturation. Use of paper towels required less space. Petri
plates needed for germination on top of the paper method. Germination test using
pleated paper is conducted in closed boxes having facility of moisture regulation.
Therefore, this is used for seeds that are pelleted and susceptible to surplus
moisture.

Sand is generally used as substrate in case of larger seeds such as cereals, peas and
beans. The sand particles should neither be too large nor too small and they must fall
within the range of the sieve size 0.8-0.05 mm. The amount of water to be supplied
on the substrate should be such that it does not prevent normal aeration. Generally,
it is 56% of the complete saturation. In case of large-seed legumes, it is 60% of
water-holding capacity of the substrate. Sterile Soil can also be used as substrate,
especially in case of test samples that produce seedlings with phytotoxic symptoms
when germinated in paper or sand. However, it is not recommended for routine
tests.

The germination test conditions like temperature, substrata, additional

treatments, if any to break seed dormancy, seedling evaluation etc. varies from
species to species. Generally we follow ISTA Methods and Rules of seed testing that
are in vogue from time to time.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Evaluation of Germination
After specified time duration that varies according to the species, the seeds placed
under test are observed carefully and classified into different categories, namely, (a)
normal seedlings (b) abnormal seedlings (c) hard seeds (d) fresh ungerminated
seeds, and (e) dead seeds. Seedlings can be divided into normal or abnormal when
they are observed at a development stage in which all the essential structures
become visible and before they run out of their reserve food. Only the normal
seedlings are considered for determination of germination percent.

Genetic Purity Testing

Seeds, Seedlings and Plants are examined to determine the genetic purity of seed
lots. Plants grown with authentic (nucleus or breeder seed) sample in an identical
environmental condition are compared to determine the genetic contamination, if
any. However, the seeds are examined in the laboratory to determine the other
distinguishable varieties (ODV), if any at the time of physical purity test. The tests
adopted to determine the genetic purity are - Grow out test (field / glass house
conditions) and Electrophoresis (biochemical tests).

Seed Health Testing

The object is to determine the health status of the seed sample i.e., whether the
seeds are infected with fungi or not. Seed borne inoculum may give rise to spread of
disease in field and reduce the commercial value of the crop. Further the seeds
imported from out side source may introduce new pests and diseases into new areas.
Therefore, seed health testing is very much required before it is distributed to
farmers. Beside, it also gives information about poor seed germination and field
establishment, possible remedies to improve germination by seed treatment.

Seed Health Testing Methods: Various methods are in vogue to detect seed
borne diseases. We can examine the un-germinated seeds by inspecting dry seed or
by preparing the suspension obtained from washing of seeds or by examining the
sedimentation after washing of seed or even by whole embryo count method.
Secondly, the seeds can also be incubated by various methods viz., Blotter method,
Freezing method, 2,4-D method, Agar plate method, Water agar plate method,
Seedling symptom test etc to observe for disease, if any on germinating seedlings.

References:
Agrawal, P. K., (1983). Handbook of Seed Testing , Published by Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperation, GOI
Anonymous (1996). International Rules for Seed Testing, Published by ISTA, Zurich,
Switzerland
 VARIETAL IDENTIFICATION

1. Grow - Out Test

Objective

To determine the genetic purity status of a given seed lot of the notified
cultivar / hybrid and the extent to which the sample in question conforms to the
prescribed standards.

Field of applicability

Grow-out Test is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the
seed lot. It serves as a pre-control as well as a ‘post-control’ test for avoiding
genetic contaminations. According to the official regulations in India, it is pre-
requisite for seed certification of hybrids of certain species such as cotton, castor,
musk melon and brinjal.

The test is required to be conducted for checking the sellers label with
respect to genetic purity status of the seed lot under the provisions of the seeds
Act 1966. In addition grow-out test can also be used as a measure to judge the
efficacy of the certification agency or the inspector.

Sampling
The samples for ‘Grow-out test shall be drawn simultaneously with the
samples for other seed quality tests in accordance with the prescribed sampling
procedures.
Size of submitted sample

The size of submitted samples shall vary according to the species as exemplified in
this Table.
Recommended size of submitted sample for Grow-out Test

for maize, cotton, groundnut, soyabean and

1,000 g species of other genera with seeds of similar
-
size;

For sorghum, wheat, paddy and species of

500 g - other genera with seeds of similar size;

Beta and species of other genera with seeds

250 g - of similar size;

For bajra, jute and species of all other

100 g - genera;

250 tubers / planting Seed potato, sweet potato and other

stakes / roots/ corms - vegetatively propagating crops.

Size of working sample

The working sample for grow out test shall be obtained through subsequent
mixing and dividing of the submitted sample in accordance with the prescribed
procedure for seed sampling.
The minimum population required for taking the observations shall be 400
plants; however, it will also depend on the maximum permissible off-type plants
prescribed for the species under consideration in the Indian Minimum seed
Certification standards
The number of seeds required for raising the crop to obtain the required
number of plants shall depend on the germination percentage of the seed sample
and hence seed rate should be adjusted accordingly.
Number of plants required per sample for grow out test

Maximum Minimum genetic Number of plants

permissible Purity (%) required per
off types (%) sample
0.10 99.9 4,000
0.20 99.8 2,000
0.30 99.7 1,350
0.50 99.5 800
1.00 and above 99.0 and below 400

Procedures

To achieve the accuracy and reproducibility of the grow out test results, the
procedures provided hereunder must be followed:

Location of the grow out test

The grow out test shall be conducted in specified areas recommended for the
cultivar / hybrid or in off-season nurseries.

Standard sample

The standard sample of a cultivar (control) is the official standard against

which all other samples of the seed of the cultivar will be judged.
The standard sample must not differ significantly in any character and be
obtained from the originating plant breeder / breeding institute and be stored under
controlled temperature and humidity conditions so as to use it each year to sow
control plots for cultivars under test. Further quantities of sample must be obtained
from the originating plant breeder as and when required. A comparison must be
made between the two lots of the standard sample before changing from one
standard sample to other.
Method of raising the crop

Standard and recommended agronomic / cultural practices such as field

preparation, size of the plot, row length, distance between the rows, distance
between the plants, irrigation and fertilization, etc., in respect of the specific crop
shall be followed both for the sample in question and its control (standard sample).
The germination percentage of the sample (s) in question and the standard
sample must be determined to adjust the seed rate. The sowing should be done by
dibbling or small plot drill. Seed drill must be carefully checked to ensure its
cleanliness. Subsequent thinnings is not recommended. The samples of the same
cultivars must be sown in succession and the standard samples are sown at suitable
intervals. (one standard sample for every ten sample to be tested).
The size of the plot, row length and spacing shall differ according to the crop.
Recommended specification for the above variables are provided in Table
mentioned below which can suitably be modified if considered essential.

Recommended row length, distances, spacing for some important crops

S. Plant to Space Space
Row
No. Crop plant between between
length
distance rows plots
(m)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. Wheat, barley oats 6 2 25 50
2. Pea, Cowpea 6 10 45 90

3. Chickpea, green gram black

6 10 30 60
gram
4. Maize 10 25 60 90
5. Hybrid cotton 5 10 45 45
6. Paddy:
a) Very early to medium 6 15 20 45
b) Late and very late 6 25 30 60

7. Pearl millet 6 10 60 90
8. Sorghum 6 10 45 60
 The field plots should be grown in two replicates to guard against failure in
one part of the field and to reduce environmental and soil fertility variations.

Methods for taking observations

Grow-out test plots must be examined throughout the growing season with
emphasis on the period from the flowering to ripening. All plants must be
examined keeping in view the distinguishing characters described for the cultivars
both in the test crop as well as the control. While taking the observation, the
plants showing deviations in characters against the control should be tagged and
examined carefully at a later stage to confirm whether they are off-types or not.
The number of the total plants and the off-type plants found should be recorded.

Calculation and interpretation of the results

Percentage of other cultivars, species or aberrants found must be calculated

upto first decimal place. While interpreting the results, tolerances should be applied
by using the reject number for prescribed standards with reference to sample size
as provided in Table.

Reject number for prescribed standards and sample size

Reject numbers for sample size

of
800 400
99.5 (1 in 200) 8 *
99.0 (1 in 100) 16 8
95.0 (5 in 100) 48 24
90.0 (10 in 100) 88 44
85.0 (15 in 100) 128 64

* indicates that the sample size is too small for a valid test.
Reporting of results

 The results of the grow-out test shall be reported as percentage of other

species, cultivars or off-type plants.
 If the sample is found to be a cultivar other than stated by the sender, the
results shall be reported as such.
 If plants of other cultivars are more than 15 per cent, the report shall state
that the sample consists of mixture of different cultivars.
 If nothing worthy of special comments is found, the report shall state that
the results of the grow-out test of the sample in question revealed nothing to
indicate that the name of the cultivar or species stated by the sender is
incorrect.

2. Electrophoresis

It is the latest method of cultivar identification based on protein banding and

isoenzyme activity. Here single seeds are defatted and extracted for protein and
esterases. The extracted proteins or esterases are separated by polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis. Based on the banding pattern of protein and esterase's the
varieties can be differentiated and identified.

Electrophoresis for proteins and enzymes: Seeds, seedlings or mature leaves

etc. of a crop plant have a specific mix of proteins which are not only crop specific
but also variety specific (genotype specific). The electrophoresis in a suitable
medium separates the mixture of proteins extracted from seeds, seedlings or
mature leaves into distinct bands. Each variety (or genotype) thus has a specific
"banding pattern" on the basis of which admixtures of other varieties, differing in
"banding pattern" could be detected. This is done by comparing the banding pattern
of analysed sample with the standard banding pattern of that variety. The
electrophoresis is now being increasingly used for determining the genetic purity of
seed samples.

Principle: The term 'electrophoresis' refers to the migration of a charged particle

under the influence of an electric field. The movement of ions takes place in a
suitable medium, such as, polyacrylamide gel, which acts as a molecular sieve and
cut down convection currents and diffusion, so that the separated components
remain as sharp zones with maximum resolution. The separation into distinct bands
is due to,

1. differences in the size of molecules (molecular weight) of various proteins.

Particles with smaller molecular weights migrate faster than those with higher
weights, and

2. differences in charge. The molecules with the higher charge migrate faster than
those with a lower charge.

