Question 1

In an X.25 network with windowing, how can we calculate the throughput

(packets delivered per second) considering the following factors:
• Window size (W) - Number of packets a sender can transmit without waiting for
acknowledgement (ACK)
• Packet transmission time (T_packet) - Time it takes to transmit a single packet
• Round-trip time (RTT) - Time it takes for a packet to travel from sender to receiver and
the ACK to return

Solution:

Question 2:
How are errors detected and corrected in X.25 packets?
Solution question2:

In X.25, errors in packets are detected and corrected using the following methods:

Error Detection

CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Each packet includes a checksum (FCS field). The receiver
computes the checksum again and compares it with the received one. If they don't match, an error is
detected.

Error Correction

ARQ (Automatic Retransmission Request): If an error is detected, the receiver sends a NACK
(Negative Acknowledgment) to request the sender to retransmit the corrupted packet.

Sequencing: Each packet has a sequence number, helping the receiver identify lost or out-of-
order packets for retransmission.

ACKs (Acknowledgments): The receiver sends an acknowledgment for correctly received

packets. If the sender doesn’t receive an acknowledgment within a time frame, it retransmits the
packet.

Question 3
Explain the steps involved in establishing a virtual circuit (VC) connection
between two DTEs (Data Terminal Equipment) in an X.25 network.
Solution:

Call Request: The initiating DTE sends a request to the network to start the connection.

Call Accept: The network checks and accepts the request, then notifies the initiating DTE.

Circuit Setup: The network sets up a path for communication between the two DTEs.

Data Transfer: Once the connection is made, data is sent between the DTEs.

Call Disconnect: After data transfer, either DTE sends a disconnect message to end the connection.

Question 4

: A company requires a T-1 leased line for various applications:

• Voice calls: Each call requires 64 kbps bandwidth.
• Data transfer: Data transfer needs a dedicated 256 kbps channel.
• Video conferencing: A single video conference requires 384 kbps bandwidth.
How many voice calls can the company make simultaneously while using the data transfer
and video conferencing applications on the T-1 line?
Solution:

A T-1 line has 1544 kbps bandwidth.

Given:

Voice calls: 64 kbps each

Data transfer: 256 kbps

Video conferencing: 384 kbps

Steps:

Total used bandwidth for data transfer and video:

1. 256 kbps+384 kbps=640 kbps

Remaining bandwidth for voice calls:

2. 1544 kbps−640 kbps=904 kbps

Number of voice calls:

3. 904 kbps/64 kbps=14 calls

Question 5

A company needs a reliable internet connection with at least 1 Mbps download

speed. They are considering two options:
• T-1 leased line: Monthly cost ($T_month) with guaranteed 1.544 Mbps bandwidth.
• Bonded DSL: Combines multiple DSL lines, offering variable monthly cost
($B_month) and a potential download speed exceeding 1 Mbps (uncertain due to DSL
line quality).
How can the company determine the most cost-effective option considering the guaranteed
bandwidth of T-1 and the variable speed/cost of Bonded DSL?

Solution:

To determine the most cost-effective option, the company should consider the following:

1. T-1 Leased Line:

Guaranteed 1.544 Mbps speed.

Fixed monthly cost ($T_month).

Reliable with consistent performance

2.Bonded DSL:

Variable speed (could be above 1 Mbps, but not guaranteed).

 Variable monthly cost ($B_month), depending on the number of DSL lines and quality.

Risk: Speed might not always meet 1 Mbps.

How to Decide:

If the T-1 line cost ($T_month) is close to or lower than Bonded DSL cost ($B_month), and the
company needs guaranteed speed, then choose the T-1 line for reliability.

If Bonded DSL ($B_month) is significantly cheaper and the speed is generally above 1 Mbps, then
choose Bonded DSL but consider the risk of variable speed.

Question6

: A T-3 leased line transmits data packets with a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) for
error detection. The FCS uses a specific polynomial for error checking. How can we
determine if a received packet is corrupted based on the FCS value?

Solution:

Recalculate the CRC: The receiver calculates the CRC for the received packet using the same error-
checking polynomial.

Compare CRC with FCS: The receiver compares the calculated CRC with the FCS value that came
with the packet.

Check for corruption:

If the calculated CRC matches the FCS, the packet is not corrupted.

If the calculated CRC doesn't match the FCS, the packet is corrupted.

In short, if the CRC doesn't match the FCS, the packet has an error.

