ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Saung Hnin for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

The program or set of programs is developed based on

1. Algorithm Design & the design.
Each module of the program is written using a suitable
Problem-Solving programming language.
Testing is conducted to ensure that each module
functions correctly.
1.1. Program Development Life Cycle Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting
(PDLC) modular tests, making code amendments if necessary,
and repeating tests until the module meets the required
Analysis functionality.
Design
Coding Testing
Testing
Maintenance The completed program or set of programs is executed
multiple times using various test data sets.
Analysis This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the
program work together as specified in the program
Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and design.
document the problem clearly, known as the Running the program with different test data can identify
"requirements specification" for the program. and address potential issues and errors.
The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality
and decomposition to identify the specific requirements and performance of the program by evaluating its
for the program. behaviour with various inputs.
Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed
for the solution while eliminating unnecessary details 1.2. Structure Diagrams
and information.
Decomposition involves breaking down complex Every computer system is made up of sub-systems,
problems into smaller, more manageable parts that can which are in turn made up of further sub-systems.
be solved individually. Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer
Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for system into sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system
easier understanding and solving. into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a
single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically
Design represents a top-down design. Example below.
The program specification derived from the analysis
stage is used as a guide for program development.
During the design stage, the programmer should clearly
understand the tasks to be completed, the methods for
performing each task, and how the tasks will work
together.
Documentation methods such as structure charts,
flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to document
the program's design formally. 1.3. Pseudocode & Flowcharts
Coding and iterative testing

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Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants
process or set of steps) and flowcharts are a Variable – Store of data which changes during
diagrammatic representation. execution of the program (due to user input)
Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the Constant – Store of data that remains the same
steps required to complete a task and the order that during the execution of the program
they are to be performed Basic Data Types
Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100
called an algorithm Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64
Char – Single Character e.g. a; Y
String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. ZNotes; COOL
Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1
Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and
display data to the user respectively. (It is recommended
to use input and output commands)
INPUT Name
OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name

// Alternatively //

READ Name
PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name
An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper
question in which all of the functions of a flowchart are Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be
shown: declared by the following manner

DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE]

Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store

multiple values of same datatype under single name
DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Upper Lim

Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left

arrow.

[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]

ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assigned]

Conditional Statements:
This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
requirement (1.2) in this case. It then counts until the
accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs the
number of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are
ready to go!

2. Pseudocode

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Loop Structures:
FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/known

REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is

satisfied; Verification is done after running code

CASE…OF…OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple conditions and

corresponding consequences \n

WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – May not ever run; Verification

is done before running code

Note: When using conditions in these loop structures

and conditional statement, it has to be kept in mind that
it can be done in two ways.
1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value
TRUE or FALSE
2. comparisons made by using coparison operators,
where comparisons are made from left to right

IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDITION

THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

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MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- Array[

2.1. FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit
IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue
THEN
MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF

IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue

THEN
MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF
NEXT Counter

// Average//

2.2. Standard methods used in Total ← 0

FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues
algorithm: Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]
NEXT Counter
Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are Average ← Total / NumberOfValues
added to
Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is
Total ← 0 inspected sequentially until a match is found or the
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit entire list is traversed.
Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled
NEXT Counter
INPUT Value
Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an Found ← FALSE
action is performed is another standard method. Counter ← 0
REPEAT
PassCount ← 0
IF Value = Array[Counter]
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
THEN
INPUT Value
Found ← TRUE
IF Value > Range ELSE
THEN Counter ← Counter + 1
PassCount ← PassCount + 1
ENDIF
ENDIF
UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues
NEXT Counter IF Found
THEN
Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest
OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counter, "
and smallest values in a list are two standard methods
ELSE
that are frequently found in algorithms
OUTPUT Value , " not found."
ENDIF

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Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not
elements in a list to sort them. Start from the first suitable, if the solution is working properly is called
element and continue until the second-to-last element. abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
After each pass, the last element is in its correct place. e.g. in a program where only whole number values
However, other elements may still be unsorted. Repeat ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, abnormal
the process, excluding the last element, until only one data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520
element remains or no swaps are needed.

