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Book ToC

The document is an edited volume on real-world electronic voting, covering design, analysis, and deployment aspects. It includes sections on software independence, guidelines for trialling e-voting, and case studies from various countries, such as Norway and Estonia. The content aims to provide insights into the complexities and considerations of implementing electronic voting systems in national elections.
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© © All Rights Reserved
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
22 views15 pages

Book ToC

The document is an edited volume on real-world electronic voting, covering design, analysis, and deployment aspects. It includes sections on software independence, guidelines for trialling e-voting, and case studies from various countries, such as Norway and Estonia. The content aims to provide insights into the complexities and considerations of implementing electronic voting systems in national elections.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Feng Hao and Peter Y A Ryan (Eds.

Real-World Electronic
Voting: Design, Analysis
and Deployment
Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

SECTION I: SETTING THE SCENE 1

1 Software Independence Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Ronald L. Rivest and Madars Virza


1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Problem: Software complexity of voting systems . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 The difficulty of evaluating complex software for errors . . 5
1.2.2 The need for software-independent approaches . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Definition and rationale for software-independence . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Refinements and elaborations of software-independence . . 7
1.3.2 Examples of software-independent approaches . . . . . . . 8
1.4 How does one test for software-independence? . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Implications for testing and certification . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.2 Related issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Evidence-based elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 The use of a public ledger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 End-to-end verifiable voting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
iii
iv 

1.9 Program verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15


1.10 Verifiable computation and zero-knowledge proofs . . . . . . . . . 16
1.11 Conclusions and suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Guidelines for Trialling E-voting in National Elections . . . . . . . . . 19

Ben Goldsmith
2.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Context for E-Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 International Electoral Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Decision in Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.1 Decision in Principle Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
[Link] Feasibility Study Mandate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
[Link] Vendor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.2 Feasibility Study Committee Working Groups . . . . . . . . 30
[Link] Issue 1 – Assessment of the Current System of
Voting and Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
[Link] Issue 2 – Assessment of the Advantages and Dis-
advantages Offered by Voting Technologies . . . 31
[Link] Issue 3 – Review of IT Security Aspects . . . . . 31
[Link] Issue 4 – Determining Technical Feasibility . . . 32
[Link] Issue 5 – Cost Benefit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 33
[Link] Issue 6 – Institutional Capacity . . . . . . . . . . 34
[Link] Issue 7 – Legal Reform Issues . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.3 Study Trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.4 Vendor Demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.5 Stakeholder Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.6 Decision in Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Pilot Project Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.1 Pilot Project Mandate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
[Link] Type of Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
[Link] Pilot Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
[Link] Solutions Being Piloted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.2 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.3 Electronic Voting Technology Specification . . . . . . . . . 40

v

2.5.4 Pilot Project Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41


2.6 Pilot Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6.1 Managing the Pilot Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6.2 Procuring Electronic Voting Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6.3 Testing and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6.4 Polling and Counting Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6.5 Voter Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.6 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.7 Stakeholder Outreach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.8 Election Day Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6.9 Observation of the Pilot Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6.10 Mandatory Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.11 Pilot Project Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.7 The Decision on Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

SECTION II: REAL-WORLD E-VOTING IN NATIONAL


ELECTIONS 51

3 Overview of Current State of E-voting World-wide . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Carlos Vegas and Jordi Barrat


3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 The Public Nature of Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Civic Activism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Business as Usual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5 Outdated Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6 The Political Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7 Voters Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4 Electoral Systems Used around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Siamak F. Shahandashti
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2 Some Solutions to Electing A Single Winner . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3 Some Solutions to Electing Multiple Winners . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
vi 

4.4 Blending Systems Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89


4.5 Other Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6 Which Systems Are Good? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.6.1 A Theorist’s Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
[Link] Majority Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
[Link] Bad News Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
[Link] Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 95
[Link] Gibbard–Satterthwaite Impossibility Theorem . . 96
[Link] Systems with Respect to Criteria . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6.2 A Practitioner’s Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5 E-voting in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Kristian Gjøsteen
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 Elections in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4 Buying a Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.5 Cryptographic Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.5.1 Scytl’s Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.5.2 Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.5.3 The Modified Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.6.1 The 2011 Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.6.2 The 2013 Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6 E-voting in Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Dylan Clarke and Tarvi Martens


6.1 Voting in Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2 Estonian National ID Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3 The Internet Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.3.1 System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3.2 Normal System Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

vii

6.3.3 Auditing and Verification Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 139


6.4 Internet Voting Assumptions and Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.5 System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

7 Practical Attacks on Real-world E-voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

J. Alex Halderman
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2 Touchscreen DREs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.1 Diebold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.2 Top to Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2.3 The Test of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.4 Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.3 Internet Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.3.1 The Washington, D.C. Internet Voting System . . . . . . . . 160
7.3.2 Estonia’s Internet Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.3.3 The New South Wales iVote System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