: A company leases a Frame Relay connection with a Committed Information Rate

(CIR) of 2 Mbps and an Excess Burst Size (BE) of 64 kbps. They plan to transfer a large file of
100 Megabytes (Mb).
• How long will it take to transmit the file considering the CIR and BE in Frame Relay?
• What portion of the file will be transmitted using the CIR and what portion will use the
BE?

Given:

CIR = 2 Mbps (Committed Information Rate)

BE = 64 kbps (Excess Burst Size)

File size = 100 Megabytes (MB) = 100 * 8 = 800 Megabits (Mb) (since 1 byte = 8 bits)

Step 1: Convert the file size to bits

The file size is given as 100 MB, which is:

100 MB=100×8=800 Mb (Megabits)

Step 2: Determine the data transfer rate

 CIR is 2 Mbps (2 Megabits per second), which is guaranteed.

BE is 64 kbps (64 kilobits per second), which is available only when there is excess capacity and isn't
guaranteed.

Step 3: Time to transmit the file using CIR and BE

We’ll assume that the full CIR rate can be used to transfer the file, and any extra burst traffic (above CIR) will
use BE.

Time using CIR (2 Mbps):

Time (CIR)=File size (Mb)/CIR (Mbps)= 800 Mb/2 Mbps=400 seconds

So, 400 seconds will be used for transferring the file at the CIR rate.

Time using BE (64 kbps):

BE is available if there is excess capacity, but it's not guaranteed. We don’t know exactly how much BE
will be available, so we will assume that the BE rate is available for the remainder of the file that
exceeds the CIR capacity.

To calculate the portion of the file that uses BE, we'll consider the total file size and subtract the
portion transmitted at CIR:

First, determine the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted at the CIR rate (2 Mbps).

For 400 seconds (time at CIR), the maximum data transmitted at CIR is:

Data using CIR=CIR (Mbps)×Time (seconds)=2 Mbps×400 seconds=800Mb

Since the entire file is 800 Mb, the entire file can be transmitted at the CIR rate, and there’s no need to
use the BE rate in this case.

Final Answer:

Time to transmit the file using CIR: 400 seconds.

Portion using CIR: 100% of the file (800 Mb).

Portion using BE: 0% (because the entire file fits within the CIR).

So, the file will be transmitted in 400 seconds using the CIR alone. No BE bandwidth is needed in this case.

Question8:

: A Frame Relay network experiences a constant delay of 20 milliseconds (ms) for

data packets. The average packet size in the network is 1024 bytes. Calculate the following:
• Line efficiency if the transmission speed is 1 Mbps

Solution

Transmission speed = 1 Mbps (1,000,000 bits per second)

Packet size = 1024 bytes = 1024 * 8 = 8192 bits (since 1 byte = 8 bits)
 Propagation delay = 20 ms = 0.02 seconds

Step 1: Calculate the Transmission Time for a packet

Transmission time is the time it takes to send the packet over the network, and it is calculated as:

Transmission time=Packet size/Transmission speed Transmission time=8192 bits/1,000,000 bits/second

=0.008192 seconds=8.192 milliseconds

Step 2: Calculate the Total Time (Transmission time + Propagation delay)

The total time includes both the transmission time and the propagation delay:

Total time=Transmission time+Propagation delay

Total time=8.192 ms+20 ms=28.192 ms

Step 3: Calculate the Line Efficiency

Line efficiency is the ratio of the transmission time to the total time:

Line efficiency=Transmission time/Total time=8.192 ms/28.192 ms=0.2904

Line efficiency=29.04%

Final Answer:

The line efficiency of the Frame Relay network is 29.04%.

Question9:

Question: A Frame Relay network is experiencing congestion. The network has a Discard
Eligibility (DE) bit set for specific traffic types. How does the DE bit influence packet handling
during congestion?
Solution

In a Frame Relay network, the DE (Discard Eligibility) bit helps manage congestion:

DE bit set: This means the packet is low priority and can be dropped if the network is congested.

DE bit not set: This means the packet is high priority and will be kept in the network during
congestion.

During congestion, the network will drop packets with the DE bit set first, keeping high-priority packets
(DE bit not set) to ensure important data gets through.