First ← 1
3.3. Extreme Data
Last ← 10
Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that
REPEAT
normal data can take
Swap ← FALSE
FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1]
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, extreme
THEN
data will be: 0 and 100
Temp ← Array[Index]
Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1] 3.4. Boundary Data
Array[Index + 1] ← Temp
Swap ← TRUE This is used to establish where the largest and smallest
ENDIF values occur
NEXT Index At each boundary two values are required: one value is
Last ← Last - 1 accepted and the other value is rejected.
UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1 e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, one
example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will
3. Test Data be accepted and 101 will not be accepted

Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and

assess the functionality and performance of a computer 4. Trace Table
program or system.
It helps identify errors and assess how the program A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of
handles different scenarios every step in an algorithm. It is employed to record the
variable's value each time it undergoes a change.
A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically
3.1. Normal Data executing an algorithm by following each step in
Normal data is the test data which accepts values in sequence.
A trace table is set up with a column for each variable
acceptible range of values of the program
and a column for any output e.g.
Normal data should be used to work through the
solution to find the actual result(s) and see if they are the
same as the expected result(s)
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, normal
test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100

3.2. Abnormal Data

Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart
and document the outcomes in a trace table. During the dry
run:

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Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is

recorded in the respective column of the trace table. 5. How to write an algorithm?
Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the
output column. The ability to write an algorithm is very important for
this syllabus and paper. Some key steps/points to be
An example of trace table is given below using a past paper
known in-order to write the perfect algorithm are as
question:
follows:
Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who
want to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres 1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood
are rejected. The ride starts when eight children have been which includes knowing the purpose of the algorithm
accepted. and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.
2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a
program which outputs average values, divide the
problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the
number of iterations and how to count the total of all
values)
3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into
variables/constants/arrays and what datatype it is,
and declare all the variables/constants/arrays
accordingly, with meaningfull names
4. Decide on how you are going to construct your
algorithm, either using a flowchart or pseudocode. If
you are told how to construct your algorithm, then
follow the guidance.
Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, 5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be
1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0 easily read and understood by someone else. Take
Riders
0
Reject
0
Height OUTPUT
particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are
1 1.4 used for loops and selection.
2
1
1.3
1.1
6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and
3 1.3 Boundary) to dry run your algorithm and check if the
4
2 1.0
1.5
expected results are achieved (a trace table can be
3 1.2 used for this purpose) . If error is found, find the
5
6
1.3
1.4
point of error in the trace table and fix it in the code.
7 1.3
4 0.9 Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these
8 1.5 Ready to go 4 notes were not designed with readability in mind because
you needed to work out what the problem being solved was.
4.1. Identifying errors:
5.1. Validation and Verification
Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program.
For example, if the requirement for the previous To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data
question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2 inputs, computer systems must thoroughly examine each
too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation
have been caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is and Verification come into play!
entered, it would increment rejected which it shouldn’t in
our example Validation

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Validation in computer systems involves automated checks
to ensure the reasonableness of data before accepting it. If OUTPUT "Enter the value "
the data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory REPEAT
message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the INPUT Value
data. IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)
There are multiple types of validation. These include: THEN
Range check OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please re-en
A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within ENDIF
specified upper and lower limits. UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)

REPEAT Presence check

INPUT Value
IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValue A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been
THEN entered and the value has not been left blank
OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the range"
OUTPUT "Please enter the value "
ENDIF
REPEAT
UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= MaximumValu
INPUT Value
IF Value = ""
Length check
THEN
This can either ensure that data consists of a precise OUTPUT "*=Required "
number of characters. ENDIF
UNTIL Value <> ""
OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , " cha
REPEAT Format Check
INPUT Value
IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit A format check checks that the characters entered conform
THEN to a pre-defined pattern.
OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit ," cha
ENDIF Check Digit
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit
A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is
It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number calculated from all the other digits.
of characters or not Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes,
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), and
OUTPUT "Please enter your value " Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).
REPEAT
INPUT Value Verification
IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value) < Lo
THEN Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied
OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-enter " from one source to another
ENDIF There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Value) are other methods during data transfer, but they are in
paper 1)
Type check
1. Double Entry
A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a
specific data type. Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.
The computer system compares both entries and if they
differ, an error message is displayed, prompting the data
to be reentered.

