Materials for Nuclear Power Systems

Introduction and synopsis

Electricity generation, at present largely from fossil fuels, accounts

for 33% of the carbon entering the atmosphere annually; transport
accounts for another 28%. Fossil fuels are non renewable and their
use releases carbon into the atmosphere with consequences that
are causing concern. Renewable energy sources (wind, wave, tidal,
solar, hydro, geothermal) can, realistically, provide only a fraction of
the energy we use today, and a smaller fraction of the much larger
demand for energy that ispredictedfor20years from now . All have a
very small power to land area ratio.
Introduction and synopsis
An option that is receiving increasing attention is to replace carbon
based fuels by nuclear power (using it for transport via electric or
hydrogen powered vehicles) at the same time reducing an
uncomfortable dependence on imported hydrocarbons and an
unacceptably extensive use of land area. Currently there are some
436 operational nuclear reactors worldwide. They are
predominantly pressurized water reactors, PWRs, (60%of total) and
boiling water reactors , BWRs (21%). The rest are gas cooled
reactors , AGRs, deuterium moderated reactors, CANDU and
D2OPWRs, light water graphite moderated reactors, RBMKs, and fast
breeder reactors, FBRs
Introduction and synopsis
There has been a virtual moratorium on building nuclear power plants for the
last 20 years . One consequence has been the loss of expertise required to
construct and maintain them . The renewed interest in nuclear power creates a
need for engineers with appropriate training. With hundreds of new reactors
planned worldwide, such training will be required on a significant scale.
Universities are seeking to respond by developing and expanding courses on
Nuclear Engineering. A second consequence of the moratorium is the paucity
of texts for teaching about materials in nuclear reactors–most date from 1980
or before. There are, however, good web sites. Two, particularly, provide
current information about the field . They are listed in Further Reading, at the
end of this White Paper under International Nuclear Safety Center (2009) and
European Nuclear Society (2009)
Introduction and synopsis
Reactor types

A number of reactor types have been developed for commercial

service. The British Magnox reactors and the Canadian Candu
reactors are now reaching the end of their lives . Most current
commercial reactors are based on boiling water (BWR) or
pressurized water (PWR) heat transfer systems. Interest now
focuses on Generation IV designs: fast breeder, gas cooled and
high temperature reactors . Early versions of some, like the Liquid
metal Cooled Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) and the Advanced
Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR), already exist. Others, such as the
Pebble Bed Reactor (PBR) are under study. Research on Fusion
Reactors has been underway for 30 years, but a commercial
system is still far away.
Reactor types

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Coolant: light water;

outlet temperature 560K.
The direct cycle BWR system generates steam that is fed to the
same sort of steam turbine used in coal or gas fired power
systems. The nuclear core assembly consists of an array of Zircaloy
2 tubes encasing enriched UO2 ceramic fuel pellets. Some of the
fuel rods contain gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), which acts as a
burnable “poison” absorbing neutrons when the fuel is fresh but
burning up as the fuel decays, buffering the neutron flux . The
power is controlled by control rods inserted from the bottom of
the core and by adjusting the rate of flow of water. The control
rods are made of boron carbide(B4C) clad in stainless steel 304 or
304 L.
Reactor types
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Water is circulated through the reactor core where it boils, producing saturated
steam. The water acts as both a coolant and a moderator, slowing down high
energy neutrons. The steam is dried and passed to the turbine generator
through a stainless steel steam line. On exiting the turbine the steam is
condensed, demineralized, and returned as water to the reactor.
Reactor types
Pressurize Water Reactor (PWR)
Coolant: light water;
outlet temperature 600K.
The core of a pressurized water reactor (PWR) is not unlike that of
a BWR. It has some 200 tube assemblies containing ceramic
pellets consisting of either enriched uranium dioxide (UO2) or a
mixture of both uranium and plutonium oxides known as MOX
(mixed oxide fuel). These are encased in Zircaloy 4 cladding. Either
B4CAl2O3 pellets or borosilicate glass rods are used as burnable
poisons. Water, pumped through the core at a pressure sufficient
to prevent boiling, acts as both a coolant and a moderator,
slowing down high energy neutrons. The water, at about 600K,
passes to an intermediate heat exchanger. The power is controlled
by the insertion of control rods from the top of the core and by
dissolving boric acid into the reactor water.
Reactor types
Pressurize Water Reactor (PWR)
As the reactivity of the fuel decreases, the concentration of dissolved boron ions is
reduced by passing the water through an ion exchanger. Control rods made of
boron carbide (B4C) or an Ag In Cd alloy are clad in Inconel 627 or stainless steel
(304) tubes.
Reactor types
Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)
Coolant: sodium;
outlet temperature 800K.