Question 10:

An ATM network has a total bandwidth of 155 Mbps. It needs to support three
types of traffic:
• Voice calls: Each call requires 64 kbps bandwidth. (Number of calls = V)
• Video conferencing: Each video conference requires 384 kbps bandwidth. (Number
of conferences = C)Page 8 of 16
• Data transfer: The remaining bandwidth is allocated for data transfer.
How can we calculate the effective throughput available for data transfer (T_data)
considering the bandwidth requirements of voice calls and video conferencing?

Solution:
Given:

Total bandwidth = 155 Mbps

Voice calls: Each call requires 64 kbps bandwidth. (Let the number of voice calls = V)

Video conferencing: Each video conference requires 384 kbps bandwidth. (Let the number of
conferences = C)

Step 1: Calculate the bandwidth used by voice calls

The total bandwidth used by V voice calls is:

Bandwidth for voice calls=64 kbps×V

Step 2: Calculate the bandwidth used by video conferencing

The total bandwidth used by C video conferences is:

Bandwidth for video conferences=384 kbps×C

Step 3: Calculate the remaining bandwidth for data transfer

The remaining bandwidth, which will be used for data transfer, is the total bandwidth minus the bandwidth
used by voice calls and video conferences:

Tdata=Total bandwidth−(Bandwidth for voice calls+Bandwidth for video conferences)

Substitute the values:

Tdata=155 Mbps−(64 kbps×V+384 kbps×C)

Final Formula:

Tdata=155 Mbps−(64 kbps×V+384 kbps×C)

Explanation:

T_data is the bandwidth available for data transfer after accounting for the bandwidth used by voice
calls and video conferences.

V is the number of voice calls, and C is the number of video conferences.

Question 11

: An ATM network prioritizes real-time traffic like video conferencing for smooth
operation. How does Cell Delay Variation (CDV) impact the Quality of Service (QoS) for video
conferencing in ATM networks?

Solution:

High CDV causes delays and interruptions, making video conferencing choppy and out-of-sync, which
lowers quality. Low CDV is needed for smooth video calls.
Question 12
A company needs to connect two offices for data transfer. They have two main traffic types:
• Real-time video conferencing requiring low delay and jitter.
• Non-real-time file transfer with a focus on high throughput.
Question: Considering the technical characteristics of ATM, Frame Relay, T1, and X.25,
which network option would be most suitable for this scenario? Why?
Solution:

For this company that needs to connect two offices for video conferencing (real-time, low delay) and file
transfers (high throughput), the best option is ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode).

Why ATM is the best:

Real-time video conferencing: ATM is great for this because it minimizes delay and jitter, which are
important for smooth video calls.

Non-real-time file transfers: ATM also handles high throughput well, meaning it can send large files
quickly without slowing down.

Traffic management: ATM can handle both types of traffic (video and files) at the same time, making
sure each gets what it needs without interference.

Why other options are not as good:

Frame Relay: Not as good for real-time video because it doesn’t guarantee low delay

Question 13:

A company is expecting significant growth in data traffic over the next few years. They need
a network solution that can easily scale to accommodate the increasing traffic volume.
Question: How do ATM, Frame Relay, T1, and X.25 differ in terms of scalability and traffic
management capabilities?
Solution:

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode):

Scalability: Very high. It can easily grow with the company's needs and handle a lot of data.

Traffic Management: Great. ATM can prioritize important data (like video calls) and manage traffic
well as the network expands.

Why it's good: ATM is built to handle growth without problems. It adjusts to new demands easily.

2. Frame Relay:

Scalability: Moderate. It can grow, but not as easily as ATM. Adding more traffic can slow it down.

Traffic Management: Basic. It doesn't manage traffic as well as ATM. Some data might get delayed or
slowed down.

Why it's okay: It works for smaller growth, but as traffic increases, it can get less efficient.

3. T1 (1.544 Mbps):
Scalability: Low. It’s limited to 1.5 Mbps, so to increase capacity, you need to add more T1 lines, which is
expensive and slow.

Traffic Management: Very basic. T1 doesn’t have much control over how traffic is managed as it grows.

Why it's not great: T1 is hard to scale and can get expensive as the company grows.

4. X.25:

Scalability: Very low. It’s outdated and not designed for large amounts of modern data.

Traffic Management: Old and slow. X.25 is inefficient for handling modern traffic needs.

Why it's bad: X.25 is too old and slow to handle growth.