2. Screen/Visual check

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A screen/visual check involves the user manually Programs require input and output statements to handle
reviewing the entered data. data.
After data entry, the system displays the data on the In IGCSE Computer Science, algorithms and programs
screen and prompts the user to confirm its accuracy are designed to take input from a keyboard and output
before proceeding. to a screen.
The user can compare the displayed data against a paper Prompting the user with clear instructions for input is
document used as an input form or rely on their own necessary for the user to understand what is expected.
knowledge to verify correctness. Input data in programming languages must match the
required data type of the variable where it will be stored.
5.2. Programming Concepts By default, inputs are treated as strings, but commands
can convert input to integer or real number data types.
Constructs of a Program Users should be provided with information about the
output/results for a program to be useful.
Data use – variables, constants and arrays Each output should be accompanied by a message
Sequence – order of steps in a task explaining the result's meaning or significance.
Selection – choosing a path through a program If an output statement has multiple parts, they can be
Iteration – repetition of a sequence of steps in a program separated by a separator character.
Operators use arithmetic for calculations and logic and
Boolean for decisions. 6. File Handling
Variables and Constants
Computer programs store data that will be needed again
A variable within a computer program refers to a named in a file.
storage unit with a value that can be modified Data stored in RAM is volatile and will be lost when the
throughout the program's execution. To enhance computer is powered off.
comprehension for others, it is advisable to assign Data saved to a file is stored permanently, allowing it to
significant names to variables. be accessed by the same program at a later date or by
A constant within a computer program represents a other programs.
named storage unit that holds a value which remains Stored data in a file can be transferred and used on
unchanged throughout the program's execution. Similar other computers.
to variables, it is recommended to assign meaningful The storage of data in files is a commonly used feature in
names to constants to enhance comprehensibility for programming.
others.
Key point: When writing in a file, the program is
outputing the data to the file, and when reading a file,
Data Types
the program in inputing the data from the file
Different data types are assigned to computer systems \n There are 3 ways a file can be opened in a program i.e. to
for effective processing and storage. write, to read and to append
Data types allow data, such as numbers or characters, to
be stored appropriately. 6.1. Writing in a file
Data types enable effective manipulation using
mathematical operators for numbers and character
concatenation.
Some data types provide automatic validation.
The types of datatypes are told in Chapter 1 already!

Input and Output

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OPENFILE "[Link]" FOR WRITE Value1 <--- MOD(10,3) returns the remainder of 10
divided by 3
//When opening a file to write, all the data already Value2 <---- DIV(10,3) returns the quotient of 10 divided
by 3
Value3 <--- ROUND(6.97354, 2) returns the value
WRITEFILE "[Link]" , Value rounded to 2 decimal places
Value4 <--- RANDOM() returns a random number
// The next command of WRITEFILE would be writen on between 0 and 1 inclusive

CLOSEFILE "[Link]" 6.5. Creating a Maintainable Program

6.2. Reading a file: A maintainable program should:

OPENFILE "[Link]" FOR READ always use meaningful identifier names for variables,
READFILE "[Link]" , Variable constants, arrays, procedures and functions
// The value in the line (which is identified by the be divided into modules for each task using procedures
CLOSEFILE "[Link]" and functions
be fully commented using your programming language’s
commenting feature
6.3. Reading a file till EOF:
Commenting in pseudocode:
OPENFILE "[Link]" FOR READ
DECLARE DataVariable : STRING // Now the text written is commented and thus ignore
WHILE NOT EOF("[Link]) DO
READFILE "[Link]", DataVariable ""
// here the line can be outputted or stored in an a This method can also be used to comment
//before the file ends has been read multiple lines but the singular line method
ENDWHILE is more widely accepted and reccomended too
""

