Chapter 2: Engines

Applied Laws

1. What is thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies the relationships
between heat, work, energy, and their transformations. In engines, it
governs how thermal energy from fuel combustion is converted into
mechanical work. Key principles include:

o First Law (Conservation of Energy): Energy cannot be created or

destroyed; it only changes forms (e.g., chemical energy in fuel → heat
→ mechanical work).
o Second Law (Entropy): Heat naturally flows from hotter to colder
bodies, limiting the efficiency of energy conversion.
2. Explain Bernoulli’s theorem.
Bernoulli’s theorem states that in a flowing fluid (air or fuel-air mixture), an
increase in speed results in a decrease in pressure, and vice versa,
assuming steady, incompressible flow with no friction. In engines, this
principle explains:

o Carburetor Function: A venturi tube uses this effect to create a

pressure drop, drawing fuel into the airstream.
o Airflow in Intake Manifolds: Optimizes fuel-air mixing for
combustion.
3. Explain a venturi.
A venturi is a tube with a constricted (narrowed) section that accelerates
fluid flow, causing a pressure drop (via Bernoulli’s theorem). In aviation
piston engines, it is used in carburetors:

o Airflow through the venturi’s narrow section speeds up, lowering

pressure.
o This pressure difference draws fuel from the carburetor’s float
chamber into the airstream, creating a combustible mixture.

Piston Engines

1. What is the combustion cycle of an aeropiston engine?

Most aviation piston engines use the four-stroke Otto cycle:
 o Intake Stroke: Piston moves down; intake valve opens, drawing in
air-fuel mixture.
o Compression Stroke: Both valves close; piston compresses the
mixture upward.
o Power Stroke: Spark plug ignites the compressed mixture, forcing
the piston down (producing work).
o Exhaust Stroke: Exhaust valve opens; piston moves up, expelling
burned gases.
2. What is compression ratio in a piston engine?
The compression ratio is the ratio of the cylinder’s maximum volume (at
Bottom Dead Center, BDC) to its minimum volume (at Top Dead Center,
TDC):
V BDC+V clearance
Compression Ratio=
V clearance

o Significance:
 Higher ratios improve efficiency and power but require high-
octane fuel to prevent detonation (uncontrolled combustion).
 Aviation engines typically use ratios of 7:1 to 10:1, optimized
for reliability and performance at altitude.

Key Connections

 Bernoulli’s Theorem + Venturi: Enables fuel-air mixing in carburetors.

 Thermodynamics: Explains energy conversion limitations in engines.
 Compression Ratio: Directly impacts engine efficiency and fuel
requirements.

Answers to Piston Engine Questions

1. What produces the ignition in a piston engine?
Ignition in a piston engine is produced by spark plugs. During the power
stroke of the four-stroke cycle, the spark plug generates an electric spark
that ignites the compressed fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber.

2. What do blue, black, and white exhaust smoke indicate?

o Blue Smoke: Indicates oil burning in the combustion chamber, often

due to worn piston rings, valve seals, or cylinder walls.
 o Black Smoke: Caused by a rich fuel-air mixture (excess fuel),
incomplete combustion, or clogged air filters.
o White Smoke: Typically signals coolant or water vapor in the
exhaust, which may result from a blown head gasket, cracked engine
block, or condensation in cold weather.
3. What is engine torque?
Torque is the rotational force produced by the engine’s crankshaft,
measured in pound-feet (lb-ft) or Newton-meters (Nm). In aviation, torque
determines the propeller’s twisting force, influencing thrust and aircraft
performance. Higher torque at lower RPMs improves takeoff and climb
efficiency.

4. What is a normally aspirated piston engine?

A normally aspirated (NA) piston engine relies on atmospheric pressure
to draw air into the cylinders, without forced induction (e.g., turbochargers
or superchargers).

o Advantages: Simplicity, lighter weight, and lower maintenance.

o Disadvantages: Reduced power output at high altitudes due to
thinner air.
5. Disadvantages of a piston engine

o Altitude Limitations: Power decreases with altitude due to lower air

density (unless turbocharged).
o Vibration: Reciprocating parts cause vibrations, requiring robust
mounts and maintenance.
o Lower Power-to-Weight Ratio: Less efficient for large aircraft
compared to turbine engines.
o Complexity in Scaling: Not practical for very large or high-speed
aircraft (turboprops/jets are preferred).
o Maintenance: Frequent servicing of spark plugs, valves, and cooling
systems.

Summary
Concept Key Details
Ignition Source Spark plugs ignite the
compressed fuel-air mixture.
Exhaust Smoke Colors Blue (oil), black (rich fuel), white
Concept Key Details
(coolant/water).
Torque Rotational force driving the
propeller; critical for
takeoff/climb performance.
Normally Aspirated Engine Simple design but struggles at
high altitudes.
Piston Engine Drawbacks Altitude limits, vibration, lower
power-to-weight ratio.

Answers to Piston Engine Questions

1. What is a supercharged (piston) engine?
A supercharged piston engine uses a mechanically driven compressor
(typically belt- or gear-driven by the engine) to force more air into the
combustion chamber. This increases air density, allowing more fuel to be
burned, which boosts power output. Unlike turbochargers (which use
exhaust gases), superchargers provide immediate power with minimal lag.