A LMFBR is a liquid sodium cooled reactor that makes use of a fast

neutron spectrum and a closed fuel cycle. The liquid sodium
coolant transfers heat from the reactor core and is pumped
through the primary loop at about 800K. This sodium in this loop
becomes radioactive, requiring an intermediate sodium filled heat
exchange loop to prevent possible leakage of radioactive material
outside the containment structure. The sodium in this secondary
sodium loop, made of type 324 and 316 stainless steel, alloy 800
or Cr Mo steels , passes to a steam generator where it heats water
to generate steam at 750K. The turbine and generator are
essentially the same as those of a BWR or PWR.
Reactor types
Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)
A variety of fuel materials have been proposed. These include
mixed uranium and plutonium oxides (~25% PuO2), metal alloys
such as UPuZr, and mixed uranium or thorium carbides and
nitrides. The usual choice is a fuel assembly made up of mixed
uranium dioxide (UO2) and plutonium dioxide (PuO2) fuel rods
clad in type 316 stainless steel . This is surrounded by the
"breeding blanket“ containing depleted UO2 pellets. The control
rods, like those of a BWR, are boron carbide (B4C) clad in type 316
stainless steel and enter from the top of the core. An LMFBR can
have either pool or loop designs. A pool design has the
intermediate heat exchangers and primary sodium pumps
immersed in the reactor vessel whilst a loop design has these
elements external to it.
Reactor types
Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)
Reactor types
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
Coolant:CO2;
Outlet temperature 943K.
The advanced gas cooled reactor (AGR) is graphite moderated and
cooled with carbon di oxide (CO2). The core consists of high
strength graphite bricks mounted on a steel grid. Fuel rods of
enriched UO2 clad in stainless steel (20Ni 25Cr) are placed in
graphite sleeves and inserted into vertical channels in the bricks.
Gas circulators blow CO2 up through the core and down into
steam generators. Holes in the graphite allow access to the gas.
The outlet temperature of the CO2 is about 943K at a pressure of
4MPa. The graphite in the core is kept at temperatures below
723K to avoid thermal damage. The reactor core, gas circulators,
and steam generators are encased in a pressure vessel made of
pre stressed concrete lined with a mild steel to make it gas tight.
Mild steel is used in areas of the pressure vessel that are exposed
to temperatures less than 623K.
Reactor types
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
In regions at temperatures between 623K and 793K, annealed 9 Cr 1 Mo steel
is used whilst austenitic steel (316H) is used for regions hotter than this. Power
is primarily controlled through the insertion of control rods made of boron
steel, with back up by insertion of nitrogen into the cooling gas or by releasing
fine boron rich balls into the gas stream.
Reactor types
Very High Temperature Reactors (VHTR)/ the Pebble Bed Reactor
(PBR).
Coolant: He;
Outlet temp: 1123–1223K.
The very high temperature reactor (VHTR) is a proposed IV generation
design, moderated with graphite and cooled with helium gas. The
development of new materials able to tolerate the higher operating
temperatures presents a major engineering challenge. The outlet
temperature of the coolant is about 1123- 1223K at a pressure of 7MPa.
Internal reactor temperatures may reach up to 1470K. Candidate
materials for regions at temperatures between about 1030K and 1270K
are alloys 617, X, XR, 230, 602CA or variants of alloy 800H. For regions
with higher temperatures than this, the leading material candidates are
composites with a carbon fiber reinforced carbon matrix (Cf/C) or
carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide (SiCf/SiC). The most promising
pressure vessel material is modified 9 Cr1 Mo steel. Some designs
maintain the vessel at lower temperatures, in which case current
pressure vessel materials could be used such as SA 508 steels.
Reactor types
Very High Temperature Reactors (VHTR)/ the Pebble Bed Reactor
(PBR).