SECTION III:E2E VOTING SYSTEM AND REAL-WORLD


APPLICATIONS 173

8 An Overview of End-to-End Verifiable Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . 175

Syed Taha Ali and Judy Murray


8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.2 Security Properties of Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.2.1 Vote Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.2.2 Vote Verifiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.2.3 Other Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.2.4 Conflicts and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.3 Cryptographic E2E Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.3.1 Precinct-based Voting with Physical Ballots . . . . . . . . . 182
[Link] Votegrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
[Link] Prêt à Voter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
[Link] Punchscan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
viii 

[Link] Scantegrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188


[Link] Scratch & Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.3.2 Precinct-based Voting with Electronic Ballots . . . . . . . . 192
[Link] MarkPledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
[Link] Bingo Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
[Link] Voter Initiated Auditing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
[Link] VoteBox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
[Link] Wombat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
[Link] STAR-Vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
[Link] DRE-i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3.3 Remote Voting with Electronic Ballots . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
[Link] Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
[Link] JCJ and Civitas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
[Link] Helios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
[Link] Pretty Good Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
[Link] Remotegrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.4 Non-cryptographic E2E Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
[Link] ThreeBallot, VAV, and Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
[Link] Randell & Ryan’s Scratch Card Voting System . . 209
[Link] Aperio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.5 The Way Forward for E2E Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.5.1 Technical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.5.2 Usability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.5.3 Legal Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.5.4 Uptake of E2E Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.7 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

9 Theoretical Attacks on E2E Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Peter Hyun-Jeen Lee and Siamak F. Shahandashti


9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.2 Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.2.1 Misprinted ballots attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

ix

9.2.2 Trash Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222


9.2.3 Clash Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.2.4 Flawed Mix-net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.3 Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.3.1 Replay Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.3.2 Kleptographic Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.3.3 Pfitzmann’s attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.3.4 Duplicate ciphertext attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.3.5 Breaking privacy without detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.4 Coercion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.4.1 Forged ballot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.4.2 Vote against a candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.4.3 Scratch-off card attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.4.4 Spoiling ballots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.4.5 Pay-Per-Mark & Pay-for-Receipt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.6 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

10 The Scantegrity Voting System and its Use in the Takoma Park Elections 237

Richard T. Carback, David Chaum, Jeremy Clark, Aleksander Essex, Travis


Mayberry, Stefan Popoveniuc, Ronald L. Rivest, Emily Shen, Alan T.
Sherman, Poorvi L. Vora, John Wittrock, and Filip Zagórski
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.1.1 Key Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.1.2 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.1.3 Organization of this chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.2 The Punchscan Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.1 Voter Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.2 Election Set-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.3 Ballot Printing and Voter Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.2.4 The First Binding E2E Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.2.5 Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.3 The Scantegrity II Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.3.1 Ballot Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
x 

10.3.2 The Scantegrity Back-End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248


10.3.3 Election Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.3.4 Posting and Tallying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.3.5 Auditing the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.3.6 Dispute Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.4 The 2009 Takoma Park Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.4.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.4.2 Mock Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.4.3 The Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.5 The Remotegrity Voting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.5.1 Voter Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.5.2 Security Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.6 Audiotegrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
10.6.1 The Voting Process with Audiotegrity . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
10.6.2 Dispute Resolution Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
10.7 Takoma Park Election, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.8 Usability Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.8.1 Related Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.8.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.8.3 Known Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10.8.4 Voter Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.8.5 Observational Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.8.6 Election Judge Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.8.7 Study Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.9 Current Status of the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.10Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

11 Internet voting with Helios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Olivier Pereira
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
11.1.1 Helios History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
11.2 Election walkthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
11.2.1 Voting in a Helios election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

xi

[Link] Invitation to vote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283


[Link] Submitting a ballot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.2.2 Election management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
[Link] Election creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
[Link] Election tally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.2.3 Election audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
[Link] Cast-as-intended verification . . . . . . . . . . . 288
[Link] Recorded-as-cast verification . . . . . . . . . . . 291
[Link] Tallied-as-recorded verification . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.3 The use of cryptography in Helios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.3.1 Arithmetic and computational assumption . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.3.2 Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.3.3 Zero-Knowledge proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
[Link] Sigma protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
[Link] Proving honest key generation . . . . . . . . . . 296
[Link] Proving correct decryption . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
[Link] Proving ballot validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.3.4 Protocol analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
[Link] Works on Verifiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
[Link] Works on ballot privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
[Link] Miscellaneous works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
11.4 Web application perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
11.4.1 The browser interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
11.4.2 Cryptography in the browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.4.3 Application security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.5 Helios variants and related systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.5.1 Mixnet-based variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.5.2 Variants aiming at countering ballot-stuffing . . . . . . . . . 306
11.5.3 Variants aiming at perfectly private audit data . . . . . . . . 306
11.5.4 Variants based on full threshold encryption . . . . . . . . . 307
11.5.5 Variant supporting vote delegation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
11.5.6 Alternate Helios frontends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.5.7 Audit tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
xii 