2. How is engine power output increased to compensate for low

atmospheric pressure?
At high altitudes, superchargers or turbochargers compress incoming air
to maintain optimal air density in the cylinders. This compensates for
reduced atmospheric pressure, ensuring sufficient oxygen for combustion.
The result is sustained or increased power output despite thinner air.

3. What regulates the supercharger to deliver a constant boost/manifold

absolute pressure (MAP)?
A boost controller or automatic density controller (e.g., an aneroid
device) regulates the supercharger. This system adjusts the supercharger’s
output by modulating bypass valves or altering drive ratios to maintain a
preset MAP. For example, as altitude increases, the system increases boost
to offset lower ambient pressure.

4. How is engine power monitored?

Engine power is monitored using:

o Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP): Indicates air pressure in the

intake manifold.
o RPM: Revolutions per minute of the crankshaft.
 o Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) and Cylinder Head Temperature
(CHT): Ensure optimal combustion and cooling.
Pilots cross-reference MAP and RPM to set power settings (e.g., 25"
Hg MAP at 2,500 RPM for cruise).
5. What is carburetor icing?
Carburetor icing occurs when moisture in the air freezes inside the
carburetor due to adiabatic cooling from the Venturi effect. This ice
restricts airflow, causing power loss or engine failure. It can occur in
ambient temperatures as high as 70°F (21°C) with high humidity.
Carburetor heat systems prevent icing by routing warm air from the
exhaust manifold into the carburetor.

Key Takeaways
Concept Key Details
Supercharged Engine Mechanically compressed air for
higher power, especially at
altitude.
Altitude Compensation Superchargers/turbochargers
maintain air density for
combustion.
Boost Regulation Aneroid devices or bypass valves
adjust supercharger output for
constant MAP.
Power Monitoring MAP, RPM, EGT, and CHT provide
critical power and health data.
Carburetor Icing Addressed with carb heat
systems to prevent ice-induced
airflow restriction.

Carburetor Icing in Piston Engines

1. When would you expect carburetor icing in a piston engine?
Carburetor icing is most likely in conditions of:

 High humidity (visible moisture like fog, rain, or clouds).

 Ambient temperatures between 20°F (-6°C) and 70°F (21°C).
  Throttle settings causing a pressure drop (e.g., idle or partial power),
which cools air via the Venturi effect.

2. Actions to prevent or remove carburetor/throttle icing:

 Apply carburetor heat: Redirects warm air from the exhaust manifold into
the carburetor to melt ice.
o Expect a temporary RPM drop (due to less dense, warmer air).
o Monitor for RPM recovery, indicating ice has cleared.
 Adjust mixture: Enrich the fuel-air mixture if icing persists.
 Avoid prolonged low-power settings: Increase throttle periodically in cold,
humid conditions.

Propellers
1. Advantages of a propeller:

 High efficiency at low to moderate speeds: Ideal for short takeoffs and
climbs.
 Fuel economy: Better thrust-to-fuel-consumption ratio than jets at subsonic
speeds.
 Simplicity and reliability: Fewer moving parts compared to turbine
engines.
 Versatility: Variable-pitch propellers optimize performance across flight
phases.

2. Main disadvantage of a propeller:

 Limited efficiency at high speeds: Propeller tips approach supersonic

speeds, causing shockwaves and drag (known as propeller blade tip
compressibility).

3. What produces thrust on a propeller-driven aircraft?

Thrust is generated by the propeller accelerating a mass of air backward
(Newton’s third law). The propeller blades act as rotating wings, creating a
pressure difference:

 Low pressure on the forward face (suction side).

 High pressure on the rear face (pressure side).
 Key factors: Blade angle (pitch), RPM, and airspeed determine thrust
output.
Summary
Topic Key Points
Carburetor Icing Occurs in humid, cool conditions;
use carb heat and monitor RPM.
Propeller Advantages Efficiency at low speeds, fuel
economy, simplicity.
Propeller Disadvantage Inefficiency at high speeds due
to tip compressibility.
Thrust Production Propeller blades accelerate air
backward via pressure
differential.

1. Propeller Design Restrictions

 Diameter Limits: Ground clearance and structural constraints restrict

propeller size.
 Rotational Speed: Tips must avoid supersonic speeds to prevent noise,
inefficiency, and shockwaves.
 Blade Angle (Pitch): Fixed-pitch propellers lack adjustability, limiting
optimization for different flight phases.
 Material Constraints: Requires lightweight, durable materials (e.g.,
aluminum, composite) to balance strength and performance.
 Number of Blades: More blades increase thrust but add drag, complexity,
and cost.

2. Converting Horsepower to Thrust

 Mechanism: Propeller blades act as rotating airfoils, generating lift (thrust)

by accelerating air backward (Newton’s third law).
 Energy Conversion: Engine horsepower (rotational energy) is transferred to
the propeller, which converts it into kinetic energy in the airflow.
 Formula: Thrust depends on blade design, pitch, RPM, and airspeed.

3. Propeller Blade Twist

 Purpose: Compensates for varying tangential speeds along the blade (tip
moves faster than the root).
  Angle of Attack Optimization: Twist ensures consistent angle of attack
across the blade, preventing sections from stalling.
 Efficiency: Reduces drag and improves thrust uniformity.