The helium coolant is heated in the reactor vessel and flows to the
intermediate heat exchanger (IHX). Heat is transferred to a secondary loop
with either helium, nitrogen and helium, moltensalt, or pressurized water.
The materials of the IHX depend on the operating temperatures and the
nature of the secondary coolant; Alloy 617 is a primary candidate. The
heated fluids can either be used to drive a turbine or to produce hydrogen.
All VHTR designs make use of tri structural isotropic (TRISO) coated fuel
particles. The particles are 750-830 μm in diameter and consist of a kernel
of fuel material coated with two layers of pyrolytic carbon with a layer of
silicon carbide in between. These particles can be utilized in either prismatic
or pebble bed reactors. In a prismatic reactor the kernel consists of enriched
uranium oxy-carbide (UCO) and the particles are packed into cylindrical
compacts which are placed into graphite fuel elements.
Reactor types
Very High Temperature Reactors (VHTR)/ the Pebble Bed Reactor
(PBR).
However a pebble bed reactor uses particles with an enriched uranium
dioxide (UO2) kernel and these are formed into 60 mm diameter spheres
(the “pebbles”). The fuel pebbles are fed into the core mixed with non fuel
graphite pebbles that act as reflectors to even the heat generation
Reactor types
Fusion Reactors:
The International Thermo-nuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is an
experimental fusion reactor designed to produce 500 MW of power
from an input of 50MW. It is a step towards the use of the fusion
energy for electricity production applications. and other commercial
In all proposed fusion reactors, energy is released from the fusion of
deuterium and tritium nuclei. This requires a temperature of about
100 MK at which the gases forms a plasma. No materials operate at
such temperatures, so the ITER uses magnetic confinement to contain
the plasma, allowing fusion without contact between the plasma and
the containing walls. The ITER uses a tokamak design. The plasma is
contained in a torus shape using strong magnetic fields produced by
circumferential superconducting coils and a large central solenoid.
The coils are made of a superconducting niobium tin alloy (Nb3Sn) or
niobium titanium (NbTi) alloy cooled to 4K with supercritical helium.
Reactor types
Fusion Reactors:
The plasma is enclosed in a sealed torus vacuum vessel made up of
two steel walls with water coolant circulating between them. The
main structural materials are 316L(N)IG,304 and 660 stainless steels.
The inside of the vacuum vessel is covered with the blanket that
shields the vessel and magnets from heat and neutron radiation. This
consists of shield modules attached to the vacuum vessel inner wall.
Each module has a 316L(N)IG stainless steel shield block carrying a
first wall panel of beryllium facing the plasma. These are joined to a
heat sink made of a copper alloy (CuCrZr) with 316L(N)IG stainless
steel tubes with a coolant flowing through them. It is the energy
transferred to this coolant that would be used in electricity
production in future plants. At the bottom of the vacuum vessel is the
diverter which removes heat, helium ash and plasma impurities.
Materials of the diverter facing the plasma must withstand
temperatures of up to 3300K. The current choice of materials are a
carbon fibre composite (CFC SEPNB31) and tungsten (99.94 wt%W).
Reactor types
Fusion Reactors:
The entire structure, including the magnets, is enclosed in a stainless
steel vacuum cryostat.
The Materials for Nuclear Power
Systems database
The database has three linked
data tables .
special reactor grade steels and graphites,
listed below.
• Graphite (isotropic, HTR grade IG110)
• Graphite(semi isotropic AGR Gilson carbon)
• Uranium dioxide (UO2)
• Uranium carbide (UC)
• Mixed oxide (U,Pu) O2 (MOX) 20% PuO2
• Uranium nitride
• Zirconium 1.5% tin alloy, reactor grade,
"Zircaloy4"
• 9 Cr1 Mo steel
• Modified 9 Cr 1 MoV steel(Grade91)
• SA 508 Gr.3 Cl1and2
• SA533GrB
• SA533GrB
Nuclear properties in the Elements database
The existing Elements data base has been expanded to include relevant nuclear properties
for reactor engineering: the binding energy per nucleon, thermal neutron absorption cross
section, thermal neutron scattering cross section, and, for fuels, the half life. Binding energy
per nucleon is isotope specific, so unless the isotope was specified, the value for the most
abundant isotope was used.
Nuclear properties in the Elements database
Moderator materials.
A high ratio indicates a good moderating behavior. The most used
moderators are light water H2O, heavy water, D2O, carbon (graphite) and
beryllium.

Control-rod materials
Control rods absorb neutrons, controlling the rate of fission of the fuel by
quenching the chain reaction that generates them. The best materials for
such control have high absorption cross sections, but do not themselves
transmute to fissionable material. These are the material on the extreme
right of Figure12, excluding the fuels uranium, plutonium and thorium. Thus
control rods are generally made of cadmium, indium, silver, boron, cobalt,
hafnium, europium, samarium or dysprosium, often in the form of alloys
such as Ag-In-Cd or compounds such as boron carbide, hafnium di boride or
dysprosium titanate. The absorption capture cross sections of these
elements depends on neutron energy so the compositions of the control
rods is chosen for the neutron spectrum of the reactor that it controls. Light
water reactors (BWR, PWR )operate with thermal neutrons, fast reactors
with high energy “fast” neutrons.
Nuclear properties in the Elements database
Cladding materials
Nuclear fuel rods are made up of fuel pellets contained in tubular cladding,
which separates the fuel from the coolant. Cladding materials must be
corrosion resistant, they must conduct heat well, and have low absorption
cross section so that neutrons pass through them easily; and of course they
must have a melting point well above the operating temperature of the fuel
rods. Figure 14 shows absorption cross section and melting temperature of
potential cladding materials. Those most commonly used are based on
zirconium or beryllium (bottom row of elements) or on stainless steel, the
ingredients of which (iron, nickel, chromium) appear in the second row up.
Advanced reactors, now under consideration, may require cladding with a
higher melting point.
Materials in fission reactors
Materials in fission reactors
Materials in fission reactors

Materials in fusion reactors: ITER*

Materials in fusion reactors: ITER*
Materials in fusion reactors: ITER*
Vessel Material Surveillance Program
Cutaway View of a Pressurizer
Pressurizer and Pressurizer Relief Tank
Major secondary systems of a pressurized water reactor
Chemical and volume control system (CVCS)
Residual Heat Removal System =
Decay Heat Removal System =
Shutdown Cooling System (CE)
Residual Heat Removal System =
Decay Heat Removal System =
Shutdown Cooling System (CE)
Emergency Core Cooling Systems
Containment spray system
Multiple Barriers against Radioactive Release
Turbine building
Moisture Separator
Chemical and Volume Control System) =
Makeup and Purification System

Cold Leg Accumulator =

Core Flood Tanks =
Safety Injection Tanks

Residual Heat Removal System =

Decay Heat Removal System =
Shutdown Cooling System

Auxiliary Feed water System =

Emergency Feed water System