6.4. Library Routines

Programming language development systems often
7. Programming
provide library routines that can be readily incorporated
into programs. 7.1. Programming Languages
Library routines are pre-tested and ready for use, making
programming tasks easier. There are many high-level programming languages to
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) typically choose from. We will only be treating Python, Visual
include a standard library of functions and procedures. Basic, or Java.
Standard library routines perform various tasks,
including string handling.
MOD – returns the remainder of a division
DIV – returns the quotient (i.e. the whole number part) of
a division
ROUND – returns a value rounded to a given number of
decimal places
RANDOM – returns a random number.
Examples:

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Python is an open-source, versatile programming Strings are used to store text and can contain various
language that encourages quick program development characters.
and emphasises code readability. The integrated An empty string has no characters, while the
development environment (IDE) showcased in this programming language specifies the maximum number
chapter is referred to as IDLE. of characters allowed.
Visual Basic is a popular programming language that is Characters in a string can be identified by their position
extensively used for Windows development. The number, starting from either zero or one, depending on
integrated development environment (IDE) featured in the programming language.
this chapter is known as Visual Studio, which is utilised String handling is an important aspect of programming.
for capturing screenshots. In IGCSE Computer Science, you will need to write
Java is a widely adopted programming language utilised algorithms and programs for the following string
by numerous developers. The integrated development methods:
environment (IDE) employed for capturing screenshots in Length: Determines the number of characters in a
this chapter is known as BlueJ. string, including spaces.
Substring: Extracts a portion of a string.
7.2. Basic Concepts Upper: Converts all letters in a string to uppercase.
Lower: Converts all letters in a string to lowercase.
When writing the steps required to solve a problem, the These string manipulation methods are commonly
following concepts need to be used and understood: provided in programming languages through library
routines.
Sequence
Selection Finding the length of a string:
Iteration LENGTH("Text Here")
Counting and totalling
String handling LENGTH(Variable)
Use of operators.
Extracting a substring from a string:
Sequence
SUBSTRING("Computer Science", 10, 7)
The ordering of the steps in an algorithm is very important. // returns the next 7 values starting from the 10th
An incorrect order can lead to incorrect results and/or extra SUBSTRING(Variable, Position, Length)
steps that are not required by the task.
Converting a string to upper case
Selection
UCASE("Text here")
Selection is a very useful technique, allowing different routes
UCASE(Variable)
through the steps of a program. The code of this is explained
in the notes of previous chapters. Converting a string to lowercase
Iteration LCASE("Text Here")

As explained in the previous chapter, we already LCASE(Variable)

Totalling and Counting Arithmetic, Logical and Boolean Operators

As explained in the previous chapter, we already As explained in the previous chapter, we already

String Handling Use of Nested Statements

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Selection and iteration statements can be nested, When defining procedures and functions, the header is
meaning one statement can be placed inside another. the first statement in the definition.
Nested statements help reduce code duplication and The header includes:
simplify testing of programs. The name of the procedure or function.
Different types of constructs can be nested within each Parameters passed to the procedure or function,
other, such as selection statements within condition- along with their data types.
controlled loops or loops within other loops. The data type of the return value for a function.
Procedure calls are standalone statements.
Procedures and Functions Function calls are made as part of an expression,
typically on the right-hand side.
A procedure refers to a collection of programming
statements organized under a single name, invoked at Local and Global Variable
any given point in a program to execute a specific task.
A function is a compilation of programming statements Any part of a program can use a global variable – its
consolidated under a singular name, invoked at any scope covers the whole program
moment within a program to accomplish a particular A local variable can only be used by the part of the
task. Unlike a procedure, a function also has the program it is declared in – its scope is restricted to that
capability to return a value back to the main program. part of the program.
Parameters refer to variables that store the values of
arguments passed to a procedure or function. While not Note: Any variables/arrays made in this procedure and
all procedures and functions require parameters, some functions will be local and cannot be used out of these.
utilize them to facilitate their operations. To be made available all over the program, they must be
declared globally in the following way.
Procedures without parameters:
DECLARE [VariableName] : DataType AS GLOBAL
PROCEDURE ProcedureName ()
[Commands] 7.3. Arrays
ENDPROCEDURE
//Calling/running the procedure An array is a data structure containing several elements
CALL ProcedureName() of the same data type; these elements can be accessed
The procedure with parameters: using the same identifier name.
The position of each element in an array is identified
PROCEDURE ProcedureName (ParameterName : ParameterDa using the array’s index.
[Commands] There are two types of arrays
ENDPROCEDURE
//Calling/running the procedure One-Dimensional Array
CALL ProcedureName (ParameterValue)
Explained in the previous chapter in detail
Function:
Two-Dimensional Array
FUNCTION FunctionName (ParameterName : ParameterData
[Commands]
RETURN ValueToBeReturned
ENDFUNCTION