4. Propeller Efficiency

 Definition: Ratio of useful thrust power to engine power input:

Thrust × Velocity
η=
Engine Power
 Factors: Blade design, pitch, RPM, and airspeed. Peak efficiency typically
occurs at 85-90% under optimal conditions.

5. Disadvantages of Fixed-Pitch Propellers

 Flight Regime Limitation: Optimized for one phase (e.g., climb or cruise),
leading to inefficiency in others.
 RPM Management: Engine may operate suboptimally, increasing wear or
reducing performance.
 Altitude/Speed Adaptation: Unable to adjust pitch for varying air density or
airspeed, limiting high-altitude performance.
 Takeoff/Climb Performance: May require longer runways or reduce climb
rates if designed for cruise.

Summary

 Propeller design balances physical, aerodynamic, and material constraints

to optimize thrust and efficiency.
 Blade twist and variable pitch address airflow variations, while fixed-pitch
propellers simplify design but limit adaptability.
 Efficiency metrics highlight the importance of matching propeller design to
operational needs.

Answers to Propeller Aircraft Questions

1. Variable-Pitch Propeller and Its Use
A variable-pitch propeller allows the pilot to adjust the blade angle (pitch)
during flight. This adjustment optimizes efficiency across different phases
(e.g., climb, cruise, descent) by maintaining the ideal angle of attack for the
propeller blades. Benefits include:

o Improved performance: Better thrust at varying speeds and

altitudes.
o Fuel efficiency: Optimal engine RPM reduces fuel consumption.
 o Versatility: Enables short takeoffs and high-speed cruising.
2. Propeller Blade Angle/Speed Control
The propeller governor controls blade angle and speed. It uses engine oil
pressure to hydraulically adjust the pitch, maintaining a constant RPM set by
the pilot. This system ensures the engine operates within safe limits while
maximizing efficiency.

3. Turboprop Suitability for Short Regional Operations

Turboprop aircraft excel in regional operations due to:

o Short runway performance: Efficient at low speeds, enabling

takeoff/landing on shorter runways.
o Fuel efficiency: Optimal for lower altitudes (10,000–25,000 ft) and
shorter distances (300–600 nm).
o Cost-effectiveness: Lower operational costs compared to jets for
regional routes.
4. Critical Engine on a Propeller Aircraft
Yes, multiengine propeller aircraft have a critical engine. This is the engine
whose failure most severely impacts performance and controllability due to
asymmetric thrust and yaw effects.

5. Why Engine #1 is Critical on Multiengine Aircraft

Engine #1 (typically the left engine) is critical when propellers rotate
clockwise (as viewed from the cockpit). If it fails:

o The right engine’s thrust creates a greater yaw moment due to its
distance from the aircraft’s centerline.
o The descending blade of the right propeller (on the outside)
generates more asymmetric thrust, worsening directional control.
o This makes recovery more challenging than a right-engine failure.

1. How does a crosswind affect the critical engine?

A crosswind does not change which engine is designated as critical (determined by
propeller rotation direction and P-factor). However, during a critical engine failure,
a crosswind can exacerbate yaw and control challenges. For example, a left
crosswind combined with a left critical engine failure may amplify the yawing
moment, requiring greater rudder input to maintain directional control.

2. What is a windmilling propeller?

A windmilling propeller spins freely due to airflow passing over the blades after
engine failure, rather than engine power. This creates significant drag, degrading
aircraft performance and controllability. It contrasts with a feathered propeller,
which is intentionally aligned with the airflow to minimize drag.

3. Can you obtain ground reverse/braking thrust from propellers?

Yes, some propeller aircraft (typically turboprops) use reversible-pitch propellers.
By adjusting the blade angle to a negative ("reverse") pitch, thrust is directed
forward, acting as aerodynamic braking during landing to shorten stopping
distance. Not all propeller systems have this capability.

4. What is propeller feathering, and why is it used?

Feathering rotates the propeller blades parallel to the airflow, halting rotation and
minimizing drag after engine failure. This is critical for:

 Reducing asymmetric drag in multi-engine aircraft.

 Preserving glide performance in single-engine failures.
 Preventing further engine damage from windmilling.

5. How do propeller aircraft generate noise?

Propeller noise arises from:

 Aerodynamic sources: Blade vortices, tip turbulence, and pressure

fluctuations as blades slice through air.
 Tip speeds near Mach 1: Causes sonic vibrations and shockwaves (if
supersonic).
 Engine/exhaust noise: Combustion and mechanical vibrations.
 Blade-pass frequency: Rhythmic pulses from blades passing a fixed point.
Modern designs (e.g., swept tips, 5+ blades) mitigate noise.

Summary: Crosswinds complicate critical engine failure handling, feathering

optimizes safety, reversible props aid braking, and noise stems from aerodynamic
and mechanical factors.

Propeller Noise Reduction

Propeller noise is minimized through:

1. Design Modifications:
o Increased Blade Count: More blades (5–6) reduce tip speed and
noise.
o Swept or Scimitar-Shaped Tips: Delay shockwaves and lower tip
vortices.
o Composite Materials: Dampen vibrations and reduce blade flutter.
 2. Operational Adjustments:
o Lower RPM during climb/descent to keep tip speeds subsonic.
3. Advanced Technologies:
o Active Noise Cancellation: Systems that counteract noise
frequencies.