Since proteins carry a net charge at any pH other than their isoelectric point,
they migrate in an electric field, the rate of which depends on the charge density
(that is, the rate of charge to mass of the molecule). Proteins with higher charge
density will migrate faster, thus resulting in differential rates of movement of
proteins when a mixture of different proteins is subjected to an electric field. By
altering the gel pore size (using polymers at different concentrations) and the
charge on the protein molecule (by changing the pH of the system) a high degree
of resolution can be achieved for separation of protein molecules in a mixture.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

Seed quality regulation systems: Grow out tests and molecular

markers for genetic purity testing and GM crops testing

Quality seeds has to meet the minimum seed certification standards and
quality attributes viz., physical purity, germination per cent, moisture content, seed
health and genetic purity. The genuineness of the variety is one of the most important
characteristics of good quality seed. Genetic purity test is done to verify any
deviation from genuineness of the variety during multiplication stages. For
certification genetic purity test is compulsory for all foundation and certified hybrid
seeds. Higher genetic purity is an essential requirement for the commercialization of
any seed. Besides for the success of any hybrid technology depends on the quality of
the seed supplied in time.
The genetic purity during multiplication stage plot is prone to contamination
from presence of pollen shedders, out crossing with foreign pollen and physical
admixtures due to careless handling during harvesting, threshing, processing and
bagging. Using low genetically pure seeds will proportionately reduce the
commercial yield. It is estimated that for every 1% impurity in the hybrid seed the
yield reduction is 100 kg per hectare (Mao et al., 1996). Maintenance of parental line
purity is a prerequisite to ensure high genetic purity of hybrid seeds.
A certification standard of genetic purity for foundation is 99 per cent. While,
for certified hybrids it is 95 per cent except cotton (90 %) and castor (85%). A set of
qualitative and quantitative characters known as descriptors are currently in use for
variety identification and description. Some of these characters, particularly those
showing quantitative inheritance, interact with the environment in which the variety is
grown and thus make the process of variety identification subjective.
Marker: Marker is a ‘TAG’ for identification. Identifying a genotype based on some
recognizable mark can be used for its identification and characterization. It may be
morphological or biochemical or molecular markers. Ideal marker should be
polymorphic, Co-dominant, distributed evenly through out genome, heritable,
independent to environmental factors and stage of the crop, easy, quick and cost
effective to conduct and results must be reproducible
Methods to assess genetic purity
Genetic purity of a given seed lot can be assessed by using one of the following
methods
1. Conventional method- grow out test
2. Chemical tests
3. Electrophoresis method
a. Biochemical markers (Proteins and Isozymes)
b. Molecular markers (DNA)
Molecular markers: Molecular markers, in contrast, being based on DNA sequence
variation, provide an unbiased means of identifying crop varieties. The Biochemical
and Molecular Techniques group of the International Union for the Protection of New
Varieties of Plants (UPOV) is evaluating different DNA marker parameters prior to its
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

routine use in establishing distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS) of plant

varieties.
This is a new approach to test the genetic purity of the seeds done at
nucleotide level. This test screen through whole genome and produces enough
polymorphism in closely related parental lines also. DNA markers has advantages
over morphological and biochemical markers. Those are the resultant on genotype and
environmental effect. While, DNA markers are resultant of only genotype of the
cultivar and are independent to environmental conditions. The markers are dominant
and Co-dominant and can differentiate between homozygous and heterozygous
conditions of the cultivar. This is rapid to conduct and results are reproducible.
The banding pattern appeared at a particular molecular weight is used for the
identification of parental lines, hybrid and off types.

Classification of DNA markers

Hybridization based markers

Eg: RFLP

PCR based markers

Arbitrarily primed PCR based Sequence targeted PCR based

markers markers
Eg: RAPD, AFLP Eg: SSR, SCAR

Hybrid seed production

Hybrid seed is the progeny of crossing between two genetypically different parents.

AA x aa

Aa
Commercial hybrid seed production is produced using different methods viz.,
• Hand emasculation and pollination: tomato, cotton, brinjal etc.
• Male sterility systems- CMS, GMS and CGMS: Rice, sorghum, sunflower,
bajra, pigeon pea etc.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

• Self incompatibility: Brassica

• Sex expressions: cucurbits
During production of hybrids using these methods seeds are prone to contamination
due to Selfed seeds, sibed seeds, out crossing etc.

Hybrid seed production two steps

(i) Foundation seed production/Female line multiplication (A/B):

(Male sterile line) AxB (Maintainer line)

A line
(Male sterile line)

This is the stage of parental line multiplication. Sterile line (A line) is

multiplied by crossing with maintainer line. During this stage CMS line seed lots are
often contaminated by its respective maintainer line (shedders) as mechanical
admixtures. And it is not possible to distinguish CMS and its respective maintainers
based on seed morphology as they are iso-nuclear genotypes. So, have to conduct
GOT till flowering and have to observe for pollen fertility to identify pollen shedders.

ii) Certified/Hybrid seed production (A/R).

A (Seed parent) x R (Restorer line)

F1 Hybrid

This is the stage of commercial hybrid seed production. CMS line (A line) is
crossed with Restorer line (R line) to obtain F1 hybrid seeds. During this stage the
presence of B line in A line rows and if not roughed out before flowering will lead to
production of genetically impure seeds i.e., contaminated with A and B line seeds.

Importance - stable marker for genetic purity

CMS plants and its maintainer plants, which originated from female parent
during multiplication, are major off-types in F1 hybrids. Maintenance of the purity of
parent CMS lines is essential in achieving the purity of hybrid and thus commercial
benefit. CMS purity during multiplication can only be assessed at heading stage by
observing pollen fertility. The results are prone to be erratic due to different
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

examiners and environments. So it is significant to develop a novel, simple, rapid and

effective method to assess CMS seed purity during multiplication at seedling stage.

Hybridity confirmation
Identifying breeding lines and determining hybrid purity are major
requirements in plant breeding and seed production. To test the conformity of hybrid
seed, one must be able to distinguish the true hybrid resulting from cross between the
male and female parents and one coming from self pollination of the female parent.
The DNA finger printing of parental lines, hybrid and offtypes are used as a data base
to identify offtypes in the seed lot under question.
Molecular markers which could clearly distinguish the hybrids form its
parental lines have been identified and developed in major agriculture and horticulture
crops are given in the following Table.
The molecular markers are more efficient in assessing genetic purity. Among
markers RAPD and AFLP are dominant markers. Dominant markers unable to
identify heterozygous condition (AA and aa only but not Aa).

Low reproducibility of RAPD and lengthy process of AFLP markers have

made them impractical and difficult for their routine use in seed purity analysis.
While SSR, SCAR, SNPS, STMS are C0- dominant markers and are able to identify
heterozygous condition. These markers are more popular because of their accuracy in
results and are reproducible. Quick and simple process of these markers have made
them practical for their routine use in hybrid conformity and seed purity analysis.
Markers vary based on their ability to differentiate lines with the crop and hybrids and
parental lines involved in developing particular hybrid.

CONCLUSION
Hybrid seed producer have to test every commercial hybrid seed lot produced.
A fast and reliable method with capacity to screen large number of seed samples.
With the availability of high throughput PCR machines and simpler DNA extraction
techniques may surpass the current methods of grow out test. DNA is now routinely
used for the plant variety breeding purposes and it is likely that hybrid seed producers
can adapt these modern techniques for hybrid seed purity analysis purposes.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

Introduction
Enforcement of Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement
(TRIPs) under World Trade Organization (WTO) has resulted in worldwide shift from
free exchange and unhindered exploitation to controlled access to plant genetic
resources. Intellectual property rights of plant breeders and farmers need to be
protected either by adoption of a patent system or by some form of effective sui
generis system or by any combination thereof. Similarly UN Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) 1993 recognizes the sovereignty of nations over their
plant genetic resources and rights of farmers to receive compensation for direct and
indirect commercial exploitation of traditional varieties. To comply with these
international developments, India has enacted Protection of Plant Varieties and
Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV&FR) to provide legal framework for plant breeder’s and
farmer’s rights. Novelty, distinctness, uniformity and stability are the essential
requirements for grant of protection to all the varieties. Enforcement of this act and
eventual increased private sector investment would mean greater ownership related
disputes in the future. Therefore, a perfect system for identification of varieties and
parents of hybrids is the fundamental requirement to enforce this protection.

Conventionally, morphological descriptors are routinely used for establishing the

identity of varieties. But these morphological descriptors suffer from many drawbacks
such as influence of environment on trait expression, epistatic interactions,
pleiotrophic effects etc. Furthermore, the paucity of sufficient number of these
descriptors for unequivocal identification of increasing number of reference collection
of varieties enforces to look for alternatives. Electrophoresis of seed proteins and
isozyme analysis has overcome these limitations to some extent but now many
powerful DNA based techniques are available to overcome these drawbacks. Since all
genetic differences between individuals are laid down in the primary sequence of their
genomic DNA, the straightforward method of identification of crop varieties and
parental lines would be to determine this sequence for the genome under comparison.
Sequencing requires huge monitory investment and it is practically impossible to
sequence the whole genomes of varieties. But with the automation in sequencing, it is
now possible to sequence even short stretches of amplified DNA. However, a more
practical strategy would be to limit the comparisons to regions of the genome, which
frequently differ between individuals. A brief description of some of the more
commonly used DNA based marker systems are provided here.

Description of Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) as a DNA

profiling technique and elucidation of its potential use in varietal and parentage
identification, identification of loci affecting quantitative traits and genetic
improvement programmes by Botstein et al., (1980) and Soller and Beckmann (1983)
opened new horizons in genetic studies. Later with the discovery of polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) technique (Saiki et al., 1988) there has been an exponential increase in
the marker systems suitable for genetic analyses. These aspects have been reviewed in
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

detail by several authors (Staub et al., 1996; Mohan et al., 1997; Karp et al., 1997,
1998; Koebner et al., 2001). The DNA marker systems have given substantial impetus
to genetic diversity studies and marker assisted selection programmes. The DNA
markers popularly termed as molecular markers belong to four major categories:

 Southern hybridization based techniques, e.g. RFLP, VNTR

 PCR based techniques, e.g. AP-PCR, RAPD, DAF, STMS
 Techniques utilizing principles of both RFLP and PCR, e.g. AFLP
 Technique generating DNA sequence information, e.g. SNP

A brief outline of some of the most commonly used and important techniques
presented here are:

 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

 Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
 Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) Analysis
 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)
 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis

In the RFLP analysis, DNA is digested with restriction enzymes (which cut long
strands of genomic DNA into smaller fragments at specific sites known as recognition
sites), the resultant fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis, transferred to a
filter by blotting (Southern blotting) and then specific labelled probes are hybridized
to the filter (Southern hybridization) and subsequently leading to the detection of
fragments by autoradiography. Specific probe- enzyme combinations give highly
reproducible patterns for a given individual but variation between individuals can arise
when mutations alter restriction sites or the fragment lengths between them (Burr et al.
1983). RFLPs are highly reproducible between laboratories. They are codominant in
their inheritance pattern and therefore allow differentiation of heterozygotes from
homozygotes. In application of this technique, availability of probes that can detect
variation at the level required could be a possible constraint. For example, finding
sufficient polymorphisms at the cultivar or population level is difficult at least in some
species. Further, the technique involves the construction of cDNA or genomic DNA
libraries for the development of probes that require additional skill and investment of
resources. RFLPs are not amenable to automation and are therefore time consuming.
RFLPs require high quantities of good quality DNA and where only very limited
amounts of source material are available, this requirement alone may preclude their
application.

A variation of traditional RFLPs uses synthetic oligonucleotides of simple sequence

complexities to detect variations in hyper variable regions of the genome and is best
suited for identification of genotypes. The most commonly used sequences are (AT)n,
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

(AG)n, (CT)n, (GACA)n and (GATA)n repeats. Polymorphism results from changes in
the copy number of the basic repeat motif and is often referred to as Variable Number of
Tandem Repeats (VNTRs). Hybridization of these probes essentially produces a
multilocus pattern but has been found useful in generating individual or genotype
specific hybridization patterns.