Question14

A network administrator needs to forecast future traffic demand to ensure

sufficient network capacity to handle the expected load. They have historical traffic data
available. How can they use this data to estimate future traffic volume?
Solution:
There are various methods for traffic forecasting, but here's a simple example using
historical data and a growth factor:
• Gather Historical Data: Collect traffic data over a period (e.g., daily average traffic
volume for the past year).
• Calculate Average Traffic: Calculate the average daily traffic volume (T_avg) for the
historical period.
• Estimate Growth Rate: Analyze historical trends or consider expected user growth
to estimate a growth factor (G).
• Forecast Future Traffic: Apply the formula: Future Traffic (T_future) = T_avg * (1 + G)

Question 15:
Permanent vs. Switched Virtual Circuits Explain the fundamental differences
between permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) and switched virtual circuits (SVCs) in the context
of network communication. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each approach,
considering factors such as setup time, flexibility, resource utilization, and cost

Solution:
Fundamental diffrences

Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC):

A PVC is pre-established by the network administrator or service provider.

The connection is always available, regardless of whether data is being transmitted.

It behaves like a dedicated path and does not need to be set up or torn down each time data is sent.

Example: Like a private road between two offices that's always open.

Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC):

 An SVC is dynamically set up only when needed.

The connection is established temporarily for the duration of a communication session.

Once the data transfer is complete, the circuit is automatically disconnected.

Example: Like calling a friend—each time you talk, you dial a number (set up a connection), and hang up
afterward (tear it down).

Advantages and Disadvantages

Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs)

Advantages:

Low Setup Time: No need for setup negotiation before data transfer—it's already established.

Disadvantages:

Inflexible: Not ideal if the network topology or usage patterns change frequently.

Wastes Resources: Resources (e.g., bandwidth, memory) are reserved whether or not the circuit is
actively used.

Higher Cost: Ongoing resource commitment can lead to higher operational costs.

Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs)

Advantages:

Flexible and Scalable: New connections can be set up as needed, adapting to traffic demands.

Efficient Resource Use: Resources are used only when needed, leading to better utilization.

Cost-Effective: Particularly for networks with intermittent or variable traffic.

Disadvantages:

Setup Delay: Every new connection requires a setup phase, adding latency.

Question 16:

PVC and SVC Implementation Scenarios Provide two real-world scenarios

where a network administrator might prefer to use permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) over
switched virtual circuits (SVCs), and vice versa. Justify your choices by highlighting the specific requirements
and characteristics of each scenario. How do these choices impact
network performance, management, and overall efficiency?
Solution:

When to Use Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs)

Scenario 1: Branch Office to Headquarters Communication
 Use Case: A bank has multiple branch offices that need a constant, secure connection to the central
database at headquarters.

Why PVC?

Communication is continuous and predictable.

High availability and low latency are critical.

No need to establish and tear down the connection each time.

Impact:

Performance: Improved, due to fixed, low-latency paths.

Management: Easier to monitor and troubleshoot due to static routing.

Efficiency: Resource-intensive if traffic is low during off-hours.

Scenario 2: Real-Time Video Surveillance Network

Use Case: A city uses a network of CCTV cameras continuously streaming video to a central
monitoring center.

Why PVC?

Consistent high-bandwidth usage.

Real-time data needs reliable and uninterrupted delivery.

Frequent setup of SVCs would add unnecessary delay and complexity.

Impact:

Performance: Stable stream quality.

Management: Simple because the paths don’t change.

Efficiency: Resources are well-utilized if streams are always active.

When to Use Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs)

Scenario 1: Remote Dial-Up Access to Corporate Network

Use Case: Field employees connect to the corporate network only occasionally to upload reports.

Why SVC?

Connections are infrequent and temporary.

 No need to reserve bandwidth constantly.

Efficient use of network resources by establishing connections only when needed.

Impact:

Performance: Slight delay during setup, but acceptable.

Management: More dynamic, may require logging and connection tracking.

Efficiency: High, because resources are used only during active sessions.

Scenario 2: Pay-Per-Use Cloud Services

Use Case: A company uses cloud-based rendering services for video projects only when needed.

Why SVC?

On-demand connection to cloud compute resources.

No need to maintain a permanent virtual path to a service that’s used occasionally.

Impact:

Performance: Good for short sessions; setup delay is minimal.

Management: Requires dynamic routing and monitoring tools.

Efficiency: Cost-effective and scalable.