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A two-dimensional array can be referred to as a table

with rows and columns.

AND gate: A.B

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR gate: A + B
When a two-dimensional array is declared in
pseudocode, the first and last index values for rows and A
0
B
0
Output
0
the first and last index values for columns alongside the 0 1 1
data type are included. 1
1
0
1
1
1

Declaring a 2D Array:

DECLARE Name : ARRAY[RowLower:RowUpper,ColumnLower:C

Filling a 2-D array using a loop:

NAND gate: A.B
FOR ColumnCounter ← 0 TO 2 A B Output
0 0 1
FOR RowCounter ← 0 TO 9 0 1 1
OUTPUT "Enter next value " 1 0 1
1 1 0
INPUT ArrayName [RowCounter, ColumnCounter]
NEXT RowCounter
NEXT ColumnCounter

8. Boolean Logic NOR gate: A + B ​

8.1. Logic Gates and their functions A

0
B
0
Output
1
0 1 0
Six types of logic gates 1
1
0
1
0
0

NOT Gate
AND Gate
OR Gate
NAND Gate
NOR Gate XOR gate: A ⨁ B​
XOR Gate
A B Output
0 0 0
NOT gate: an inverter, A 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A Output
0 1
1 0

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9. Writing Logic Statements 10. Creating Truth Tables

Logic Statements is a way of showing all the logics that are in
place for a logic circuit.
10.1. From Logic Circuits
1. Create a truth table with each input possible, creating
9.1. Writing from a logic circuit every possible combination of inputs . Tip: For the
first input, write it in the combination of 1,0,1,0
1. Look at the ciruit and go around the logic gates used and so on. For the second, go 1,1,0,0 and so on,
in the circuit and for the third one, go 1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0 going by
2. Go from the one output that is being given towards the powers of 2 for each input. This would
the input guarantee each possible combination
3. Write the last gate ( the first gate you walk through ) 2. Run through the circuit with the inputs and get the
in the middle and then, for each of the value coming output that will be reached and write it accordingly
into the gate, leave space at the side
4. If the value coming into the gate is coming from For logic statements, and problem statements,
another gate, use a bracket for the gate’s logic convert them to logic circuits first and then do the
5. Repeat process 3-4 till you are able to reach the input rest
values fully

9.2. Writing from a truth table 10.2. Example

This is the example of a truth table of a logic circuit
1. Create logic circuit fom the truth table (shown later)
2. Write the logic statement using the ciruit

9.3. Writing from a Problem statement

1. See what logics go in place in the statement to take
place
2. Go from the logic of any 2 inputs at the start, and
then keep on going until you are able to reach the
final gate which gives the output
3. When writing the statement, make sure you show the
logic statement where the output is 1
The circuit:
9.4. Example of a LOGIC STATEMENT
(B AND C) OR (A NOR (A NAND C)) is the logic statement for
the following Logic Circuit

11. Logic Statements from

Truth Tables

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
A database is a well-organized compilation of data that
enables individuals to retrieve information according to their
specific requirements. The data contained within a database
can encompass various forms such as text, numerical
values, images, or any other type of digital content that can
be stored on a computer system.