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of discrete loci with single, random
sequence, oligonucleotide primers have become popular because of its simplicity and
ease of use in modestly equipped laboratories (Williams et al. 1990; Welsh and
McClelland, 1990). The RAPD amplification reaction is performed on genomic DNA
with an arbitrary oligonucleotide primer. It results in the amplification of several
discrete DNA products. These are usually separated on agarose gels and visualized by
ethidium bromide staining. Each amplification product is derived from a region of the
genome containing two short DNA segments with some homology to the primer,
present on the opposite strands of DNA, and close enough to each other so that DNA
amplification can occur. Short primers and low annealing temperatures during the
amplification assure that several sites, randomly distributed in the genome, give rise
to amplification products. The polymorphisms between individuals result from
sequence differences in one or both of the primer binding sites. Such polymorphisms
behave as dominant genetic markers. The reactions require small amounts of DNA
(15-25 ng) and products can be detected by simple non-radioactive techniques.

Simple sequence repeats (SSR) analysis

Presence of short tandem repeats of varying length is characteristic of microsatellite
loci (Akkaya et al. 1992). The simple sequence repeats (SSR) have been shown to be
abundant and highly polymorphic in eukaryotic genomes. They may be dinucleotide
repeats [(AC)n, (AG)n, and (AT)n] or trinucleotide repeats [(AAT)n, (CCA)n] or
tetranucleotide repeats [(GATA)n, (GACA)n]. SSRs are analyzed by PCR-
amplification of a short genomic region containing the repeated sequence, and size
estimation of the repeat length by gel separation. Very little DNA is required for SSR
analysis and once primer sequences are determined, the same laboratory set up
developed to handle RAPDs could be used. Microsatellites are very useful markers
for plant genetics studies as they have been shown to be highly polymorphic. The
technique is more robust and reproducible and is fast replacing RAPDs for detecting
genetic variation.

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis

AFLP is a universally applicable, highly reproducible method, which reveals very high
levels of polymorphism (Vos et al. 1995). This procedure is essentially a combination of
the RFLP and PCR techniques. The first step involves digestion of the genomic DNA
with two restriction enzymes, one a frequent cutter (e.g. Eco RI) and the other a rare
cutter (e.g. Mse I) followed by ligation of two short adopters homologous to the
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

respective restriction enzyme recognition sites. The next step involves pre-selective PCR
amplification of the double digested restriction fragments. Subsequently, selective
amplification of specific DNA fragments with paired primers having selective
nucleotides is carried out which results in amplification of a subset of the fragments.
During selective amplification, one of the paired primers is end labelled with 32P. The
amplified products are normally separated on a denaturing polyacrylamide gel and
visualized by exposure to X- ray film, but the technique has been adapted to fluorescent-
labelled primers and automated. AFLPs provide an effective means of covering large
areas of the genome in a single assay. Most of the evidences indicate that they are as
reproducible as RFLPs although in practice sufficient stringency and caution should be
exercised in optimizing the reaction conditions so that spurious bands are avoided.
However, they require more DNA (0.5 g per reaction) and are more technically
demanding in comparison to RAPDs.

There are several variant forms of the techniques described above. These may vary in the
detection processes employed or reaction kinetics used (e.g. DNA amplification
fingerprinting, DAF as compared to RAPDs) or type of primer used (e.g. simple
sequence repeat motif based primers in ISSRs, Inter Simple Sequence Repeats as
compared to the random 10-mer primers in RAPDs) etc. There are several locus specific
PCR techniques available, which are suitable for specific applications such as Sequence
Characterized Amplified Regions (SCARs), which are useful in screening for a target
gene of interest. However, the basic principle followed in these variant forms of
molecular screening tools is essentially either PCR or RFLP based.
The DNA marker systems have been classified in literature as the first generation maker
systems which include mainly the RFLP and RAPD techniques; the second generation
marker systems which include AFLP, STMS and the retrotransposon- based marker
systems (IRAP, REMAP and RBIP – see Flavell et al., 1988 for details) and the third
generation marker system which includes essentially the Single Nucleotide
Polymorphisms (SNPs).

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)

The need to reduce per unit cost and increase per unit information content of
molecular based assays has resulted in the development of the third generation marker
technologies. The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) refers to a specific and
defined position at a chromosomal site at which the DNA sequence of two individuals
differs by a single base. This might be the result of a transition (purine-purine or
pyrimidine-pyrimidine) or transversion (purine-pyrimidine or vice versa) event. Some
of the favorable features of SNPs as evident from human genome sequencing
programmes are:
 SNPs are more stable than STMS, hence are more reliable.
 SNPs are much more prevalent than STMS (Kwok et al., 1996).
 Frequency of occurrence of SNPs is far higher than that of STMS (every few tens
of kbps).
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) Introduction 2020

 SNPs are more non-uniform in distribution. High density in STMS region in

Drosophila (Colson and Goldstein, 1999).
 SNP density within genic sequences is low (Bryan et al., 1999), but may be
useful genetic variation for exploitation in breeding programmes.
 Amenable to non-gel based assays, hence very high throughput can be achieved.

The SNP detection procedures rely on an initial PCR amplification of the target DNA
segment and the alternative amplicon sequences are discriminated by any one of the
following procedures:
 Invasive Cleavage by oligonucleotide probes approach (Lyamichev et al., 1999)
 PCR-RFLP
 TaqMan (Livak et al., 1995) and molecular beacon procedure (Tyagi et al., 1998).
 Oligonucleotide ligation assay (OLA) of Landegren et al., (1988).
 Oligonucleotide microarrays (Sapolsky et al., 1999).
 Dynamic allele-specific hybridization (DASH).
 5’ end SNP recognition procedures (Germer and Higuchi 1999) including
Pyrosequencing, minisequencing and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-
of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) of Haff and Smirnov (1997).

The DNA marker techniques mentioned above offer an opportunity to the plant
breeders to monitor directly and hence more precisely the desired plant genotype in
segregating generations. A comparison of salient features of these markers is presented
in Table. Application of such tools would require presence of polymorphisms at DNA
level that can be analyzed in a cost-effective way (preferably PCR based assays), and
knowledge about genetic location of the markers in relation to the traits of interest.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seed packaging- principles, procedures and types of containers

Seed packaging is the process of filling, weighing and sewing of bags with seed. An ideal storage
facility should satisfy the following requirements
 It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture, rain, insect pests,
moulds, rodents, birds, fore etc.,
 It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading, unloading,
cleaning and reconditioning.
 It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature favourable to both insect
and mould development,
 It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation

What is meant by seed packaging?

This is the placing of a counted or weighed sample of seeds of an accession into a
container which is then hermetically sealed ready for storage.
Why are seeds packaged?

• Seeds are packaged to prevent absorption of water from the atmosphere after drying
• To keep each accession separate and prevent contamination of the seeds from insects and
diseases.
• Easy transport
• For attractiveness
• Easy handling

When should seeds be packaged?

• The best time to package seeds is directly after the moisture content has been
determined and found to be within the required limits for safe storage.

• Seeds will always show an equilibrium between their moisture content and the
relative humidity of the environment and therefore, if possible, seeds should be
packaged into containers and hermetically sealed in the drying room or without delay
on being removed from it.
Points considered in determining kind of packaging material.
 The quantity of seed desired in each package.
 The protection desired.
 The value of the seed.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 The cost of the package.

 The storage condition into which the container is placed.
 The facilities for drying the seed.

Types of seed storage

1. Bulk (open) storage: It is preferred over bag storage for the following reasons

 Large quantities of food grain can be stored

 No difficulty in loading and unloading of grain

 No need to purchase storage containers like gunnies

 Insect incidence is less than bag storage, even this can be eliminated by fumigation in situ

 Avoids waste from leaking bags

 Easy inspections- saves labour and time.

2. Bag storage: Commodities are mostly stored in gunnies.

 Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on
permanent structures and equipment.

 The storage in ags has the advantage of being short-term storage.

 Bag storage can be done under a roof alvanized iron sheets, a plastic covering where
grain is intended for very early onward movement.

 Bags can be easily handled for marketing purpose.

 There is no sweating of bags as they are arranged in racks with proper interbag space,
but, initial cost is high and they can easily pickup infestation and retain even after
treatment.

Types of packages

 The packaging materials, methods, and equipment used are dictated by-
 The kinds and amount of seeds to be packaged.
 The type of package.
 Duration of storage.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 Storage temperature.
 Relative humidity of the storage area.
 Whether packaging is for wholesale, retail, or local use.
 Packages for processed seeds may be cotton, paper, or film (plastic, foil) bags.
 Metal or fiberboard cans or drums, fiberboard boxes, or containers made of various
combinations of materials are used.

Classification of packaging materials

 Packing materials classified into 3 based on their relation with moisture:-

• Moisture pervious container

• Moisture resistant container
• Moisture vapour proof containers

(I) Moisture pervious container: Allows transmission of moisture from to seed to atmosphere
and atmosphere to seed either in the form of liquid or gaseous form.
 These are suited for short term storage.
 The seeds in these containers will attain seed equilibrium moisture with the
surrounding atmosphere eg., cloth bags, gunny bags etc.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

(II) Moisture resistant container/ Moisture impervious but vapour pervious containers:
Allows transmission of moisture on either side only in gaseous form.
 These allow entry of water in the form of vapour and not in liquid.
 The seeds in these containers can’t be carried over for long period in hot humid
conditions. eg., polythene bags of < 300 gauge thickness and urea bags.

(III) Moisture and vapour proof containers: The container allow moisture neither in the form
of liquid in the gaseous stage.
 These containers will not allow entry of moisture in the form of liquid or vapour.
 These are used for long term storage even in hot humid conditions if the seeds are
sealed at optimum moisture content eg., polythene bags of > 700 gauge thickness,
aluminium foil pouches, rigid plastics etc.

Containers pervious to moisture penetration

 Cotton, gunny, paper, and woven plastic bags are completely pervious to moisture
penetration.
 Must be used if the seed moisture is not be reduced to the proper level of packaging the
moisture proof or moisture resistant containers.
 Seeds in such containers tends to maintain an equilibrium with the atmospheric humidity.

Moisture-Resistant containers

 Consist of thin polyethylene bags (less than 700 gauge), cloth and gunny bags with thin
lamination of polyethylene are used.
 Moisture resistant containers should only be used to pack when-
 Seed is at safe moisture content e.g.-below 9% for grains.
 Storage period will not be long.
 Not subjected to high humidity and high temperature.

Moisture-vapor-proof containers
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 Include aluminum laminated pouches, polythene bags over 700 gauge thick film, sealed
tins, rigid plastic containers and gasketed metal tins.

Container & storability

Usage of container depends on different types of storability period.

1. Long term storage.
2. Medium term storage.
3. Short term storage.
Long term storage

 For long term storage seeds are to be stored in moisture vapour proof containers.