Question17:

::Virtual Circuit Switching vs. Datagram Switching Compare and contrast

virtual circuit switching (VCS) and datagram switching (also known as connectionless
networking) as two fundamental approaches to packet switching in data communication
networks. Discuss the advantages, disadvantages, and use cases for each switching method.
How do they differ in terms of setup, routing, reliability, and resource utilization?
Solution:

Virtual Circuit Switching (VCS)

In Virtual Circuit Switching, a logical path (virtual circuit) is established before any data is sent. All packets
follow this path through the network for the entire session. The connection is established via a signaling process
before data transmission begins

Datagram Switching (Connectionless Networking)

In Datagram Switching, each packet is routed independently without the need for an established path. Each
packet can take a different route based on the current network conditions (such as congestion or link failures).

Advantages of VCS:

Reliable Communication: Since a dedicated path is set up, packets arrive in order and with fewer
chances of packet loss.
 Predictable Performance: The established path ensures consistent bandwidth and lower delay during
the session.

Error Control: Reliable error handling mechanisms can be implemented, leading to higher reliability.

Disadvantages of VCS:

Setup Time: Before data transmission, a connection must be established, which can introduce delay.

Resource Utilization: Resources (such as bandwidth and routers) are reserved for the duration of the
session, even if no data is being transmitted.

Less Flexibility: Once a path is established, the network can't easily change routes or handle other
traffic needs dynamically.

Use Cases for VCS:

Telecommunications: Voice calls over traditional phone networks (like ISDN or ATM) where a
consistent, dedicated connection is important.

VPNs: Virtual Private Networks use VCS to provide secure, reliable connections for sensitive data.

Advantages of Datagram Switching

No Setup Delay: No need to establish a connection before sending data, allowing for immediate
transmission.

Flexibility: Packets can take the most optimal route depending on the network's current state, providing
better adaptation to changes in the network.

Efficient Resource Use: Resources are used dynamically, only when packets are transmitted, allowing
for more efficient utilization of network bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Datagram Switching:

Unreliable Communication: Packets may arrive out of order, get lost, or experience duplication, as no
dedicated path is set up.

Higher Overhead: Each packet may carry extra routing information, increasing overhead in terms of
data size.

Variable Performance: The delay and bandwidth available can fluctuate, as packets may take different
paths and experience different conditions.

Use Cases for Datagram Switching:

Internet (IP Networks): The Internet Protocol (IP) is based on datagram switching, where each
packet is independently routed.

Streaming Services: For applications like video or audio streaming, where real-time transmission is
less critical, and some packet loss can be tolerated.

Feature Virtual Circuit Switching (VCS) Datagram Switching (Connectionless)

Connection Setup Requires a pre-established path No setup, packets are routed individually
 Feature Virtual Circuit Switching (VCS) Datagram Switching (Connectionless)
Routing Fixed route for the entire session Independent routing for each packet
High (ensures in-order delivery, error Low (packets can be lost, arrive out of
Reliability
handling) order)
Resource Less efficient (resources reserved for the More efficient (resources used
Utilization whole session) dynamically)
Variable (depends on current network
Performance Predictable (consistent delays and bandwidth)
conditions)
High (can adapt to changes in network
Flexibility Low (static path during the session)
topology)

Question18 :

Transitioning between PVCs and SVCs Imagine a scenario where a company

initially deploys a network using only permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) for its
communication needs. After some time, they decide to transition to using switched virtual
circuits (SVCs) due to changing traffic patterns and requirements. Outline the steps and
considerations involved in this transition process. What challenges might arise during the
migration, and how can they be addressed to ensure a smooth switch between circuit types?

Solution:

Simple Steps to Move from PVCs to SVCs

1. Check Network Usage

See which connections are always busy and which ones are used only sometimes.

2. Upgrade Equipment (if needed)

Make sure your network devices (like routers) can support SVCs.

3. Plan the Change Slowly

Don’t switch everything at once.

Start with less important connections to test.

4. Set Up SVC Configuration

Program your devices to handle SVCs (automatic connection setup).

5. Test and Monitor

Watch how well the new SVCs are working.

Fix any problems early.

6. Train Staff
 Teach your IT team how to manage and troubleshoot SVCs.

Challenges and How to Address Them

Challenge Solution
Service Disruption during cutover Use a phased migration and schedule changes during low-traffic periods.
Compatibility Issues Verify hardware and software compatibility in advance; update as needed.
Increased Setup Time (latency) Prioritize SVC use for non-delay-sensitive applications.
Staff Unfamiliarity Provide training and documentation for managing SVCs.
Monitoring Complexity Implement tools to monitor dynamic connections and routing behaviors.
Inconsistent Performance Use QoS (Quality of Service) policies to prioritize important SVC traffic.