13.1. Why do we need a database?

To store data about people, things, and events.
Any modifications or additions need to be made only
once, ensuring data consistency.
All users access and utilize the same set of data,
1. Given the truth table above, take the rows where the promoting uniformity.
output (x) is 1 (Rows 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7) Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive
2. Create a logic expression from these rows (example, manner, eliminating duplication.
row 1 will be (NOT A AND NOT B AND NOT C) = X
3. Create logic expressions for all the rows with output 13.2. What makes a database?
1 and connect them with OR gate
Data is stored in tables in databases. Each table consists
12. Exam-Style Question of a specific type of data e.g. cars. These tables HAVE to
be named according to what they contain e.g. a table
containing patient information will be PATIENT
These tables consist of records (rows). Each record
consists of data about a single entity (a single item,
person or event ) e.g. a single car
These tables also have columns that are knows an fields.
These consist of specific information regarding the
entities that are written later in records e.g. car name,
car manufacturer etc.

Note: In this chapter, skills of dealing with a database

are also required so working with Microsoft Access is
needed to understand this chapter better. You have to be
able to define a single-table database from given data
storage requirements, choose a suitable primary key for a
1. The Conditions are given so make logic statements
database table and also be able to read, complete and
using the conditions and the table. (NOT S AND T) OR
understand SQL scripts.
(S AND W) OR (NOT T AND W)
2. Make the logic circuit from the given equation
3. Make the truth table

13. Databases

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science by
Hodder Education Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard
language for writing scripts to retrieve valuable
information from databases.
13.3. Validation in databases By using SQL, we can learn how to retrieve and display
specific information needed from a database.
Database management software automatically provides
For instance, someone visiting a patient may only require
some validation checks, while others need to be set up the ward number and bed number to locate them in the
by the developer during construction. hospital, while a consultant may need a list of the names
For example; The software automatically validates fields of all the patients under their care. This can be done
like "DateOfAdmission" in the PATIENT table to ensure
using SQL
data input is a valid date. \n
SQL Scripts
13.4. Basic Data Types
An SQL script is a collection of SQL commands that are
Each field will require a data type to be selected. A data type used to perform a specific task, often stored in a file for
classifies how the data is stored, displayed and the reusability.
operations that can be performed on the stored value. To comprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL
The datatypes for database are quite similar to original script, practical experience in writing SQL scripts is
datatypes, however, there are a few differences. necessary.

Select Statements:

SELECT (fieldsname)
FROM (tablesname)
WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

Selecting Sum of values in a table:

Note: Access datatype refers to the software Microsoft
Access which is a DBMS (DataBase Management SELECT SUM ( fieldsname )
System). Here, databases could be worked upon in FROM (tablesname)
practical form WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
13.5. Primary Key Counting the number of records where the field
matches a specified condition
Each record in a table represents a unique item, person,
or event. SELECT COUNT ( fieldsname )
To ensure reliable identification of these items, a field FROM (tablesname)
called the primary key is necessary. WHERE (condition)
The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
item within the data.
In order to serve as a primary key, a field must have ==ORDER BY Field1, Field2, etc. – this specifies a sort in
values that are never repeated within the table. ascending or alphabetical order starting with the first
An existing field can serve as a primary key if it is unique, field.==
such as the ISBN in the book table. ==ORDER BY Field1, Field2 DESC – this specifies a sort in
In cases where all existing fields may contain repeated descending or reverse alphabetical order starting with the
data, an additional field, such as "HospitalNumber," can first field.==
be added to each record to serve as the primary key. Note: ORDER BY is not necessary to add. It has to be only
added if required!
13.6. Structured Query Language - SQL

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

13.7. Operators
Just like pseudocode, the operators used there can also be
used here for conditions, however, a few more are also used
in databases

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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