Precaution :
1. Seed moisture should be below 8%
2. Seed should be filled up to brim.
3. Sealing of container should be without leakage.
4. Once used containers should not be used
5. Cost involved is high

Advantages :
1. Long term storage (> 3 years)
2. Insect attach will be less
3. Pathogen infection will be less
4. Seed germination and vigour will be preserved
5. Keeping the seeds packed in MVPC at low temperature <5° will prolong the storability for
still longer duration.

Medium term storage

For medium term storage moisture resistant containers are used.
Advantages
1. Cost is less
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

2. Materials are easily available

3. Moisture content need not be too low (10%).
4. Optimum drying is enough
5. Store the seed up to 3 year will lesser reduction in seed quality characters.

Short term storage

For short term shortage moisture previous containers are used.
Advantages
1. Economic
2. Ecofriendly
3. Moisture content of seed can be 10-13 %.
Hence adequate drying is not needed.
4. Handling is easier.
5. No seedling is needed.
Disadvantages
1. Lesser period of storage (<1 year)
2. Attack by biotic organism will be more
Common packaging materials
Common packaging material used for seeds are –
cloth bag, paper bag, gunny bag, 300 gauge polythene bag, 700 gauge polyethylene bag,
polylined gunny bag, butter paper cover, HDPE bags, paper laminated polythene bag, polythene
laminated aluminium foil pouch, cellopone paper, muslin cloth 600 gauge polythene bags glass
bottles, tins etc.

Sizes of packaging
 The containers commonly used for different sizes of packaging are as follows-
 1gm-0.5kg paper, plastic, laminated aluminum foil pouches, cotton and polyethylene
bags .
 100gm-5kg tins, paper boxes and rigid plastics are used.
 1 kg-50kg –cotton and polyethylene bags are used.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 10kg-100kg-gunny bags are used.

 100kg-5t-bulk metal or plywood bins are used.

Requirements of packaging materials

 Sufficient tensile strength.
 Tearing resistance.
 Moisture proof.
 Bursting strength.

Equipment used for packaging

The bagger weigher:
These are small machines which when properly mounted beneath a bin will fill and weigh a
bag accurately in a single operation.
Operational steps include
 The empty bag is suspended on the bagger weigher by a bag clamp.
 Seed flow into the bag is began, by a trip lever.
 As seed flows into the suspended bag, scale type counter balance mechanism is activated,
so that when the proper weight in the bag, lever is tripped and seed flow is automatically
stopped.

How packages are filled

 Hand filling.
 Automatic fillers.
 Semi automatic fillers.

Properties of packaging materials

 Polyethene:- (synthetic resin)
 Low density with specific gravity ranges from 0.914 – 0.925gm/cm3.
 Medium density 0.93-0.94 gm/cm3.
 High density ranges from 0.95-0.96 gm/cm3.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Low density:

physical properties:-
1.Tensile.
2.Tearing & bursting.
3.sealability at low temperature.
5.Elongation.
6.Folding endurance.

Chemical properties:-
1.Retention of colour.
2.Flexibility.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Bag closer machine Bulk bag closer machine

 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seed Storage- General principles, stages & factors affecting seed

longevity

Seeds harvested and processed in one season need to be stored for sowing in next
season. During this storage process there is a need to protect the seeds from abiotic and
biotic factors which acts on the seed vigour and viability. Keeping seeds in place without
affecting seed quality standards is seed storage. Or Preservation of seed with initial
quality until it is needed for planting.

• Seed storage is preservation of seed with initial quality until it is needed for
planting. The ability of seed to tolerate moisture loss allows the seed to maintain
the viability in dry state. Storage starts in the mother plant itself when it attains
physiological maturity. After harvesting the seeds are either stored in ware houses
or in transit or in retail shops. During the old age days, the farmers were used farm
saved seeds in little quantity, but introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids
and modernization of agriculture necessitated the development of storage
techniques to preserve the seeds.

• The practice of storing the seeds starts from the ancient days itself, following
simple and cheap techniques eg. Placing the seeds in salt, red earth treatment to red
gram etc. But the same practices are not hold good for the present day agriculture,
because
- large quantity to be stored
-exchange of varieties and species
- exchange of genes

• The type of material to be stored decides the techniques to be followed for safe
storage. Now a days storage technique changed from ordinary godown storage to
cryogenic tank storage and even gene storage.

Stages of Seed Storage;

The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach
physiological maturity until they sown and germinated in next season.

The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into following stages.
1. Storage on plants (physiological maturity until harvest).
2. Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
3. In - storage (warehouses)
4. In transit (Railway wagons, trucks, carts, railway sheds etc.).
5. In retail stores.
6. On the user's farm.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

1. Storage on plants: Seeds are preferred to harvest when they attain physiological
maturity, however, due to difficulties in handling large quantity of seeds with higher
moisture seeds are allowed to dry and stored on plants till they attain harvesting
maturity.
2. Storage from harvest until processed: After harvesting seeds are stored in
threshing yard, during extraction process and processing. During this time seeds still
have high moisture content and there is a chance of rapid deterioration during this
period. Hence seeds are dried to safe moisture level and cleaned. Transport from
field to threshing floors, threshing floors to processing plants and at processing
plants, involves period of storage. In addition adequate care to be taken while
handing the seed material to prevent mechanical admixture and maintain lot
identity.
3. Storage in ware houses: when once seeds are processed, treated and packed
seeds are stored in warehouses until next sowing season. This is critical period of
storage during which storage atmosphere has direct influence on seed vaibility and
vigour. Seeds are stored until next sowing season and dispatched to the needy seed
sellers as per the demand. Seed ageing and loss of germination during storage cannot
be stopped but the rate of aging can be slow down by providing good storage
condition.
4. Retails to farm land: Seeds from warehouse are transported to retail shops and
seeds are stored in shops until farmer purchase the seeds. The duration of storage in
shops is for shot period only. Farmer will store the seeds in his house until seeds are
sown in soil.

Purpose of seed storage

Storage is needed to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological

condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted.

Objective of seed storage

To maintain initial seed quality viz., germination, physical purity, vigour etc.,
all along the storage period by providing suitable or even better conditions.
Types of seed storage:
1. Storage at ambient temperature and humidity: Seeds can be stored in piles,
single layers, sacks or open containers, under shelter against rain, well ventilated
and protected from rodents and store at least for several months.
2. Dry storage with control of moisture content but not temperature:
Orthodox seeds will retain viability longer, when dried to low moisture content
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

(4¬8%) and then stored in a sealed container or in a room in which humidity is

controlled, than when stored in equilibrium with ambient air humidity. Cool
condition is especially favourable.
3. Dry storage with control of both moisture content and temperature: This
is recommended for many orthodox species which have periodicity of seeding but
which are planted annually in large scale afforestation projects. A combination of 4-
8% moisture content and 0 to 5° temperature will maintain viability for 5 years or
more.
4. Dry storage for long-term gene conservation: Long-term conservation of gene
resources of orthodox agricultural seeds is -18°C temperature and 5± 1% moisture
content
5. Moist storage without control of moisture content of temperature:
Suitable for storage of recalcitrant seeds, for a few months over winter. Seeds may be
stored in heaps on the ground, in shallow pits, in well drained soils or in layers in
well ventilated sheds, often covered or mixed with leaves, moist sand, peat or other
porous materials. The aim is to maintain moist and cool conditions, with good
aeration to avoid overheating which may result from the relatively high rates of
respiration associated with moist storage. This may be accomplished by regular
turning of the heaps.
6. Moist cold storage, with control of temperature: This method implies
controlled low temperature just above freezing or less commonly, just below
freezing. Moisture can be controlled within approximate limits by adding moist
media e.g., sand, peat or a mixture of both to the seed, in proportions of one part
media to 1 part seed by volume, and re-moistening periodically or more accurately by
controlling the relative humidity of the store. This method is much applicable to
temperate recalcitrant genera.
7. Cryopreservation: It is also called as cryogenic storage. Seeds are placed in liquid
nitrogen at -196°C. Seeds are actually placed into the gaseous phase of the liquid
nitrogen -150°C for easy handling and safety. Metabolic reactions come to a virtual
standstill at the temperature of liquid nitrogen and the cells will remain in an
unaltered state until the tissues are removed from the liquid nitrogen and defrosted.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Therefore, little detrimental physiological activity takes place at these temperatures,

which prolongs the storage life of seeds. It is not practical for commercial seed
storage, but is useful to store the valuable germplasm.

Based on the seed longevity of crop seeds are classified in to:

• Microbiotic: Less than 1 year

• Mesobiotic: 1-5 years

• Macrobiotic: More than 5 years

Factors Affecting Longevity in Storage:

• Seed maturity. Fully ripened seeds retain viability longer than seeds collected
when immature (Stein et al. 1974, Harrington 1970). Certain biochemical
compounds, essential for preserving viability, may not be formed until the final
stages of seed ripening. These include dormancy-inducing compounds in certain
species, and dormancy is sometimes associated with seed longevity.

• Parental and annual effects. In seed harvest, quantity and quality often go
together. The percentage of sound seeds in a high-yielding mother is usually
higher than in one with a poor crop.

• Freedom from mechanical damage. Seeds damaged mechanically in extraction,

cleaning, etc. rapidly lose viability. The danger is greatest for species which have
thin or soft seed coats. Excessive heat during extraction or drying also damages
seed.

• Freedom from physiological deterioration. Poor handling, during transit or

during processing causes physiological deterioration of seeds even if mechanical
and fungal damage. Adequate ventilation of orthodox seeds is necessary to avoid
rapid respiration and overheating, while recalcitrant seeds must be protected
against excessive drying.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

• Freedom from fungi and insects. For species stored at low temperature and low
moisture content, the storage conditions themselves should prevent the
development of fungi and insects

• Initial viability. Seed lots with high initial viability and germinative capacity have
a higher longevity in storage than those with low initial viability.

Harrington Thumb Rule:

The following thumb rules by Harrington rule are useful measures for assessing
the effect of moisture and temperature on seed storage.
These rules are as follows:
1. For every decrease of 1% seed moisture content, the life of the seed doubles. This
rule is applicable when moisture content between 5 and 14%.
2. For every decrease of 5°C (10°F) in storage temperature the life of the seed
doubles. This rule applies between 0°C to 50°C.
3. Good seed storage is achieved when the % of relative humidity in storage
environment and the storage temperature in degrees Fahrenheit add up to
hundred but the contribution from temperature should not exceed 50°F.

Nomograph
• Roberts (1972) developed formulae to describe the relationship between
temperature, seed moisture content and period of viability.
• From these relationships it was possible to construct a seed viability
nomograph.
• These nomographs are helpful in predicting the retention of seed viability in
defined storage environment for a particular period or to determine
combinations of temperature and moisture content which will ensure the
retention of a desired level of seed viability for a specific period.

Maintenance of viability in storage

• Store well mature seeds
• Store normal coloured seeds
• Seeds should be free from mechanical injury
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

• Seeds should be free from storage fungi or micro organisms 5. Seeds should not
have met with adverse conditions during maturation 10. Storage godown should
be fumigated to control storage insects, periodically
• Storage environment or godown should be dry and cool.
• Seeds should be dried to optimum moisture content
• Required R.H. and temperature should be maintained during storage.
• Seeds should be treated with fungicides before storage
• Suitable packaging materials should be used for packing.