Question19:

Question 5: Signaling and Connection Establishment in Virtual Circuit Networks

Explain the process of signaling and connection establishment in a virtual circuit network.
Describe the steps involved in setting up a virtual circuit between two communicating parties.
Highlight the role of signaling protocols, such as the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) setup procedure. Discuss the benefits of using signaling for virtual circuit
establishment and how it contributes to efficient communication

Answer:

Signaling is the process used to set up, manage, and end a communication path (called a virtual circuit)
between two devices before they exchange actual data.

It’s like calling someone—you dial their number (setup), talk (data transfer), and hang up (termination). The
"dialing" part is signaling.

Steps to Set Up a Virtual Circuit

1. Call Setup (Signaling Start)

The sender sends a setup request to the network.

This request includes the destination address and service requirements.

2. Path Selection

The network checks the best available route.

Routers or switches along the path reserve the needed resources (e.g., bandwidth).

3. Call Acceptance

The destination receives the request and sends back a call accepted signal.

4. Virtual Circuit Established

 Once all devices along the path agree, a virtual path is created.

Data can now flow along this path.

5. Data Transfer

All packets follow the same path in the correct order.

6. Call Termination

After data is sent, the sender or receiver sends a disconnect signal.

The network releases the reserved resources.

Role of Signaling Protocols (e.g., ISDN)

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is one example of a network that uses virtual circuits. It has a
setup procedure that includes:

Uses signaling channels to set up and end calls.

Keeps data separate from control messages.

Helps set up virtual circuits fast and reliably.

Benefits of Using Signaling in Virtual Circuits

Benefit Description
✅ Reliable Communication Ensures a clear, end-to-end path is ready before sending data
✅ Resource Reservation Reserves bandwidth and resources for consistent performance
✅ Error Checking Devices can check and confirm the path before sending any data
✅ Orderly Delivery All packets follow the same path, arriving in order
✅ Efficient Management Signaling helps manage and control multiple connections easily

How it contribute to efficient communication:

Signaling helps virtual circuit networks by setting up a dedicated path before any data is sent. This
ensures that all data packets follow the same route, arrive in order, and don’t get lost along the way. It also
allows the network to reserve resources like bandwidth in advance, which helps avoid delays and congestion.
By confirming the connection before communication starts, signaling reduces errors and makes the whole
process more reliable and efficient. This is especially useful for services like voice or video calls that need a
stable, continuous connection.

Question 20:
Quality of Service (QoS) in Virtual Circuit Networks Discuss the concept of
Quality of Service (QoS) in the context of virtual circuit networks. Explain how QoS
parameters, such as bandwidth allocation, delay, jitter, and packet loss, are managed and
maintained in a virtual circuit environment. Provide examples of applications or services that
heavily rely on QoS in virtual circuit networks and explain how network administrators
ensure consistent performance for these application
Answer:

What is Quality of Service (QoS)?

QoS in virtual circuit networks means guaranteeing consistent and reliable performance for different types
of network traffic.
It ensures that important data (like voice or video) gets the speed and stability it needs, without delays or
interruptions.

Key QoS Parameters and How They Are Managed

QoS Parameter What It Means How It's Managed in Virtual Circuits
Bandwidth The amount of data that can be sent Bandwidth is reserved during circuit setup
Delay (Latency) Time it takes for data to travel A fixed path ensures low and predictable delay
Jitter Variation in delay between packets Packets follow the same route, reducing jitter
Packet Loss Data packets that get lost in transit Reliable circuits reduce loss by checking connections

Applications That Depend on QoS

1. Voice over IP (VoIP)

2. Video Conferencing

3. Online Gaming

How Network Admins Ensure Good QoS

Set Traffic Priorities: Give more importance to real-time traffic like voice/video.

Reserve Bandwidth: Use signaling to reserve the right amount of bandwidth.

Use Monitoring Tools: Track performance and fix issues quickly.

Limit Lower Priority Traffic: Control downloads or bulk file transfers that could slow down the
network.

Question 21:

What is X.25 Network and How Does it Work

Answer
X.25 is an old but reliable packet-switched network protocol developed in the 1970s. It was designed for
communication over public telephone lines, which were often noisy and unreliable at the time.