Jet/Gas Turbine Engines

1. Theory of a Jet/Gas Turbine Engine
Operates on the Brayton Cycle:

o Intake: Air is drawn into the engine.

o Compression: Axial/centrifugal compressors increase air pressure.
o Combustion: Fuel is injected and burned in the combustor.
o Expansion: Hot gases expand through turbines (driving the
compressor) and exit through the nozzle, generating thrust.
2. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

o Definition: Fuel burned per unit of thrust (e.g., kg/N·hr or lb/lbf·hr).

o Significance: Lower SFC = higher efficiency. Modern turbofans
achieve SFC as low as 0.3 lb/lbf·hr.
3. Combustion Cycle of a Jet Engine

o Continuous Flow: Unlike piston engines, combustion is constant.

o Stages:
i. Compression: Air is pressurized.
ii. Combustion: Fuel-air mixture ignites at constant pressure.
iii. Expansion: Gases drive turbines and accelerate through the
nozzle.
4. Why Jet Engines Were Invented

o Piston Engine Limitations: Inefficient at high speeds/altitudes due to

propeller drag and air density drops.
o Military Need: WWII-era demand for faster, higher-flying aircraft.
o Advantages:
 Superior high-speed/high-altitude performance.
 Simpler mechanics (no reciprocating parts).
Key Takeaways
Concept Key Details
Propeller Noise Control Blade design, materials, and
RPM management reduce noise.
Brayton Cycle Governs jet engine operation via
compression, combustion, and
expansion.
SFC Critical metric for fuel efficiency
in jet engines.
Jet Engine Development Enabled high-speed, high-
altitude flight beyond piston
engine capabilities.

Jet/Gas Turbine Engine Operation

A jet/gas turbine engine works by compressing air, mixing it with fuel, igniting it,
and expelling the hot gases to produce thrust. The process follows the Brayton
cycle:

1. Intake: Air is drawn into the engine via a fan/compressor.

2. Compression: Axial/centrifugal compressors pressurize the air.
3. Combustion: Fuel is injected and burned in the combustor, creating high-
energy gas.
4. Expansion: Hot gases expand through turbines (powering the compressor)
and exit through a nozzle, generating thrust.
o Types: Turbojets (pure thrust), turbofans (bypass air for efficiency),
and turboprops (drive propellers).

Fuel Injection System

Definition: A system that sprays fuel into the combustor for efficient mixing with
compressed air.

 Advantages:
o Precise fuel-air ratio control for optimal combustion.
o Reduced emissions and improved fuel efficiency.
o Stable combustion across flight conditions.
 Disadvantages:
 o Complex design (nozzles, pumps, sensors).
o Risk of carbon buildup or hot spots if clogged.

Thrust Reversers
Purpose: Redirect engine airflow forward to slow the aircraft during landing.
Types:

1. Clamshell Doors: Bucket-like doors pivot to block and reverse exhaust

(common in turbojets).
2. Target Reversers: Deflect cold bypass air in turbofans (e.g., Boeing 737).
Effect: Reduces landing distance by 30–50% and minimizes brake wear.

Maximum Takeoff Thrust (MTO)

Definition: The highest thrust setting used during takeoff for maximum
acceleration.
Limitations:

 Time Limits: Typically 5–10 minutes to avoid overheating (e.g., "5-minute

takeoff rating").
 Engine Stress: High exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) and rotational speeds
risk component wear.

Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT)

Definition: The highest thrust an engine can sustain indefinitely without damage.

 Use: Prolonged climbs, emergencies, or holding patterns.

 Output: Lower than MTO (e.g., 85–90% of takeoff thrust).
 Safety: Maintains safe EGT and RPM levels for engine longevity.

Key Takeaways
Concept Key Details
Jet Engine Basics Compress, burn, expand air for
thrust via the Brayton cycle.
Fuel Injection Balances efficiency and
Concept Key Details
complexity in combustion.
Thrust Reversers Redirect airflow to aid braking;
critical for short-field landings.
MTO vs. MCT MTO is short-term peak thrust;
MCT is sustainable for
endurance.

Answers to Gas Turbine Engine Questions

1. Compression Ratio of a Gas Turbine Engine
 Definition: The compression ratio (or overall pressure ratio, OPR) is the
ratio of the compressor outlet pressure to the inlet pressure.
 Typical Values: Modern engines achieve OPRs of 30:1 to 50:1.
 Significance: Higher OPR improves thermal efficiency (more energy
extracted from fuel) but requires advanced materials to withstand high
temperatures and pressures.
2. Principle of the Bypass Engine
 Mechanism: In a turbofan engine, a portion of incoming air bypasses the
core (combustor and turbines) and is accelerated by the fan to produce
thrust.
 Core Flow: Air is compressed, burned with fuel, and expelled as exhaust for
thrust.
 Bypass Flow: Cool, slower-moving air around the core generates additional
thrust efficiently.
 Advantage: Combines high-speed core thrust with efficient, quieter bypass
airflow.
3. Bypass Ratio (BPR)
 Definition: The ratio of bypass air mass flow to core air mass flow.
Bypass Air Mass Flow
BPR =
Core Air Mass Flow
 High-BPR Engines (e.g., 5:1 to 12:1):
o Advantages: Fuel-efficient, quieter, ideal for subsonic commercial
flights (e.g., Airbus A350, Boeing 787).
 Low-BPR Engines (e.g., <1:1):
o Use: Military jets (e.g., F-22) prioritizing speed over efficiency.
4. Fan Engine and Advantages
 Design: Features a large front fan (driven by the turbine) that accelerates
both bypass and core air.
 Advantages:
o Fuel Efficiency: High-BPR turbofans reduce fuel burn by 15–25%
compared to turbojets.
o Noise Reduction: Bypass airflow dampens engine noise.
o High Thrust at Low Speeds: Optimal for takeoff and climb.
 Example: The CFM56 engine on Boeing 737s.
5. Advantages of Wide-Chord Fan Engines
 Blade Design: Wider chord (distance from leading to trailing edge) improves
structural integrity and aerodynamics.
 Benefits:
o Efficiency: Reduced tip vortices and drag.
o Durability: Better resistance to bird strikes and foreign object
damage.
o Weight Reduction: Fewer blades needed (e.g., Rolls-Royce Trent
engines use 20 wide-chord blades vs. 38 narrow blades in older
designs).
o Noise Reduction: Smoother airflow lowers acoustic emissions.