Factors influencing seed storage

1. Biotic factors
2. Abiotic factors

1. Biotic factors
a. Factors related to seed

• Genetic make up of seed

• Initial seed quality
• Provenance
• Seed moisture content

b. Other biotic

• Insects
• Fungi
• Rodents
• Mishandling during sampling, testing
2. Abiotic factors

• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Seed store sanitation
• Gaseous atmosphere
• Packaging material
• Seed treatment

1. a. Seed factors
1. Genetic factors

• The storage is influenced by the genetic make up of the seed. Some kinds are
naturally short lived eg. Onion, Soybeans, Ground nut etc., Based on the genetic
make up seeds are classified into
• Micro biotic – short lived
• Meso biotic- medium lived
• Macro biotic – long lived
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Initial seed quality

• Barton (1941) found that the seeds of high initial viability are much more
resistant to unfavourable storage environmental conditions than low viable seed.
Once seed start to deteriorate it proceeds rapidly. The seed which injured
mechanically suffered a lot and loses its viability and vigour very quickly.
Generally small seeds escape injury whereas large seeds are more likely to be
extensively damaged eg., bean, lima-bean and soybean. Spherical seeds usually
give more protection than flat or irregularly shaped seeds.

Effect of provenance

• The place where the seed crop was produced greatly influences the storability.
• eg., Red clover seeds grown in Canada stored for 4 years with 80 per cent
germination whereas, seeds grown in England and New Zealand stored only for 3
years with per cent germination. This is due to different climatic conditions and
soil types prevailing in different places.
Effect of weather

• Fluctuating temperature during seed formation and maturity will affect seed
storage. Pre-harvest rain may also affect the viability.
Pre harvest sanitation spray

• In pulses, insect infestation comes from field eg., bruchids.

Seed moisture content

 Most important factor influences the storability. The amount of moisture in the
seeds is the most important factor influencing seed viability during storage.
 Generally if the seed moisture content increases storage life decreases. If seeds
are kept at high moisture content the losses could be very rapid due to mould
growth very low moisture content below 4% may also damage seeds due to
extreme desiccation or cause hard seededness in some crops.
 Since the life of a seed largely revolves around its moisture content it is necessary
to dry seeds to safe moisture contents. The sage moisture content however
depends upon storage length, type of storage structure, kind / variety of seed type
of packing material used. For cereals in ordinary storage conditions for 12-18
months, seed drying up to 10% moisture content appears quite satisfactory.
However, for storage in sealed containers drying upto 5-8 % moisture content
depending upon particular kind may be necessary.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Classification seed based on moisture content and storability

Orthodox

• The seeds able to tolerate moisture loss and less seed moisture favours the
storage i.e., decreased moisture increased storage period. Eg. Rice, sorghum and
most of the cultivated species.

Recalcitrant

• Just opposite to the orthodox. Seeds not able to tolerate moisture loss.
Required high moisture for viability maintenance.

Microflora, Insects and Mites

• The activity of all these organisms can lead to damage resulting in loss of
viability. The microflora activity is controlled by Relative Humidity temperature
and Moisture Content of seed.
• Treated seeds with fungicides can be stored for longer periods.
• Fumigation to control insects will also help to store longer period.
• Fumigants - eg., methyl bromide, hydrogen cyanide, ethyline dichloride,
carbon tetra chloride, carbon disulphide and napthalene and aluminimum
phosphine.

2. Abiotic factors

Relative humidity

• Relative humidity is the amount of H2O present in the air at a given

temperature in proportion to its maximum water holding capacity. Relative
Humidity and temperature are the most important factors determining the
storage life of seeds. Seeds attain specific and characteristic moisture content
when subjected to given levels of atmospheric humidity. This characteristic
moisture content called equilibrium moisture content.
• Equilibrium moisture content for a particular kind of seed at a given Relative
Humidity tends to increase as temperature decreases. Thus the maintenance of
seed moisture content during storage is a function of relative humidity and to a
lesser extent of temperature. At equilibrium moisture content there is no net gain
or loss in seed moisture content.
Temperature

• Temperature also plays an important role in life of seed. Insects and moulds
increase as temperature increases. The higher the moisture content of the seeds
the more they are adversely affected by temperature. Decreasing temperature and
seed moisture is an effective means of maintaining seed quality in storage.
 For different duration of storage, safer moisture content and temperature is
given below:
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 Short term : nearly 5 % m.c. and 100 C

 Medium term : 5% m. c. and - 100 C
 Long term : 4-5 % m.c. and -200 C

Gas during storage

Increase in O2 pressure decrease the period of viability. N2 and CO2 atmosphere will
increase the storage life of seeds.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seed quality enhancement techniques and mid storage corrections

Good start results in strong and healthy crop. But, if crops emerge and grow slowly after
germination, they often become stunted and weak, so easily damaged by pests and diseases.
They produce less grain and straw. Giving crops a good start is therefore of crucial importance.
Seed enhancement is an improvement in seed performance by any post harvest treatment
which results in improved germinability, greater storability & better performance. These
seed technological approaches enhance physiological quality, vigour and synchrony to establish
a crop in the field under diverse environmental conditions. To provide higher quality seeds to
farmers many seed companies have developed new ‘seed enhancement techniques which
includes film coating, colouring, pelleting, priming, seed fortification, seed infusion and other
novel seed treatment methods. They are performed on the seeds after harvest, but prior to
sowing. Enhancements are ‘value added’ techniques performed on a given seed lot.

Objectives of seed enhancement

 Improvement in seed quality
 Improvement in reliability of stand establishment
 Increase in uniformity of plant stand
 Reduction in seeding rates and thinning costs
 Facilitate precision planting
 Overcome dormancy or stressful conditions

Seed invigoration: An improvement in seed performance by any post harvest treatment which
involve controlled hydration of seed in high osmotic solution resulting in improved
germinability, greater storability and better field performance. These can be classified as
following:
 Pre-sowing treatment for improved field performance.
 Pre-storage treatments for better storability and field performance.
 Mid-storage treatments for vigour viability and productivity.

Pre sowing treatments: Seed treatments given before sowing to improve seed germination,
speed of emergence, seedling growth , field emergence, crop stand and early vegetative growth.
These are further classified into:
 Seed hardening/hydro-priming,
 Seed priming, seed fortification and
 Seed coating and pelleting
Pre-storage treatments: Seed treatments of freshly harvested seeds aimed towards protection
against deteriorative senescence during storage for better storability and field performances.
 Seed halogenations and
 Dry permeation
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Mid-storage treatments: Treatments given to medium and low vigour seeds during storage
wherein stored seeds are allowed top take up 20-30% water for initiation of restoration and
corrective action followed by drying back to restoration. These may be dry or wet seed
treatments.
 Hydration and dehydration treatment and
 Use of antioxidants and botanical agents

Seed quality enhancement techniques: The following techniques are generally used to increase
the vigour and the seed performance
1. Indigenous technologies of seed enhancement
2. Mechanical seed enhancement
3. Physiological seed enhancement e.g., pre-germinated seed and seed priming
4. Physical seed enhancement e.g., seed colouring, seed film coating and pelleting

Indigenous technologies of seed enhancement

Today it is widely accepted among agricultural scientists throughout the world that the
re-assessment of indigenous technical knowledge is an indispensable part of the introduction of
new agricultural technology. It is recognized that the knowledge of farmers must be taken into
account before any new technology is developed and disseminated since the farmers have a
wealth of knowledge pertaining to their environment and have developed specific skills designed
to make the best use of that knowledge. e.g., Use of neem leaves, dry chilli powder, red earth,
wood ash, edible and non-edible oil (castor oil). Some indigenous seed treatments followed in
cereals, pulses and vegetables are listed below.

Cereals: Paddy seeds are immersed in hot water for a day. Soaked seeds are kept on the ground
and covered with Neem leaves and small wheat straw for 4 days. After 4 days, the germinated
seeds are sown in the nursery.
 A gunny bag filled with paddy seeds is kept immersed in a water trough for 12 hours. Then
the seed bags are immersed in diluted biogas slurry for another 12 hours. This increases the
resistance of seedlings to pest and diseases.
 Wheat: To control wheat rust, the seeds are immersed in milk before sowing
 Maize: Seeds are soaked in cow urine for 12 hours before sowing.
 Sorghum: Sorghum seeds are treated with the juice of neem leaves.
- Soaking in cow’s urine to induce drought tolerance.
- Treating with salt solution to ensure better germination.

Pulses: Soybean: To increase seed germination in saline/alkaline lands, seeds are treated with
leaf powder of ‘Usil’ (Albizia amara) @ 150 g leaf powder/kg of soybean.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

 Bean Seeds: Soaking in milk for a day before planting resulting in healthy plants with good
yield.
 Grams and Lentils: Seeds are treated with 1g asafoetida/kg of seeds.
 Any pulse crop: 100 g of mustard oil is used to treat 40 kg of seeds and also soaking in
butter milk at the rate of 40 kg of seeds in 5 litres butter milk for 24 hours before sowing.

Vegetables: Chilli: Seeds are immersed in biogas slurry for half an hour.
 Bottle Gourd: Soaking in water for 24 hours before sowing.
 Cucumber and bean seeds: To avoid seed loss by ants, seeds are dipped in kerosene and then
sown.
 Watermelon seeds: Watermelon seeds are soaked in Kumkum (vermilion) water for a day
before sowing. They will germinate faster and grow into healthy plants.
Bitter gourd seeds: If soaked in milk for a day prior to sowing bitter gourd seeds will germinate
faster and develop well.

Mechanical seed enhancement

The methods to improve seed quality by mechanical techniques include polishing, rubbing
of seed coat (testa) or fruit coat (pericarp) projections or hairs, sorting into defined seed size
classes or sorting by seed density. Ex: In Sugar beet fruits, where polishing removes projections
of the pericarp/perianth, which is followed by sorting into defined seed size classes is practiced.

Physiological seed enhancement

Seed priming is a physiologically based seed enhancement process for improving the
germination characteristics of seeds. Seed priming is accomplished by partially hydrating seeds
and maintaining them under defined moisture, temperature and aeration conditions for a
prescribed period of time. In this state, seeds are optimally hydrated and desirable metabolic
activity is attained, thereby allowing important pre-germination steps to be accomplished within
the seeds. These include: repair of membranes, DNA and RNA synthesis and repair,
development of immature embryos, alteration of tissues covering the embryo, destruction or
removal of dormancy blocks, and general pre-germination metabolism enhancement.

Pregerminated seeds: Seeds are pre-germinated and sown in a protective fluid carrier/gel i.e.
creating a stable 'packaged' environment. This is followed by sorting for specific stages, a
treatment that re-induces desiccation tolerance and drying. Nutrients, fungicides and
insecticides may be incorporated into the carrier gel. The uncontrollable factors in the field
environment which affect seed germination can be eliminated by the sowing of pre-germinated
seeds in a protective fluid carrier. Used for Turf grass, vegetables, flower seeds.
Eg., PreNova and PreMagic pregerminated seed products in petunia, pansy and impatiens
hybrids. During the pre-germination process, the seed coat cracks and the radicle emerge. Later,
dead seeds and abnormal seeds are removed from the lot. PreMagic seeds are essentially 100%
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

viable seeds. PreNova pregerminated seeds are supplied in modified condition with extended
shelf life.

