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Discovering Diverse Content Through
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Magdalenian horizon—and as to whether work by men of the
Magdalenian race is not in some cases associated in the cave
deposits with that by the earlier negroid Aurignacians.

Fig. 18.—Bison from the roof of the cavern of Altamira: engraved, and also painted
in three colours (5 feet long).
Fig. 19.—Bison: wall engravings (5 feet long) filled in with colour (Font de
Gaume).
Fig. 20.—Bear: engraved on stalagmite, from the cave of Teyjat near Eyzies.
(Small size.)

Fig. 21.—Bear, engraved on stone, Massol (Ariège).

Fig. 22.—Wolf, engraved on wall of the cave of Combarelles.
 Fig. 23.—Wall engraving of a Cave Lion (Combarelles).

The horses shown are from various caves. Fig. 12 is drawn in

black on the wall of a cave at Niaux (Ariège), and Fig. 11 is a similar
drawing from a cave in the Haute Garonne. Both are remarkable for
the exact representation of natural poses of the horse. Figs. 13, A
and B, are also from the walls of caves. The latter is remarkable for
the large head, short mane, and thick muzzle, which closely
correspond with the same parts in the existing wild horse of the Gobi
desert in Tartary (to be seen alive in the Zoological Gardens in
London). The horse drawn in Fig. 11 seems to belong to a distinct
race, suggesting the Southern "Arab" horse rather than the heavier
and more clumsy horse of the Gobi desert. Fig. 13, C, is engraved of
the size here given, on a piece of reindeer's antler. It is remarkable
for the halter-like ring around the muzzle. A similar cord or rope is
seen in Fig. 12 and in Fig. 13, A.
 Fig. 24.—Goose: small engraving on reindeer antler (Gourdan).

The most remarkable horses' heads obtained are those drawn (of
the actual size of the carvings) in Figs. 14 and 15. Fig. 14 is from the
cave of St. Michael d'Arudy, engraved on a flat piece of shoulder-
bone. It shows what can only be interpreted as some kind of
"halter," made apparently of twisted rope (b, c, d), disposed about
the animal's head, whilst a broad, flat piece ornamented with
angular marks is attached at the regions marked "a." This and other
drawings similar to Fig. 13, C (of which there are many), go far to
prove that these early men had mastered the horse and put a kind
of bridle on his head. Fig. 15 is a solid all-round carving in reindeer's
antler from the cave of Mas d'Azil, Ariège (France). The original is of
this size, and is supposed to be one of the oldest and yet is the most
artistic yet discovered, and worthy to compare with the horses of the
Parthenon.
In Fig. 20 we have a wonderful outline of a bear engraved on a
piece of stone, from the cave of Teyjat, in the Dordogne; Fig. 22, the
head of a wolf on the wall of the cave of Combarelles, Dordogne;
Fig. 23, lion (mane-less), engraved on the wall of the same cave;
Fig. 21, small bear, engraved on a pebble; Fig. 24, a duck engraved
on a piece of reindeer's antler (Gourdan, Haute Garonne); Fig. 17,
the square-mouthed, two-horned rhinoceros, drawn in red (ochre)
outline on the wall of the cavern of the Font de Gaume. This drawing
is 2-1/2 ft. long. In successful characterization the bear (Fig. 20), the
wolf (Fig. 22), and the feline (Fig. 23) far surpass any of the
attempts at animal drawing made by modern savages, such as the
Bushmen of South Africa, Californian Indians, and Australian black
fellows.
Fig. 25.—Female figure carved in oolitic limestone from Willendorf near Krems,
Lower Austria (1908). Half the size (linear) of the original.

Fig. 27 is an outline sketch of a rock-carved statue, 18 in. high,

proved by the kind of flint implements found with it to be of
Aurignacian age. It was discovered on a rubble-covered face of a
rock-cliff at Laussel, in the Dordogne, by M. Lalanne. The woman
holds a bovine horn in her right hand. The face is obliterated by
"weathering." Four other human statues were found in the same
place, one a male, much broken, but obviously standing in the
position taken by (Fig. 28) a man throwing a spear or drawing a
bow. [3] Near these were found a frieze of life-sized horses carved in
high relief on the rock. These are the only statues of any size,
executed by the Reindeer men, yet discovered.
Fig. 26.—Drawing (of the actual size of the original) of an ivory carving (fully
rounded) of a female head. The specimen was found in the cavern of
Brassempouy, in the Landes. It is of the earliest Reindeer period, and the
arrangement of the hair or cap is remarkable.