11.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

12 Prêt à Voter - the Evolution of the Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Peter Y A Ryan, Steve Schneider, and Vanessa Teague


12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
12.1.1 End-to-End Verifiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
12.2 Outline of Prêt à Voter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12.2.1 The Voting Ceremony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12.2.2 Vote Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
12.2.3 Advantages of Prêt à Voter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
12.3 Auditing the Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
12.3.1 Auditing the Ballot Generation Authority . . . . . . . . . . 319
12.3.2 Auditing Mixing and Decryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
[Link] Auditing the Mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
[Link] Auditing the Decryption Tellers . . . . . . . . . . 321
12.4 Cryptographic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
12.4.1 Decryption mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
12.4.2 Re-encryption mixnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
[Link] Re-encryption mixes with cyclic shifts . . . . . . 322
[Link] Re-encryption Mixes with Affine Transformations 323
[Link] Re-encryption Mixes With Full Permutations . . . 323
12.4.3 Distributed generation of ballots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
12.4.4 The bulletin board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
12.5 Facilitating verification and privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
12.5.1 Encouraging cast-as-intended verification (Ballot auditing) . 325
12.6 Enhancing robustness using parallel verification mechanisms . . . . 326
12.6.1 Verified Encrypted Paper Audit Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
12.6.2 Human Readable Paper Audit Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
12.6.3 Confirmation codes and signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
12.7 Accountability, dispute resolution and Resilience . . . . . . . . . . 329
12.7.1 Cast-as-Intended Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
12.7.2 Authenticity of Receipts (included-as-cast verification) . . . 330
12.7.3 Tally verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

xiii

12.8 Vulnerabilities and Counter-measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331


12.8.1 Ballot Stuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12.8.2 Information Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
12.8.3 Retention of the Candidate List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
12.8.4 Forced/Coerced Randomisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.8.5 Chain Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.8.6 Trash Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
12.8.7 Clash Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
12.8.8 Psychological Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
12.9 Prêt à Voter Goes Down-Under . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.9.1 Significance of the VEC Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.9.2 Challenges of combining end-to-end verifiability with tradi-
tional Victorian paper voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
12.9.3 Specific Design choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
[Link] Computer-assisted voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
[Link] Unified Scanner and EBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
12.9.4 Handling complex ballots and printing them on demand. . . 338
12.9.5 The Web Bulletin Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
12.9.6 vVote-specific vulnerabilities and countermeasures . . . . . 340
12.9.7 Practical experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
12.10Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

13 DRE-i and Self-Enforcing E-Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Feng Hao
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
13.2 Dining Cryptographers problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.2.1 Description of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.2.2 Chaum’s original solution: DC-net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
13.2.3 Limitations of DC-net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
13.2.4 First attempt on a new solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13.2.5 Improved solution: AV-net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
13.2.6 Presentation at SPW 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
13.3 Boardroom electronic voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
xiv 

13.3.1 Open Vote protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355


13.3.2 Extension to multi-candidate election . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
13.3.3 Presentation at WISSec 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
13.4 Large-scale electronic voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
13.4.1 From decentralized to centralized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
13.4.2 Trade-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13.4.3 Direct Recording Electronic with Integrity . . . . . . . . . . 359
[Link] Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
[Link] Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
[Link] Tallying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
13.4.4 Publication of the DRE-i paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13.5 Trial elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13.5.1 Prototyping DRE-i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13.5.2 Favourite chocolate election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.5.3 Favourite cheese election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
13.5.4 ERC Starting Grant on Self-Enforcing E-Voting . . . . . . . 370
13.5.5 A Verifiable Classroom Voting system . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.5.6 Cryptography Meeting Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
13.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

14 STAR-Vote: A Secure, Transparent, Auditable, and Reliable Voting Sys-


tem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Susan Bell, Josh Benaloh, Michael D. Byrne, Dana DeBeauvoir, Bryce Eakin,
Gail Fisher, Philip Kortum, Neal McBurnett, Julian Montoya, Michelle
Parker, Olivier Pereira, Philip B. Stark, Dan S. Wallach, and Michael Winn
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
14.2 Voter Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
14.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
14.3.1 Crypto Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
14.3.2 Triple Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
14.3.3 Software and Hardware Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
14.4 Usability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
14.4.1 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
14.4.2 User Interface Design Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
 xv

14.4.3 Issues that still need to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392


14.5 Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
14.6 The Cryptographic Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
14.7 Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
14.7.1 Coercion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
[Link] Chain voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
[Link] Absentee and provisional ballots . . . . . . . . . 402
14.7.2 Further analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
14.8 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

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