Fluid drilling or gel seeding: It is mixing of pre germinated seed in a viscous gel, which is
sown with an appropriate droll to maintain the seed moisture of the pre geminated seeds and to
prevent injury to emerged radical. Seeds are germinated in aerated water until radicle emergence
and then they are mixed in a viscous gel eg., alginate gel. The viscous gel provides a cushion to
the emerged radicle thus preventing any mechanical damage during drilling. The gel also gives a
protective covering to the seed against any moisture loss.

B) Seed priming: It is a pre-sowing treatment that involves exposure of seeds to low external
water potential that limits hydration. Seeds are soaked in water/ osmotic solution that allows
them to imbibe water, go through initial stages of germination, but does not permit the radicle
protrusion through seed coat. There is triphasic uptake of water during imbibition wherein there
is uptake of water followed by ATP production, mobilization of reserves, initiation of RNA
and DNA synthesis, protein synthesis and in the last phase cell expansion and radicle protrution.
This hydration is sufficient to permit pre-germinative metabolic events but insufficient to allow
radicle protrusion through the seed coat. Seed priming is accomplished by partially hydrating
seeds and maintaining them under defined moisture, temperature and aeration conditions for a
prescribed period of time.

Benefits of seed priming:

 Repair of membranes
 DNA and RNA synthesis and repair
 Development of immature embryos
 Alteration of tissues covering the embryo
 Destruction or removal of dormancy blocks
 General pre-germination metabolism enhancement
 Faster emergence (Early Stand Establishment)
 Crop uniformity, Reduce disease incidence, weed control, more vigorous plants
 Better drought tolerance, early flowering, early harvesting, higher grain yield.

Seed priming methods

Hydro priming: Currently used both in the sense of steeping (imbibition in H2O for a short
period), and in the sense of ‘continuous or staged addition of a limited amount of water’. Hydro
priming methods have practical advantages of minimal waste material produced (vs. osmo-
matripriming). Slow imbibition is the basis of the patented ‘drum priming’ and related
techniques. Water availability is not limited here; some seeds will eventually complete
germination unless the process is interrupted prior to the onset of phase III water uptake.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Steeping is an simple technique practiced over many centuries; ‘chitting’ of rice seeds, on-farm
steeping advocated in many parts of the world as a pragmatic, low cost/low risk method for
improved crop establishment. Steeping can also remove residual amounts of water soluble
germination inhibitors from seed coats (e.g. Apiaceae, sugar beets). It can also be used to
infiltrate crop protection chemicals for the control of deep-seated seed borne disease, etc. This
treatment usually involves immersion or percolation (up to 30oC for several hrs.), followed by
draining and drying back to near original seed moisture content. Short ‘hot-water steeps’
(thermotherapy), typically ~ 50oC for 10 to 30 min, are used to disinfect or eradicate certain seed
borne fungal, bacterial, or viral pathogens; extreme care, precision needed to avoid loss of seed
quality.

Drum priming: Seed are hydrated in a tumbling drum using precise volume of water and the
amount of water is limited so that it is less than the amount needed for natural imbibition and
seed germination to occur. Drum priming enhances seed performance without the loss and
additional materials associated with the conventional osmotic priming technique.

Osmo priming: Seeds are either soaked or moistened with aerated solutions of low water
potential, and rinsed upon completion of priming. Mannitol and inorganic salts [KNO3, KCl,
Ca(NO3)2, etc] are used for priming. Polyethylene glycol (PEG; 6,000-8,000 mol. wt.) mainly
preferred because of its large molecule size prevents movement into living cells.
Matrix-priming: Seeds are mixed with solid, insoluble matrix particles (vermiculite, clay pellets,
etc.) in predetermined proportions. Seeds slowly imbibe, reaching an equilibrium hydration
level, after incubation/priming, the moist matrix material is removed by sieving or screening, or
may be partially incorporated into a coating. It mimics the natural uptake of water by the seed
from soil, or greenhouse mix particles. Seeds generally mixed into carrier at matric potentials
from -0.4 to -1.5 MPa at 15-20oC for 1-14 d. This technique is successful in enhanced seed
performance of many smaller and large seeded species.

Halo or chemo priming: Soaking the seed in various solution of inorganic salts like KCl,
KNO3, CaCl2, Ca(No3)2. This method is particularly used when sowing seed in salt-affected
soils.

Thermo priming: Pre soaking seed treatment, with high and low temperature to improve
germination and emergence under different environmental conditions. Various thermoinhibition
can be alleviated by low and high temperature treatments. Pre-sowing temperature of seed can
also alleviate the adverse effect of abiotic stress. Chilling treatment of Brassica juncia seed for 5,
10, or 15 d resulted in enhanced germination under salt stress

Bio priming: Beneficial microbes included in the priming process, either as a technique for
colonizing seeds and/or to control pathogen proliferation during priming. Compatibility of
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

biological agents with existing crop protection seed treatments sometimes limits the scope of
biopriming, e.g. Bacillus, Trichoderma, Gliocladium,etc.

On farm seed priming: Farmers can prime their own seed if they know the safe limits. These
safe limits are calculated for each variety so that germination will not continue once seeds are
removed from the water. Primed seed will only germinate if it takes up additional moisture from
the soil after sowing. It is important to note this distinction between priming and pre-
germination–sowing pre-germinated seed under dry land conditions can be disastrous. In most
cases seed can be primed overnight and is simply surface-dried and sown the same day.
Occasionally, sowing may be unavoidably delayed – by heavy rain for example. If primed seed
is surface-dried and kept dry it can be stored for several days, then sown as usual and this still
perform better than non-primed seed. Farmers can prime their own seeds if they know the
maximum length of time for which their seeds can be soaked before seed or seedling damage
occurs. After the seeds have been soaked for the appropriate length of time, the water is drained
off and the seeds are surface-dried by placing them on a cloth or plastic sheet on the ground for
15 to 30 minutes or, for small amounts of seeds, rolled gently in a dry cloth so that they do not
stick together.

Physical seed enhancement

Seed Coating: It is a process of applying useful materials to form a continuous layer of this
coating over seed without altering the shape or size. It comprises of seed film coating, seed
colouring and seed pelleting. Among these the seed colouring and film coating have prominent
role in future agriculture. The advantage of film coating over other coating process is the absence
of dusting off “Problem and improvement of seed flow in planting equipment. Seed coating is a
technique of seed encapsulation with organic, inorganic, nutrients water absorbents and
pesticides. Much of the seed coating technology available today was originated in New Zealand
in the I950's. Seed coating technique was used to facilitate precision planting and especially as a
mechanism to modify the weight and shape of forage and turf grass seed for aerial planting. In
1968, coating technology was introduced into the U.S. when Ramsey Seed purchased the rights
from New Zealand. Since that time a variety of applications as well as types of coatings and
coating technology used in the seed industry have been exploited. Due to the initial high cost of
coating chemicals and equipment necessary for coating seed, this technology is confined to high
value crops.
Seed coatings can be done in different ways, namely; Chemical protectants (Captan,
Apron, Vitavax, etc.), microorganisms (Rhizobium, Trichoderma), Slurry coating, Film coating
and Temperature-sensitive polymers (Intellicoat). In case of slurry coating, a wettable powder is
suspended in water to make slurry and a known quantity of slurry and the seeds are dumped in
mixing chamber where they are blended. The treatment fluid is directly applied to the seeds in
the form of mist in a mist-o-matic seed treater. Film coating is the application of a thin, durable
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

and water permeable coat which can be used to contain pesticides and other products securely, so
that they may have maximum effect at the time of sowing. The seed shape is not changed and
increase in seed weight is by 1-10 %.

Process of various seed coating technologies

Seed film coating Seed colouring Seed pelleting

Seed coating polymer Colouring materials Adhesive + Filler material
+ Active ingredients (Natural or Nutrients + Adhesive
(fungicide+ insecticide) synthetic dyes) Adhesive + Bioinoculants,
Biofertilizers + pelleted seed
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Seed colouring: The seeds are sprayed or dipped in the

dissolved dyes. The practice of providing an exogenous colour
coating to seed is only of recent interest. But it is very much
prevalent in developed countries for the last decade.
Colouring of seeds along with pelleting/film coating is
adapted in private sector seed companies in the US, Canada
and Europe these enable the seeds to be sown in defined
pattern besides, modifying germination. In recent years, it is
being widely practiced in India as well. Seeds of many
cultivated crops have naturally irregular proportions and
surfaces, wide size ranges, sticky or very small. These features can make it hard to handle and
efficiently sow the seed. So seed colouring helps in sealing the cracks on the seed coat and it will
improve the physical appearance of seeds. However, it gives the seed a distinct and attractive
look, to reduce dust and promote environment safety as well as workers safety in the field.
Hence, “pelleting”, colouring” and coating are a family of treatments that are used to make seeds
sown easily by altering by their shape, weight and textures besides modifying its germination.
Colouring of seeds using natural or artificial dyes is done to
• To prevent inadvertent use of treated seeds for food or feed purposes
• To identify the seeds eg., a line, bline, rline etc.,
• To project their seed in the market eg. Private companies

Seed Pelleting: It is the process of enclosing the seed inside a small quantity of inert
material just large enough to produce a globular unit of standard size to facilitate precision
planting. The inert material creates a natural water holding media and provides small amount of
nutrients to young seedlings. Seed pelleting is the mechanism of applying needed materials in
such a way that they influence the seed or soil and the seed-soil interface. The main
objective was to build small irregularly shaped seeds into spheres facilitating precision
drilling in order to achieve optimum plant stand and thereby reduce the need for gap
filling. The three basic steps involved in pelleting are stated as stamping, coating and
rolling. First in the sequence fungicide is to be directly coated on to the seed to improve its
efficiency followed by filler materials before coating the nutrients. It is essentially required to
avoid direct contact of nutrient, chemicals to the seed. Otherwise this may results in scorching of
the seed and developing seedlings. As final sequence seeds can be coated with filler materials
followed by bioinoculant and Biofertilizers.
The term ‘pelleted seeds’ refers to the addition of inert filler materials to increase the
apparent seed size and weight. Seed pelleting may obscure the original shape and size of the
seed. The pellet contains chemicals, fungicides, polymers ,dyes, filler material and adhesive. The
seeds of many horticultural species are either small or irregularly shaped, making it difficult to
singulate them for planting. Seed pelleting addresses both of these problems by coating seeds
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

with clay or other materials to give them a uniform shape and size and increasing their size and
density to allow more precise placement in the soil.