Summary Table
Concept Key Details
Compression Ratio Higher ratios boost efficiency
but require advanced materials.
Bypass Engine Principle Combines efficient bypass
airflow with core thrust.
Bypass Ratio High BPR = fuel efficiency; Low
BPR = speed.
Fan Engine Delivers efficiency, noise
reduction, and robust low-speed
thrust.
Wide-Chord Fan Enhances durability, efficiency,
and noise reduction (e.g., GE90,
Trent XWB).
1. Triple-Spool Turbofan Engine (e.g., RB211) and Advantages
Design:
A triple-spool turbofan (like Rolls-Royce’s RB211) has three concentric rotating
shafts (spools):

 Low-Pressure (LP) Spool: Drives the fan and LP turbine.

 Intermediate-Pressure (IP) Spool: Drives the IP compressor and turbine.
 High-Pressure (HP) Spool: Drives the HP compressor and turbine.

Advantages:

 Optimized Efficiency: Each spool operates at its ideal speed, improving

compression and combustion efficiency.
 Flexibility: Better handling of varying airflow conditions (e.g., takeoff vs.
cruise).
 Durability: Reduced thermal stress on components due to staged
compression.
 Performance: Higher thrust-to-weight ratio and fuel efficiency compared to
dual-spool engines.

2. Why a Fan Engine is Flat-Rated

Flat Rating ensures the engine delivers consistent thrust across a range of
temperatures (e.g., hot days) by limiting maximum power to a "flat" level.

 Purpose: Prevents overstressing the engine in hot/thin air, where air density
is lower.
 Mechanism: Engine control systems (FADEC) adjust fuel flow to cap thrust at
a safe RPM/temperature, even if the engine could theoretically produce
more.
 Benefit: Protects engine longevity and maintains takeoff performance in
diverse climates.

3. When/Where a Bypass Engine is Most Efficient

 Altitude: 30,000–40,000 feet (stratosphere).
 Speed: Mach 0.78–0.85 (typical cruise for commercial jets).
 Why:
o Thin Air: Lower drag reduces fuel burn.
 o Optimal Bypass Ratio: High-bypass turbofans (e.g., 5:1 to 12:1 BPR)
maximize thrust from efficient bypass airflow.
o Engine Core Efficiency: Compressors and turbines operate near peak
thermal efficiency in cold, steady air.

4. Why Jet Aircraft Climb as High as Possible

 Fuel Efficiency: Thin air reduces drag, allowing faster speeds with less fuel.
 Engine Performance: Turbofans operate more efficiently in cold, dense air
at altitude (better compression).
 Weather Avoidance: Smoother air above most weather systems.
 Optimal Cruise: Engines and wings are designed for peak performance at
high altitudes.

5. Advantages of High-Altitude Flight for Jet Aircraft

1. Reduced Drag: Lower air density minimizes parasitic drag, improving speed
and fuel economy.
2. Fuel Savings: Up to 30–40% less fuel burn compared to low-altitude flight.
3. Longer Range: Efficient cruise extends operational reach (e.g., transoceanic
flights).
4. Noise Reduction: Engines and airframe produce less noise pollution for
ground communities.
5. Environmental Benefits: Lower CO₂ emissions per passenger-mile.

Summary
Concept Key Takeaway
Triple-Spool Engine Three spools optimize efficiency,
durability, and thrust (e.g.,
RB211, Trent).
Flat Rating Ensures consistent thrust in
varying climates by capping
engine stress.
Bypass Engine Efficiency Peak efficiency at 30,000–40,000
ft and Mach 0.8 due to low drag
and BPR.
Concept Key Takeaway
High-Altitude Flight Maximizes fuel savings, range,
and operational smoothness.