The representations of men are rare among these earliest works

of art, and less successfully carried out than those of animals. But
several small statuettes of women in bone, ivory, and stone of the
early Aurignacian horizon are known. They suggest, by their form of
body, affinity with the Bushmen race of to-day (Fig. 25). The all-
round carving of a female head (Fig. 26) also suggests Ethiopian
affinities in the dressing of the hair. Some regard this hair-like head-
dress as a cap. Here and there badly executed outline engravings of
men, some apparently wearing masks, have been discovered.
The fact that the "Reindeer men" were skilful in devising
decorative design—not representing actual natural objects—is shown
by the carving drawn in Fig. 29 and in many others like it.

Fig. 27.—Seated figure of a woman holding a bovine horn in the right hand; high
relief carved on a limestone rock; about 18 inches high. Discovered at Laussel
(Dordogne) in a rock-shelter in 1911, by M. Lalanne.
Fig. 28.—Male figure represented in the act of drawing a bow or throwing a spear.
Carved on limestone rock; about 16 inches high. Discovered by M. Lalanne with
that drawn in Fig. 27.

The later horizons of the Reindeer period or Upper Pleistocene

yield some beautiful outline engravings of red deer and reindeer
(Fig. 16) on antler-bone, as well as of other animals. One celebrated
carving I have described in the first chapter of this book. It is now
regarded as probable that whilst the art of the Aurignacians
persisted and developed in the South of France and North-West of
Spain until and during the time of the Magdalenian horizon, yet a
distinct race, with a different style of art, spread through South-East
Spain and also from Italy into that region, and affected injuriously
the "naturalistic" Aurignacian art, and superseded it in Azilian and
Neolithic times. We find late drawings (Azilian age?) in some of the
east Spanish caves of a very much simplified character, small human
figures armed with bow and arrow, and others reduced to geometric
or mere symbolic lines derived from human and animal form (see
Fig. 52, p. 206). The latest studies of Breuil on this subject tend to
throw light by aid of these simplified inartistic and symbolic drawings
on the migrations of very early races in the south and south-east of
Europe, and to connect them perhaps with North African
contemporary races. The subject is as difficult as it is fascinating.
Those who wish to get to the original sources of information should
consult the last ten years' issues of the invaluable French periodical
called "L'Anthropologie," edited by Professor Marcelin Boule.
Fig. 29.—A piece of mammoth ivory carved with spirals and scrolls from the cave
of Arudy (Hautes Pyrénées). Same size as the object.

FOOTNOTE:
[3] M. Reinach relates ("Repertoire de l'Art Quatermaire") that two
of these statues were in 1912 deliberately stolen by the German
Verworn professor of Physiology in Bonn, who repaid the hospitality
of M. Lalanne by bribing his workman and secretly carrying off
these valuable specimens to Germany, where (it is stated) they
were sold to the museum of Berlin for a large sum.
 CHAPTER IV
VESUVIUS IN ERUPTION