Advantages of pelleting
• Singling of seed is achieved, helpful in precision planting in mechanized farming
• Small and irregular seeds are made easy to handle
• Accurate dosing of seed with chemical is possible and the wastage of chemical is
prevented
• Pelleting acts as innoculant, protectant, nutrient and are conditionally hydrophillic
• Stress condition can be overcome by pelleting even in low water holding capacity

Seeds are introduced into a coating drum or pan that resembles a cement mixer. An
amalgam of pelleting materials (clays, limestone, calcium carbonate, talc, vermiculite) and
cementing adhesives (gum arabic, gelatin, methylcellulose, polyvinyl alcohol, polyoxylethylene
glycol-based waxes) are used to form the pellet and other compounds such as innoculants,
fungicides, etc. may be added to enhance seed performance. As drum rotates, the seeds are first
sprayed with water followed by the addition of the pelleting materials with binder. The wet seed
attracts and becomes coated with the dry pelleting material and the pellet gradually increases in
size with each turn of coating drum . Longer rotation times with greater amounts of pelleting
materials lead to greater pellet size and roundness. At the end of the pelleting process, a binder is
added to harden the outer layer of the pellet. The ingredients of the seed pellets exerts respective
positive influence on seed performance eg., Diammonium phosphate stimulates prolific root
growth.

Types of seed pelleting and its constituents

Types of seed
Ingredients Filler materials Adhesives
pelleting
Nutrient and Coating with macro and micro Gypsum or Rice gruel,
seed pelleting nutrients e.g., DAP, ZnSO4, FeSO4, charcoal or wheat gruel,
CuSO4, KCl, Borax etc. chalk powder gum arabiac,
Organic seed Leaf powders e.g., Albizia amara, The leaf powder carboxy
pelleting Pongamia, Neem, prosopis, itself act as a methyl
Moringa, rhizome, curcuma filler cellulose
Acorus, (CMC),
Hydrophillic Starch polymers, Magnisium Gypsum or geatin, plastic
seed coating carbonate, Peroxides of Zn and Ca charcoal or resin, Poly
Seed Protecting Bio control agents - Bacillus sp, chalk powder vinyl acetate
pelleting Streptomyces sp, pesticieds
Inoculants Biofertilizers - Rhizobia, 200-300ml/kg
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

coating Azospirillum, Azotobactor, VAM of seeds

Oxygen supplier Peroxides of Znic & Calcium
coating

Dyes
Botanicals dyes : Jamun fruit extract, Beta vulgaris tuber extract, Curcuma longa rhizome
powder, Hibiscus rosasinensis flower extract
Synthetic dyes: Turquoise blue, Congo red, Sky blue, Jade green Polymers: Pink polykote,
Green polykote, Red polykote
Adhesive material: Gum arabica, methyl cellulose, gelatin, casein salts, Plastic rexins,
polyvinyl acetate, methyl ethyl cellulose, Polyurethane polyvinyl alcohol, dextran and
poly ethylene oxide.

Properties of adhesives
• Should posess the required degree of water solubility for easy emergence
• Should have affinity for both seed coat and the filler material
• Should have appropriate viscosity
• Should have required strength and plasticity to prevent breakage

Filler material: Lime, gypsum, dolomite, rock phosphate, clay minerals like
montmorillonite, vermiculite. Besides blood, peat, poultry manure, moss and mucilage.
Selection criteria for a filler material
• Must be porous to allow movement of air to the seed
• Coating must weaken or break down easily when it comes in
contact with soil moisture to prevent any physical impedance
• Should not be toxic to the seed
• Economical to apply on commercial basis

Seed film coating: Halmer (1987) describes film coating as the process in which additives are
dissolved or dispersed in a liquid adhesive, usually a dyed solution of a polymer, into which the
seeds are dipped or sprayed before drying. This is accomplished with the original shape of the
seed being largely unaffected. Film coating depends upon efficient exposure of seed to liquid to
ensure an even coating. The film forming formulation consists of a mixture of polymer,
plasticizer and colorants. This formulations are commercially available that are ready to use in
both liquids and powder forms. Application of film forming mixtures results in uniform
deposition of materials on each seed with very little variation among seeds. Film coating and
pelleting may be combined by integrating these two different processes. Film coating may be
performed as the final step after pelleting to provide a dust free as well as better stability of the
pellet.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Film coating is one of the primary way of enhancing seed performance through the addition of
chemicals to protect the seed from pathogens. These are generally fungicides, although
insecticides and other protectants can also be applied in this way. In film coating, the chemicals
are applied in a polymer that is sprayed on the seeds as they fall though a specialized machine.
The polymer is rapidly dried, so that the seeds emerge with a complete, dry polymeric coating.
This coating does not rub off the seeds, greatly reducing worker exposure and waste. In addition,
colors can be added to the polymers to code different varieties or seed lots. Large-scale units
capable of treating large quantities of seeds per hour have been developed, making it feasible to
treat high-volume agronomic crops by this method.

Film coating products contain polymers, dyes and surfactants and form a fine, air- and water-
permeable film that improves the distribution and retention of crop protection agents on the seed
surface. The coating products contribute to significant reduction in the amount of dust released
during the application of the crop protection agents to the seed and during handling and use of
the treated seed on the farm.
• The film coating improves the flowability of the seed.
• Film coating allows sowing rates to be managed accurately.
• The coloration of the coating gives the seed an attractive, glossy appearance, but also has
the practical use of allowing differentiation between varieties and between different types
of treatment.
• Film coatings do not significantly modify the shape and weight of the seed.
There are two types of polymers used, namely; Hydrophilic polymer, which absorbs water
uniformly and facilitate early emergence and hydrophobic polymer, which repel water and cause
delayed germination. Some novel applications have also been developed using the film coating
method. For example, artificial polymers have been developed that exhibit temperature-sensitive
permeability to water (Landec Corporation, Menlo Park, California). These Intelimers are
permeable to water at warm temperatures, but not at cool temperatures. Modifying the
composition of the polymer can set the temperature at which the permeability changes. Seeds
coated with these polymers will not imbibe water if the temperature is below the set point of the
polymer, potentially protecting the seed from imbibitional chilling injury. The coatings are also
being used to delay germination after planting, such as for timing the emergence of male parent
lines at different times for hybrid seed production. A starch-based biopolymer is also being used
in film coating to slow water uptake and alleviate chilling injury (SeedBiotics SB2000™).

Seed fortification: It is impregnation of required substances for invigorating the seed for
improved production where the seeds are soaked either in water or dilute solutions of bioactive
chemicals such as micronutrients, growth regulators, vitamins and seed protectants. Seeds are
soaked in solutions of equal volume for a duration of 6-24 hours depending upon the crop to
raise the moisture content of the seed to 20-25 % just enough for endogenous impregnation of
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

the chemicals by exogenous application. The choice of chemicals, its concentration and duration
of soaking vary with the species and decide the success of the treatments.

Seed infusion: This seed treatment technique is a method which directly incorporates bioactive
chemicals into seeds by using organic solvents such as acetone or dichloromethane. It has been
known for years that ethyl alcohol and acetone can make the hard coats of some seeds
permeable. Dry seeds are immersed for 1-4 hours in solvents such as acetone or dichloromethane
containing desired solutes. During this period the desired chemical is incorporated into the seeds.
Following infusion, the seeds are removed from the organic solution and the solvent is
evaporated by air or vaccum dessication for 1-2 hours. The treated seeds can be stored for
extended periods or sown directly into the soil, with the additional benefit of bioactive
compound.
Organic solvent infusion provides many advantages over conventional seed treatment methods
viz.:
• Many seed protectants are only slightly soluble in water but are highly soluble in organic
solvents. This approach allows the incorporation of nonwater soluble compounds directly
into the seeds.
• Several compounds can be added simultaneously to the seed to provide a range of seed
response from release of dormancy to protection against soil microorganisms.
• Seeds can be safely treated in organic solvents for long periods of time without altering
viability- a common problem associated with aqueous solutions of seed protectants.
• Compared to conventional methods, only small amount of bioactive chemicals are needed
for organic solvent infusion, which minimizes the danger of toxic residue accumulation in
the soil.
• After the chemicals are infused into the seed, they offer little or no danger to the personnel
handling them.

Seed tapes, mats and plugs: The traditional way to raise numerous seedlings is to place seeds
in rows in trays or nursery bed, then transplant these very fragile plants into larger pots or plots.
This method is very labor-intensive and results in considerable mortality from transplant shock or
root loss. With the use of modern technologies of nursery growing in seed mats, seed tapes and
seed plugs, it has given new dimensions to the nursery growing of high value seeds of vegetables
and flowers.

Seed tapes: These are narrow bands of material, such as paper or other degradable material, with
seeds spaced randomly, in groups or in a single row. Seed tapes are an easy way to plant a row of
seeds with precision spacing. This is a valuable technique when you have a short supply of seeds,
or each is very expensive. It provides for uniform spacing and avoids the need to thin out
sprouting seedlings. Many commercial seed companies manufacture seed tapes. Easy to use,
these seed tapes are just seeds fastened to some sort of thin biodegradable paper by an adhesive
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

that itself is biodegradable. This allows for the plant roots to grow through the paper as the
adhesive dissolves around the seed so as not to obstruct growth. These tapes are well suited for
small seeds that need to be thinned after germination, such as carrots, beets, and lettuce.

Seed mats: These are broad sheets of material, such as paper or other degradable material, with
seeds placed in rows, groups or at random throughout the sheets. Pre-seeded mats come with
attractive flower seed mixes often chosen around a theme and are a good if you don't mind your
choice of flowers being somewhat limited. A unique combination of Annual, Biennial and
Perennial plants ensures instant colour and a long term garden. The Seed Mat aids initial growth
by acting as a mulch mat to allow the seedling a head start over other competing plants and also
helps to retain vital moisture while the seeds germinate. The Seed is distributed evenly
throughout the mat allowing correct spacing for germination. After seeds have germinated, some
seedlings may be thinned out and transplanted to other areas of the garden. The Seed Mat
consists of two sheets of special paper in-between the seed grains are placed at exact distances.
For Seed Mats, only quality seed pre-tested laboratory should be used. The spacement between
the single seed grains is adapted to seed species and quality thus guaranteeing the optimal
number of plants in each cultivating pot or bed.
For pots, cultivating trays and hotbeds: Seed Mats are available in several sizes
for young plants cultivation in pots, cultivating trays and hotbeds.

Kind of cultivation Seed mat Sizes

Pots Round 8 cm; 9 cm; 10 cm; 11 cm; 13 cm
Trays Rolls, perforated 12.5 cm x 17 cm; 12.5 cm x 20 cm; 30
cm x 40 cm; 40 cm x 60 cm
Hotbeds Rolls, not perforated 10, 25, 50 and 100 m

Advantages of seed mats

 saves you the time and effort of preparing a proper seed bed
 useful over some difficult soils
 with a seed mat you only need to remove obstructions like growing weeds, and loosen
up the soil if it is compacted - then 'roll out the flowers'
 seed mats control weeds by acting as a barrier mulch
 the seeds get off to a good start - you simply water the mat
 flowers are spaced out correctly to avoid need for thinning
 use a seeded mat if the weather or the soil has been unsuitable for cultivating a proper
seed bed - or if you haven't had the time
 easy and simple for children to use
 mats can be cut to any size or shape
 most pre-seeded mats contain a mix of flowers, making them more economical than
several packets of seed. But you also get ideal conditions for germination and seedling
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

growth often giving a better return in flowers

 the mats are all natural and biodegradable
 seed mixtures are available for wild flowers, fragrant flowers, tall bedding, borders,
Sunflowers, Hollyhocks and other favourite flowers

Heated seed mats: These are large heated rubber mats that provide the perfect amount of gentle
heat in the initial stages of germination thus allowing early seeding in the winter season also.
They are pre-tested and set to the correct germination temperatures. The mat and rack are
together so warmth travels upward through the open space between the flat and the mat. Heat
circulates into and through the soil. It contains an electric heating element to produce and
maintain a uniform radiant heat. This heated rubber mat is thermostatically controlled: the heating
mat is maintained at a constant temperature.