X.25 allows devices (like computers or terminals) to send data through a network using virtual circuits, with
error checking and flow control built in to ensure data is delivered correctly.

How does it work:

How Does X.25 Work?

Here’s a simple step-by-step explanation:

Connection Setup (Virtual Circuit):

Before sending data, X.25 sets up a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver.

This can be a Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) or a Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC).

Packet Switching:

Data is broken into packets and sent one by one.

All packets follow the same path through the network.

Error Checking:

Each packet is checked for errors at every step (node) in the network.

If an error is found, the packet is retransmitted.

Flow Control:

X.25 makes sure the sender doesn’t send data faster than the receiver can handle.

Connection Termination:

Once data transfer is complete, the virtual circuit is closed (for SVCs).

Question 22:

How Does X.25 Compare to Modern Networking Technologies?

Answer:

X.25 vs. Modern Networking – Simple Comparison

Feature X.25 Modern Technologies (e.g. TCP/IP, MPLS)
Connection Connectionless (TCP/IP) or faster virtual paths
Virtual circuits (always set up first)
Type (MPLS)
Speed Slow (designed for old phone lines) Much faster (uses fiber, broadband, etc.)
Error Handling Done at every step (hop-by-hop) Done mostly at the ends (end-to-end)
Less efficient (lots of checks,
Efficiency More efficient (less overhead, faster routing)
slower)
Flexibility Less flexible, fixed routes Highly flexible and dynamic
 Feature X.25 Modern Technologies (e.g. TCP/IP, MPLS)
Use Today? Rare, mostly replaced Widely used everywhere (Internet, cloud, VoIP)

Question23:

: What is a T-1 Leased Line Network and How Does it Work

Answer:
A T-1 leased line is a dedicated, high-speed internet connection that provides 1.544 Mbps of bandwidth.
It’s a private line, meaning it’s not shared with other users, and is typically used by businesses that need reliable
and continuous internet access for communication, data transfer, or voice services.

How a T-1 Leased Line Works (Simple Version)

Private, Dedicated Line:

A T-1 line is a private connection between your business and the internet or another location.
It’s not shared with other users, so it's always available.

Speed:

It provides 1.544 Mbps of speed. This means it can send and receive data at that speed all the
time.

24 Channels:

The T-1 line splits its speed into 24 channels, each carrying 64 kbps. These channels can carry data
(like internet and email) or voice (like phone calls).

Full-Duplex:

It can send and receive data at the same time, so there are no delays when using it.

Question24:

What is a T-3 Leased Line Network?

A T-3 leased line is a high-speed, dedicated internet connection that provides 45 Mbps of bandwidth. It’s
often used by larger businesses or organizations that need to transmit large amounts of data, host servers, or
support high-traffic internet services.

Think of it as a super-fast private highway for data, providing a steady and reliable connection.

When is a T-3 Leased Line Used?

T-3 lines are typically used in situations where high-speed, reliable connections are critical, such as:

Large businesses or enterprises with multiple locations that need fast communication between them.

Data centers that require large data transmission and quick access to cloud services or other remote
servers.

High-traffic internet services like hosting, video conferencing, or VoIP (Voice over IP).

Backup and disaster recovery systems where speed and reliability are crucial.
Question25:
: What is Frame Relay Networking and How Does it Work?

Frame Relay is a high-performance, wide-area network (WAN) technology used for transmitting data
between multiple locations. It allows businesses to send data over public or private networks efficiently and
with low latency.

Frame Relay works by breaking data into packets and sending them over a shared network. It’s faster and
more cost-effective than older technologies like X.25, but not as fast or reliable as newer technologies like
MPLS or IP-based networks.

How Does Frame Relay Work?

Data is Split into Frames:

Data is divided into small chunks called frames.

Virtual Circuits:

Data travels through virtual circuits (logical paths) that are set up between two points. These
can be permanent (always on) or temporary (created when needed).

Multiplexing:

Multiple virtual circuits can share the same physical connection, making it efficient and cost-
effective.

Packets Travel Independently:

Each frame can take a different route through the network to reach the destination.

Minimal Error Checking:

Frame Relay doesn’t fix errors or manage flow control; higher layers like TCP/IP do that.