A
T intervals of ten to twenty years the best-known volcano in the
world—Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples—has in the last two
centuries burst into eruption, and the probability of the recurrence of
this violent state of activity, at no distant date, render some account
of my own acquaintance with that great and wonderful thing
seasonable. We inhabitants of the West of Europe have little
personal experience of earthquakes, and still less of volcanoes, for
there is not in the British Islands even an "extinct" volcanic cone to
remind us of the terrible forces held down beneath our feet by the
crust of the earth. In regions as near as the Auvergne of Central
France and the Eiffel, close to the junction of the Moselle with the
Rhine, there are complete volcanic craters whose fiery origin is
recognized even by the local peasantry. They are, however, regarded
by these optimist folk as the products of ancient fires long since
burnt out. The natives have as little apprehension of a renewed
activity of their volcanoes as we have of the outburst of molten lava
and devastating clouds of ashes and poisonous vapour from the top
of Primrose Hill. Nevertheless, the hot springs and gas issuing from
fissures in the Auvergne show that the subterranean fires are not yet
closed down, and may at any day burst again into violent activity.
Such also was the happy indifference with which from time
immemorial the Greek colonists and other earlier and later
inhabitants of the rich and beautiful shores of the Neapolitan bay
before the fateful year A.D. 79, had regarded the low crater-topped
mountain called Vesuvius or Vesbius, as well as the great circular
forest-grown or lake-holding cups near Cumæ and the Cape
Misenum, at the northern end of the bay—known to-day as the
Solfatara, Astroni, Monti Grillo, Barbaro, and Cigliano—and the lakes
Lucrino, Averno, and Agnano. These together with the Monte Nuovo
—which suddenly rose from the sea near Baiæ in 1538 and as
suddenly disappeared—constitute "the Phlegræan fields." Vesuvius
was loftier than any one of the Phlegræan craters, and the gentle
slope by which it rose from the sea level to a height of nearly 3700
ft. had, as now, a circumference of ten miles. It did not terminate in
a "cone," as in later ages, but in a depressed, circular, forest-covered
area measuring a mile across, which was the ancient crater. A
drawing showing the shape of the mountain at this period is the
work of the late Prof. Phillips of Oxford (Fig. 30). The soil formed
around and upon the ancient lava-streams of Vesuvius appears to
have been always especially fertile, so that flourishing towns and
villages occupied its slopes, and the ports of Herculaneum, Pompeii,
and Stabiæ were the seats of a busy and long-established
population. The existence of active volcanoes at no great distance
from Vesuvius was, however, well known to the ancient Greeks and
Romans. The great Sicilian mountain, Etna—more than 10,000 ft. in
height, rising from a base of ninety miles in circumference—and the
Lipari Islands, such as Stromboli and Volcano, were for many
centuries in intermittent activity before the first recorded eruption of
Vesuvius—that of A.D. 79—and great eruptions are recorded as
having occurred in the mountain mass of the island of Ischia, close
to the Bay of Naples, in the fifth, third, and first centuries B.C.
Fig. 30.—Vesuvius as it appeared before the eruption of August 24, A.D. 79. From
a sketch by Prof. Phillips, F.R.S.