Seed plugs: A plug is a containerized transplant with a self-enclosed root system The advantages
to growing seedlings from plugs are numerous: less time and labor to transplant, reduced root
loss, more uniform growth, faster crop time, and increased production.
Plugs are produced in multi-cell plastic trays, also called flats. The trays are available in a
wide range of cell sizes and depths—anywhere from 50 to 800 cells in a single tray. The type of
flat chosen will depend on the species being grown and the length of time spent growing it. Rigid
foam cell trays are an alternative to plastic trays. Though more expensive per unit, they have the
advantage of greater durability and “stand-alone” ability—particularly important when using
automated equipment. They are quite bulky, however, and will not nest for storage. Lightweight
plastic trays, in contrast, are easy to store in the off-season and cost less, but are less durable and
usually require an under tray to maintain sufficient rigidity for convenient handling.

Mid storage treatments/ mid storage corrections

Seeds in storage accumulate damage to cell membranes during senescence .Mid storage
seed treatments are capable of reducing the age induced damages and restoring the seed vigour to
a certain extent besides, the seed viability and productivity of stored seeds are also improved.
These may be dry or wet seed treatments.
 Hydration and dehydration treatment and
 Dry seed treatments- Use of antioxidants and botanical agents

Hydration – Dehydration treatments

It is the process of soaking the low and medium vigour seeds in water with or without
added chemicals usually for short durations to raise the seed moisture content to 25 – 30% and
drying back the seeds to safe limits for dry storage.

Types of H-D treatments: The wet treatments include soaking-drying, dipping-drying,

spraying-drying, stepwise hydration-drying, moisture equilibration-drying, moisture
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

equilibration soaking-drying, moist and conditioning-drying, etc. The choice of the treatment
depends upon the characteristics of seed and initial vigour status of the seeds.

Soaking – Drying (S-D): Stored seed is soaked in water or solution of chemicals sufficient to
cover it and kept at room temperature for 2-6 hour depending on the material with occasional
stirring. The soaked seed is taken out and after surface drying in the shade for some time, dried
back to the original moisture content Dilute solution of chemicals such as sodium or potassium
phosphate (di and mono basic), sodium chloride, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, p-amino benzoic acid,
oxalic acid, potassium lodide, etc can also be used at 10-4 to 10-3 M concentrations. Fungicidal
and insecticidal formulations can also be incorporated in the soak water.

Dipping – Drying (D-D) : Seeds are dipped in water or solutions of the aforesaid chemicals for
only 2-5 minutes and the wet seed is taken out immediately and kept covered for 2 – 6 hours
depending on the material, for absorption of surface water followed by drying back in S-D. This
treatment is effective in most high and high-medium vigour seeds of rice, wheat, jute, summer
and winter vegetables

Spraying – Drying: Seeds are spread in a thin layer and then an amount of water (approximately
1/5 to ¼ of the seed weight) is sprayed on to it in two equal installments (turning over the seed
layer after the first spray) and then kept covered by a polythene sheet for 2-4 hours before
drying back. This treatment is similar to D-D in its efficacy and suitability.

Moisture equilibration – drying (ME – D): Here, the seeds are placed in thin layers on trays
kept on a raised platform in a closed moisture saturated chamber lined internally with moist
blotters giving nearly 100% RH at room temperature. After 24-48 hours, depending on the
material and ambient temperature, the seed is dried back in the usual way. For soaking injury
prone seeds this treatment, which gives a slow and progressive rise in moisture content, is very
effective. ME-D, however, difficult to practice on a large scale and is not advocated for low
vigour non leguminous seeds because of possible aging effect of the treatment especially when
given for prolonged periods.

Moist sand conditioning – drying (MSC-D): This treatment is similar to the moisture
equilibration treatment but easier to practice. For slow and progressive moisture uptake, the seed
is thoroughly mixed with pre-moistened sand, using 3 times the amount of air dry sand than
seed. Moisture content of sand is adjusted to 5-10 by adding the requisite amount of water or
solution of chemicals to previously washed and dried fine grain building grade sand. The
addition of water should be so adjusted as to get the required hydration effect without initiating
the germination process. After mixing the dry seed with the premoistened sand, the mixture is
kept at room temperature for 16 – 36 hours depending on the material and sand moisture content.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

The seed absorbs moisture from sand and after incubation the hydrated seed is separated from
sand by sieving and dried back to the original weight.

Mode of Action: The main purpose of hydration is to raise the seed moisture content to 25 –
30% (wet weight basis) before drying back to safe limits for dry storage. The hydration -
dehydration treatment may improve the vigour by controlling free radical reactions and
consequent peroxidative damage to lipoprotein cell membranes.

The hydration – dehydration treatments

1. Should be given only to stored seeds.
2. Is effective in low and medium vigour non- leguminous seeds,
3. The moisture equilibration and moist sand conditioning treatments in which moisture is taken
up by the seed in a slow and progressive manner, are recommended for relatively high-
vigour seeds and seeds of pulses and leguminous vegetable crops
6. Direct soaking of leguminous seeds should be avoided.
7. It would not make a seed germinable, which has already lost viability.

Dry seed treatments- Use of antioxidants and botanical agents

Solvent infusion: Infusion of organic solvents (hydro benzoic acid, potassium iodide, p-amino
benzoic acid)
Vapour treatment: Infusion of chemical through vapour (2-3 g calcium carbonate , 2-10 g
Iodine and seeds)

Commercial application of seed coating techniques

Pollinator Plus from Landec Ag, Inc.: Pollinator Plus coatings use intellicoat temperature and
time responsive polymers to regulate water uptake of pollen parent seed. The coatings are set to
delay germination by either 50 or 100 Heat Units. Uncoated and coated seeds are planted at the
same time. The uncoated plants actively shed pollen while the coated seed will not germinate
until the heat unit requirement is met. The intelligent seed coatings are supplied with a full seed
treatment package to maximize stand count and plant health. Custom seed treatment options are
available to meet the needs of particular production environments. Pollinator Plus seed coating
products are being developed for use in popcorn, grain sorghum and sunflower hybrid seed
production. Currently, over thirty major seed companies are involved in the production of seed
corn are using Pollinator Plus technology.
Benefits:
• Delays emergence of male parent and reduces production risks
• Eliminates or reduces split planting, cutting or flaming operations
• Provides extended pollen shed window and streamlines planting operations.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

Intellicoat's Smart Seed Technology

Intellicoat technology uses a patented temperature activated polymer that regulates the
permeability of water into the seed as a function of temperature. When the soil is below the
preset temperature (55 degrees Fahrenheit) the coating restricts water entry into the seed
preventing germination. When the soil warms above the pre-set temperature(above 55 degrees),
the coating becomes permeable, allowing the seed to take up water and germinate under
optimum conditions. As long as the soil temperature is too cold for healthy germination, the
Intelimer polymer coating maintains a dense crystalline structure around the seed. Like a shell, it
forms a barrier between the seed and moisture in the soil, restricting the seed's ability to absorb
water. By restricting the seed's ability to absorb moisture, the coating protects the seed under
cold and wet conditions. When, the soil warms to a temperature that's safe for healthy seedling
growth, the polymer shell changes. Its physical structure becomes amorphous, making it
permeable to water, thus allowing the seed to absorb the moisture it needs to germinate. What's
more, if the weather gets cold again, the entire process is reversed and repeated until healthy
germination is achieved.
Intelimer intelligent polymers
• Are derivatives of natural fatty acids, water-based and environmentally safe
• Are materials that respond to temperature changes in a controllable, predictable way
• Can change their permeability based on temperature fluctuations
• Involve a physical, and not a chemical change, so the change is reversible

INCOTEC – Your Partner in Seed Quality

INCOTEC, Integrated Coating and seed Technology, has been active worldwide in the field of
seed coating and pelleting technology for over 30 years. Incotec is world leader in seed
technology with more than 1000 product range in it’s portfolio to add value to the genetics of
seed companies. Seed coating polymers from Incotec are,
DISCO Seed coating polymer: “DISCO” is brand name of Incotec’s seed coating polymer and
it stands for “DISinfection and COloring of Seed ”. INCOTEC can offer a range of Seed coating
polymer for the dust free treatment and coloring of seeds in the next seven categories:

DISCO CLEAR: This range consists of transparent liquid (without pigment) which are suitable
to all levels of dosages. Application can vary from binding some fungicides. e.g., on agricultural
seeds, until a combination of several chemicals on vegetables and flower seeds. Coat L–244 is
recommended as a standard for all applications including bulky field crops.

DISCO METAL: Properties of this polymer is similar to DISCO COLOUR range by means of
storability, coverage, drying, stability, and presentation. The element of presentation is even
better enforced by the metallic shine added to the seeds. DISCO METAL is available in the
specific standard colors red, yellow, blue, green, black and orange.
 Dr. Sowmya, K.J., TA, DSS&T, GKVK, UAS(B) 2020

DISCO GUARD: The DISCO GUARD range having inbuilt repellents for stored grain insects
and is very effective in controlling damage to seed from stored grain insect while storing the
seeds. This range is also very high in it’s binding power with slow release traits.

Biologicals: Incotec has exclusive arrangements with Bio Works in the USA, which have
developed a special Trichoderma strain suitable for seed treatment. For most optimal application
and growth stimulating effect of the Trichoderma Incotec has developed a DISCO CARE film
coat formulation. This DISCO CARE is available as a powder which includes the Trichoderma.
By adding water to this DISCO CARE it becomes a liquid with excellent sticking ability. There
are also other bio-inoculants under research and will be commercially available very soon. Micro
organisms like certain Trichoderma and Gliocladium strains can be very sensitive to the film coat
polymers and fungicides. Incotec is therefore testing each microorganism on compatibility with
fungicides.

Stephen Pasture Seed (SPS): e.g., SPS KickStart. Seed coats are far more suited to extending
bacteria life, and these products have been very extensively tested in laboratories for an extended
period of time to optimize bacteria life within the seed coat. The new powder alone is a huge
improvement over adhesive, with the inclusion of polymers will greatly improve pellet quality.

REFERENCES:
BASU, R. N., 1993, Seed invigouration for extended storability. Seed Res., 1:217-230
SCOTT, J.M., 1989, Seed coating treatments and their effects on plant establishment. Adv.
Agron., 42: 43-83.
TAYLOR, A. G., ALLEN, P. S., BENETT, M. A., BRADFORD, K. J., BURRIS, J. S. AND
MISRA, M. K., 1998, Seed enhancements. Seed Sci. Res., 8: 245-256