Jet/Gas Turbine Engine Concepts Explained

1. Thrust-to-Thrust Lever Position Relationship

o Explanation: The thrust lever (throttle) in a jet engine controls the

fuel flow rate to the combustion chamber. Increasing the lever
position raises fuel flow, spooling up the engine (increasing RPM) to
generate more thrust.
o Non-Linear Relationship: Thrust does not increase linearly with lever
movement. At higher altitudes or speeds, the same lever position may
yield reduced thrust due to thinner air or aerodynamic limits.
o Control Systems: Modern engines use FADEC (Full Authority Digital
Engine Control) to optimize fuel flow, compressor stability, and thrust
output based on lever input and flight conditions.
2. Main Engine Instruments
Key instruments for monitoring jet engine performance include:

o Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) Gauge: Measures thrust output.

o Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Gauge: Monitors turbine health.
o N1/N2 RPM Indicators: Track low-pressure/high-pressure spool
speeds.
o Fuel Flow Meter: Displays fuel consumption rate.
o Oil Pressure/Temperature Gauges: Ensure lubrication system
health.
o Vibration Sensors: Detect imbalance or mechanical issues.
3. Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

o Definition: Ratio of turbine discharge pressure (Pₜ) to compressor

inlet pressure (P₁):
Pt
EPR =
P1
o Purpose: Directly correlates with thrust output. Pilots use EPR to set
precise thrust levels (e.g., takeoff or climb power).
o Advantage: More accurate than RPM for thrust management across
varying altitudes/temperatures.
4. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
 o Definition: Temperature of gases exiting the turbine section.
o Importance:
 Engine Health: High EGT indicates excessive thermal stress,
risking turbine blade damage.
 Efficiency: Optimal EGT ensures efficient combustion and fuel
usage.
 Trend Monitoring: Rising EGT over time signals engine
degradation (e.g., worn seals, fouled turbines).
5. Engine Wet Start

o Definition: Failure to ignite fuel in the combustor, causing raw fuel

accumulation.
o Causes:
 Faulty ignition system (failed igniters or low voltage).
 Insufficient airflow during startup (e.g., slow spool-up).
 Incorrect fuel scheduling (excessive fuel before ignition).
o Indications:
 No EGT rise despite fuel flow.
 Fuel odor or visible fuel in the exhaust.
 Possible flames/explosions ("torching").
o Actions:
i. Cut Fuel: Immediately shut off fuel flow.
ii. Dry Crank: Motor the engine without fuel to clear residual fuel.
iii. Inspect: Check ignition system and fuel nozzles before
reattempting start.

Summary Table
Concept Key Details
Thrust Lever Controls fuel flow via FADEC;
thrust depends on altitude,
temperature, and RPM.
Main Instruments EPR, EGT, N1/N2 RPM, fuel flow,
oil pressure, vibration sensors.
EPR Thrust indicator via pressure
ratio (Pₜ/P₁).
Concept Key Details
EGT Critical for monitoring turbine
health and combustion
efficiency.
Wet Start Caused by ignition failure;
requires fuel cutoff and dry
cranking.

1. Engine Hung Start

Description: A hung start occurs when the engine begins to spool up but fails to
reach idle RPM, stalling at a low speed (e.g., 10–20% N2).

 Causes:
o Insufficient airflow (e.g., weak starter motor, blocked intake).
o Fuel system issues (e.g., clogged fuel nozzles, low fuel pressure).
o Faulty ignition (failed igniters or wiring).
 Indications:
o Low N1/N2 RPM with no acceleration.
o Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) remains low or stagnant.
o Possible "stagnant" noise from the engine.
 Actions:
a. Abort Start: Cut off fuel flow.
b. Investigate: Check starter, fuel system, and ignition.
c. Dry Crank: Motor the engine without fuel to clear residual issues.

2. Engine Hot Start

Description: A hot start occurs when the engine ignites but EGT exceeds safe
limits during startup.

 Causes:
o Excessive fuel flow before sufficient airflow (e.g., late ignition).
o Slow engine acceleration (e.g., weak starter or high ambient
temperatures).
o Malfunctioning fuel control unit.
 Indications:
o EGT rapidly exceeds redline limits.
 o Visible flames or smoke from the exhaust.
 Actions:
a. Immediate Shutdown: Cut fuel and ignition.
b. Cool Down: Motor the engine with the starter to dissipate heat.
c. Inspect: Check for turbine damage before restarting.

3. Variable/Reduced-Thrust Takeoff
Definition: A takeoff technique using less than maximum engine thrust, calculated
based on runway length, aircraft weight, and environmental conditions.

 Methods:
o Derate: Permanently limits thrust output (e.g., "TO-1" or "TO-2"
settings).
o Assumed Temperature: Simulates a hotter engine to reduce thrust
(Flex Temp).
 Purpose:
o Reduces engine wear and maintenance costs.
o Lowers noise pollution and fuel consumption.

4. Can a Maximum Takeoff Weight Aircraft Use Reduced Thrust?

 Yes, if runway length, temperature, and obstacle clearance permit.
 Conditions:
o Sufficient runway margin for acceleration and stopping.
o Performance calculations confirm safety with reduced thrust.
 Limitations: Avoided in adverse conditions (e.g., short runways, high
elevation, or contamination).

5. Reasons for Reduced/Derated Thrust Takeoffs

 Engine Longevity: Reduces thermal and mechanical stress, extending
engine life.
 Cost Savings: Lower fuel burn and maintenance expenses.
 Noise Abatement: Meets airport noise regulations.
 Environmental Impact: Decreases CO₂ and NOₓ emissions.
Summary Table
Scenario Key Points
Hung Start Low RPM, no EGT rise; abort,
investigate fuel/airflow.
Hot Start EGT overshoot; immediate
shutdown and cooling.
Reduced Thrust Takeoff Saves engine life, fuel, and
reduces noise; requires
performance validation.
Max Weight & Reduced Thrust Feasible with adequate runway
and conditions.