Nevertheless, the outburst of Vesuvius in A.D. 79 and its re-

entrance into a state of activity came upon the unfortunate
population around it as an absolutely unexpected thing. At least a
thousand years—probably several thousand years—had passed since
Vesuvius had become "extinct." All tradition of its prehistoric activity
had disappeared, though the learned Greek traveller Strabo had
pointed out the indications it presented of having been once a seat
of consuming fire. From A.D. 63 there were during sixteen years
frequent earthquakes in its neighbourhood, which, as we know by
records and inscriptions, caused serious damage to the towns
around it, and then suddenly, on the night of Aug. 24, A.D. 79, vast
explosions burst from its summit. A huge black cloud of fine dust
and cinders, lasting for three days, spread from it for twenty miles
around, streams of boiling mud poured down its sides, and in a few
hours covered the city of Herculaneum, whilst a dense shower of hot
volcanic dust completely buried the gay little seaside resort known
as Pompeii. Many thousand persons perished, choked by the vapours
or overwhelmed by the hot cinders or engulfed in the boiling mud.
The great naturalist Pliny was in command of the fleet at Cape
Misenum, and went by ship across the bay to render assistance to
the inhabitants of the towns at the foot of Vesuvius. Pliny's nephew
wrote two letters to the historian Tacitus, giving an account of these
events and of the remarkable courage and coolness of his uncle,
who, after sleeping the night at Stabiæ, was suffocated by the
sulphurous vapours as he advanced into the open country near the
volcano. The friends who were with him left him to his fate and
made their escape. The younger Pliny had prudently remained, out
of danger, with his mother at Misenum.
The alternating periods of activity and of rest exhibited by
volcanoes seem to us capricious, and even at the present day are
not sufficiently well understood to enable us to discern any order or
regularity in their succession. Vesuvius is a thousand centuries old,
and we have only known it for thirty. We cannot expect to get the
time-table of its activities on so brief an acquaintance. Strangely
enough, Vesuvius, having, after immemorial silence, spasmodically
burst into eruption and spread devastation around it, resumed its
slumber for many years. There is no mention of its activity for 130
years after A.D. 79. Then it growled and sent forth steam and
cinder-dust to an extent sufficient to attract attention again; its
efforts were thereafter recorded once or so in a century, though
little, if any, harm was done by it. In A.D. 1139 there was a great
throwing-up of dust and stones, with steam, which reflected the
light of molten lava within the crater, and looked like flames. And
then for close on 500 years there was little, if any, sign of activity.
The "eruptions" between that of A.D. 79 and that of A.D. 1139 had
been ejections of steam and cinders, unaccompanied by any flow or
stream of lava. Then suddenly the whole business shut up for 500
years, and after that—also quite suddenly—in 1631, a really big
eruption took place, exceeding in volume the catastrophe of Pliny's
date. Not only were columns of dust and vapour ejected to a height
of many miles, but several streams of white-hot lava overflowed the
edge of the crater and reached the seacoast, destroying towns and
villages on the way. Some of these lava-streams were five miles
broad, and can be studied at the present day. As many as 18,000
persons were killed.
There were three more eruptions in the seventeenth century, and
from that date there set in a period of far more frequent outbursts,
which have continued to our own times. In the eighteenth century
there were twenty-three distinct eruptions, lasting each from a few
hours to two or three days, and of varying degrees of violence—a
vast steam-jet forcing up cinders and stones from the crater into the
air, usually accompanied by the outflow of lava, from cracks in sides
of the crater, in greater or less quantity. In the nineteenth century
there were twenty-five distinct eruptions, the most formidable of
which were those of 1822, 1834, and 1872. All of the eruptions of
Vesuvius in the last 280 years have been carefully described, and
most of them recorded in coloured pictures (a favourite industry of
the Neapolitans), showing the appearance of the active volcano both
by day and night and its change of shape in successive years. Sir
William Hamilton, the British Ambassador at the Court of Naples at
the end of the eighteenth century (of whose great folio volumes I
am the fortunate possessor), largely occupied himself in the study
and description of Vesuvius, and published illustrations of the kind
mentioned above, showing the appearance of the mountain at
various epochs. Since his day there has been no lack of descriptions
of every succeeding eruption, and now we have the records of
photography.
The crater or basin formed by a volcano starts with the opening of
a fissure in the earth's surface communicating by a pipe-like passage
with very deeply-seated molten matter and steam. Whether the
molten matter thus naturally "tapped" is only a local, though vast,
accumulation, or is universally distributed at a given depth below the
earth's crust, and at how many miles from the surface, is not known.
It seems to be certain that the great pressure of the crust of the
earth (from five to twenty-five miles thick) must prevent the heated
matter below it from becoming either liquid or gaseous, whether the
heat of that mass be due to the cracking of the earth's crust and the
friction of the moving surfaces as the crust cools and shrinks, or is to
be accounted for by the original high temperature of the entire mass
of the terrestrial globe. It is only when the gigantic pressure is
relieved by the cracking or fissuring of the closed case called "the
crust of the earth" that the enclosed deep-lying matter of immensely
high temperature liquefies, or even vaporizes, and rushes into the
up-leading fissure. Steam and gas thus "set free" drive everything
before them, carrying solid masses along with them, tearing,
rending, shaking "the foundations of the hills," and issuing in terrific
jets from the earth's surface, as through a safety valve, into the
astonished world above. Often in a few hours they choke their own
path by the destruction they produce and the falling in of the walls
of their briefly-opened channels. Then there is a lull of hours, days,
or even centuries, and after that again, a movement of the crust, a
"giving" of the blockage of the deep, vertical pipe, and a renewed
rush and jet of expanding gas and liquefying rock.
The general scheme of this process and its relations to the
structure and properties of the outer crust and inner mass of the
globe is still a matter of discussion, theory and verification; but
whatever conclusions geologists may reach on these matters, the
main fact of importance is that steam and gases issue from these
fissures with enormous velocity and pressure, and that "a vent" of
this kind, once established, continues, as a rule, to serve
intermittently for centuries, and, indeed, for vast periods to which
we can assign no definite limits. The solid matter ejected becomes
piled up around the vent as a mound, its outline taking the graceful
catenary curves of rest and adjustment to which are due the great
beauty of volcanic cones. The apex of the cone is blown away at
intervals by the violent blasts issuing from the vent, and thus we
have formed the "crater," varying in the area enclosed by its margin
and in the depth and appearance of the cup so produced. At a rate
depending on the amount of solid matter ejected by the crater, the
mound will grow in the course of time to be a mountain, and often
secondary craters or temporary openings, connected at some depth
with the main passage leading to the central vent, will form on the
sides of the mound or mountain. Sometimes the old crater will cease
to grow in consequence of the blocking of its central vent and the
formation of one or more subsidiary vents, the activity of which may
blast away or smother the cup-like edge of the first crater.

Fig. 31.—Five successive stages in the change of form of Vesuvius (after Phillips'
"Vesuvius," Oxford, 1869). In the oldest (lowest figure) we see the mountain
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