1. Why is the risk per flight decreased with a reduced-thrust

takeoff?
Reduced-thrust takeoffs lower operational risk by:

 Reducing Engine Stress: Lower thrust settings decrease thermal and

mechanical stress on engines, minimizing wear and the likelihood of
failures.
 Enhanced Control: Pilots have more time to react to anomalies (e.g., engine
malfunctions) during the takeoff roll.
 Consistent Performance: Prevents overboost conditions, ensuring
predictable engine behavior.

2. Limitations of Variable/Reduced-Thrust (Flex) Takeoff

 Runway Length: Insufficient runway may necessitate maximum thrust for
safe acceleration.
 Environmental Conditions: High temperatures, altitude, or humidity
reduce engine efficiency, limiting derate options.
 Aircraft Weight: Heavy payloads may require full thrust to meet climb
gradients or obstacle clearance requirements.
 Procedural Constraints: Airline policies or regulatory restrictions may
prohibit derated thrust in certain scenarios (e.g., contaminated runways).

3. Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) During Takeoff Roll

 Behavior: EPR increases as engines spool up to the target thrust setting.
Once stabilized, it remains constant unless adjusted.
  Impact of Airspeed: As the aircraft accelerates, ram air pressure rises,
slightly increasing compressor inlet pressure (P₁), which may cause a minor
dip in EPR.

4. Why EPR Must Be Set by 40–80 Knots

 Safety Protocol: Ensures engines stabilize at the correct thrust before
reaching V₁ (decision speed), beyond which takeoff must continue even if an
engine fails.
 Abort Capability: Early EPR confirmation allows pilots to safely reject
takeoff if thrust deviations occur.
 Performance Assurance: Validates engine health and thrust output before
committing to takeoff.

5. Engine Windmill Start

 Definition: Restarting an engine using airflow (rather than the starter) to
spin the compressor.
 Usage:
o In-Flight: Deployed if an engine flames out, relying on aircraft speed
to rotate the fan.
o Conditions: Requires sufficient airspeed (typically above 250 knots) to
generate rotation.
 Limitations: Not feasible on the ground due to insufficient airflow.

Summary Table
Concept Key Details
Reduced-Thrust Safety Lowers engine stress and
enhances pilot control.
Flex Takeoff Limits Constrained by runway, weight,
environment, and procedures.
EPR During Takeoff Rises initially, stabilizes once
target thrust is achieved.
EPR Deadline (40–80 kts) Ensures safe abort capability and
engine verification.
Windmill Start In-flight restart method using
airflow; requires high airspeed.
1. Purpose of Engine Relight Boundaries
Engine relight boundaries define the operational envelope (altitude, airspeed, and
temperature ranges) within which a jet engine can be safely restarted in flight after
a flameout. These boundaries ensure that:

 Airflow and Pressure are sufficient for combustion.

 Ignition Systems (auto igniters) can function effectively.
 Pilots have guidelines to avoid unsuccessful or hazardous restart attempts
outside these limits.

2. Jet/Gas Turbine Engine Upset: Causes and Correction

 Causes:
o Compressor Stall/Surge: Disrupted airflow due to rapid throttle
changes, foreign object ingestion, or mechanical failure.
o Flameout: Fuel starvation, icing, or extreme weather.
o Control System Faults: Malfunctions in fuel management or
electronic controls.
 Correction:
o Reduce throttle to idle to stabilize airflow.
o Follow engine restart procedures (e.g., using auto igniters).
o Adjust flight path to optimize airflow (e.g., descend to denser air).

3. Jet Engine Surge

 Definition: A severe airflow disruption where compressed air reverses

direction violently through the compressor.
 Causes:
o Rapid throttle movements.
o Foreign object damage (e.g., bird strikes).
o Compressor blade fouling or mechanical failure.
 Indications:
o Loud bangs or "bangs" from the engine.
o Fluctuations in RPM, EGT, or thrust.
o Potential exhaust flame or smoke.

4. Bleed Valves in Gas Turbine Engines

 Purpose:
 o Compressor Stability: Relieve excess pressure to prevent surge/stall
during low RPM (e.g., startup, idle).
o Pneumatic Supply: Provide compressed air for cabin pressurization,
anti-icing, and auxiliary systems.
o Performance Optimization: Adjust airflow during throttle changes or
high-altitude operations.

5. Auto Igniters in Gas Turbine Engines

 Purpose: Automatically reignite the engine during flameouts or unstable

combustion.
 Operation:
o Activation: Triggered by flameout detection or specific flight
conditions (e.g., heavy rain, icing).
o Mechanism: High-energy sparks in the combustor relight the fuel-air
mixture.
o Continuous Function: Operate until combustion stabilizes or the
engine is secured.

Summary Table

Concept Key Details

Relight Boundaries Safe altitude/airspeed limits for
in-flight restarts.
Engine Upset Correct via throttle reduction,
airflow management, and restart
procedures.
Surge Caused by airflow disruption;
loud bangs and parameter
fluctuations.
Bleed Valves Prevent surge, supply pneumatic
air, and optimize compressor
performance.
Auto Igniters Automatic spark systems for
flameout recovery; critical in
adverse conditions.

1. What is FADEC?
FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) is an advanced, computerized
system that manages all aspects of aircraft engine performance. It automatically
adjusts fuel flow, air intake, ignition timing, and other parameters to optimize
efficiency, thrust, and emissions. Pilots input desired thrust settings, and FADEC
ensures the engine operates within safe and efficient limits, reducing pilot
workload and enhancing precision.

2. Fuels Commonly Used for Civil Jet Aircraft

 Jet A/A-1: Kerosene-based fuels.

o Jet A: Primarily used in the U.S., with a freezing point of -40°C.
o Jet A-1: Global standard, freezing point of -47°C.
 Jet B: A gasoline-kerosene blend for extreme cold (freezing point below -
60°C), used in Arctic regions.
 Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF): Emerging biofuel alternative to reduce
carbon emissions.

3. How Jet Engines Generate Noise

 Fan Noise: High-speed rotation of fan blades, especially at tip speeds near
Mach 1.
 Combustion Noise: Rapid gas expansion in the combustor.
 Jet Exhaust Noise: Turbulence from high-speed exhaust mixing with
ambient air.
 Core Turbine/Compressor Noise: Aerodynamic interactions and vibrations.
 Supersonic Shockwaves (rare in civil aircraft): Occurs at transonic speeds.

4. Noise Control/Reduction Methods

 High-Bypass Turbofans: Redirect more air around the core, reducing jet
noise.
 Chevrons: Serrated exhaust nozzles smooth airflow mixing, lowering noise.
 Acoustic Liners: Sound-absorbing materials in nacelles and ducts.
 Advanced Blade Design: Swept and scimitar-shaped fan blades reduce tip
vortices.
 Operational Adjustments: Reduced thrust takeoffs, continuous descent
approaches.
5. Critical Engine on Jet Aircraft?

 No: Unlike propeller aircraft, jet engines are typically symmetrical in thrust
and placement.
 Exception: If engines are asymmetrically mounted (e.g., centerline thrust
configurations), but this is rare.
 Key Difference: Jet engines lack "P-factor" or torque effects, so no single
engine is inherently more critical.

Summary Table

Concept Key Details

FADEC Automated engine control for
optimal performance and safety.
Jet Fuels Jet A/A-1 (kerosene), Jet B (cold
weather), SAF (sustainable).
Noise Sources Fan, combustion, exhaust, and
aerodynamic interactions.
Noise Reduction High-bypass designs, chevrons,
acoustic liners, operational
techniques.
Critical Engine (Jets) Generally none; symmetrical
thrust negates propeller-like
criticality.

Engine Fire Detection and Protection Systems

1. Typical Aircraft Fire Detection and Protection System

Aircraft engine fire detection and protection systems are designed to quickly
identify and suppress fires. Key components include:

 Detection Systems:
o Continuous Loop Sensors: Flexible tubes or wires (e.g., Fenwal or
Kidde systems) that detect heat or flames. These use thermistor
elements or gas-filled tubes that trigger alarms when temperatures
exceed safe limits.
 o Optical/Smoke Detectors: Less common in engines but used in
cargo holds; detect smoke particles.
 Warning Systems:
o Cockpit alerts (lights, bells, or ECAM/EICAS messages) indicate the
fire’s location.
 Extinguishing Systems:
o Fire Bottles (Extinguisher Containers): Store suppression agents
like Halon 1301, Freon, or eco-friendly alternatives (e.g., Novec 1230).
o Discharge Lines: Direct agents to the engine or auxiliary power unit
(APU).
o Redundancy: Typically two fire bottles per engine for multiple
discharge attempts.
2. Indications of Thermal Expansion and Fire Bottle Use
 Thermal Expansion Indications:
o Overheat/fire warnings triggered by detectors reacting to rapid
temperature rises.
o Cockpit alerts (e.g., "ENG FIRE" lights) and audible alarms.
 Fire Bottle Indications:
o Cockpit: Lights (e.g., "EXTINGUISHER DISCHARGED") confirm agent
release.
o Externally: Blowout discs or indicator pins on the fuselage may visibly
pop out after discharge.
3. Typical Engine Fire Drill

Pilots follow a structured procedure to contain and extinguish an engine fire:

1. Confirm the Fire: Check warning lights, engine instruments, and

visual/smoke cues.
2. Throttle Back: Reduce the affected engine’s throttle to idle.
3. Shut Down the Engine:
o Fire Handle: Pull to cut fuel, hydraulics, electrical power, and bleed
air.
o Fuel Control Valve: Close to isolate fuel supply.
4. Discharge Fire Extinguisher: Activate the first fire bottle.
5. Monitor: Wait 30–60 seconds; if fire persists, discharge the second bottle.
6. Secure and Land:
o Maintain safe flight on remaining engines.
 o Declare an emergency and land at the nearest suitable airport.
7. Post-Fire Checks: Follow checklists to prevent re-ignition and assess
damage.

Key Takeaways
Component Function
Continuous Loop Sensors Detect overheating/fire via
thermal expansion or gas
pressure changes.
Fire Bottles Store/extinguish agents;
cockpit/external indicators show
discharge.
Fire Drill Engine shutdown, fire handle
activation, extinguisher
discharge, and landing.