Question 26:
Benefits and Limitations of Frame Relay Networks

Benefits of Frame Relay

• Operated at a higher speed of 44.376 Mbps

• Operates in just physical and data link layer
• Allows bursty traffic
• Allows a frame size of 9000 bytes
• Less expensive than previous methods
• Hass error detection at Data Link Layer only.
• No flow control or error control.
• No retransmission policy. If frame is damaged, its simply discarded.
 Benefit Explanation
Cost-Effective Shares one physical link between many users, reducing overall cost.
Faster Than X.25 Has less error checking, making it faster for clean, digital lines.
Flexible Supports both Permanent and Switched virtual circuits.
Efficient Use Allows multiple virtual circuits over the same physical connection.
Scalable Easy to add more locations or services as a business grows.

Limitation of frame relay network

Issues with frame relay network:

• As networks became complex.
• Larger frame sizes and variable frame sizes based on application
• Internetworking becomes more slow, expensive and in some cases impossible.

Limitations of Frame Relay

Limitation Explanation
❌ No Built-In Error Correction Relies on other protocols (like TCP) to fix errors.
Not Ideal for Voice/Video May cause delay or jitter if the network is busy.
Old Technology Largely replaced by MPLS, VPNs, and broadband connections.
� Needs Management May require skilled staff to set up and monitor connections.
Not Widely Supported Today Many providers have stopped offering Frame Relay services.

Question 27:
Explain the Concept of Congestion Control in Data Networks.
Answer:
Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the network-the number
of packets sent to the network-is greater than the capacity of the network-
the number of packets a network can handle
Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to
control the congestion and keep the load below the capacity

Question 28:
: What is Quality of Service (QoS) and Why is it Important in Networks?

What is Quality of Service (QoS)?

Quality of Service (QoS) is a way to manage and prioritize network traffic so that important data—like
voice, video, or real-time applications—gets the speed and attention it needs.

It helps ensure that the network works smoothly and reliably, especially when there is a lot of traffic.

Why is QoS Important in Networks?

Without QoS, all data is treated equally—even if some applications (like video calls) need more speed or less
delay than others (like emails). QoS makes sure the right data gets through first, improving performance and
user experience.
Question 29:

Describe Different QoS Mechanisms Used in Networks.

. Traffic Classification

What it does: Identifies different types of data (like voice, video, or email).

Why it helps: So the network knows what to prioritize.

2. Traffic Shaping

What it does: Slows down some data to keep the network smooth.

Why it helps: Prevents sudden bursts from overloading the network.

3. Traffic Policing

What it does: Drops extra data if someone sends too much.

Why it helps: Stops one user from using too much bandwidth.

4. Queuing

What it does: Puts data in lines (queues) and sends the most important first.

Why it helps: Voice and video go first, other data like downloads wait.

5. Congestion Avoidance

What it does: Drops low-priority data early when the network gets busy.

Why it helps: Keeps the network from getting fully congested.

Question 30:
Discuss the Role of Quality of Service (QoS) Mechanisms in Congestion

Role of QoS in Network Congestion

Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms help prevent and manage congestion by controlling how data moves
through a network, especially when too many users or devices are sending data at the same time.

Question 31:
Compare and Contrast Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Congestion Control
Answer:
Open loop congestion control:

1. In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to

prevent congestion before it happens.
2. In these mechanisms, congestion control is handled by
either the source or the destination

Close loop congestion control:

1.Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to alleviate congestion after it happens
2.can be applied only to virtual circuit networks, in which each node knows the upstream
node from which a flow of data is coming

Question 31:
: Evaluate the Impact of Congestion Avoidance Techniques on Network
Performance.

Congestion avoidance techniques help improve network performance by preventing congestion before it
gets too severe. For instance, techniques like Random Early Detection (RED) and TCP congestion control
actively monitor the network and drop packets early if the network is getting overloaded. This approach keeps
the network running smoothly, avoids full congestion, and ensures faster data transmission.

By dropping packets early, these techniques prevent a situation where too many packets are lost at once,
which can slow down the entire network. As a result, real-time applications like voice or video calls, which
need low latency, experience fewer delays and better quality.

Question 32:
Calculating Cell Transmission Time in an ATM Network.
Problem: In an ATM network, the cell length is 53 bytes, including the 5-byte header and
48-byte payload. If the transmission rate is 155.52 Mbps, calculate the time required to
transmit a single ATM cell.
Solution 25: Cell Length = 53 bytes = 53 * 8 bits = 424 bits Transmission Rate = 155.52
Mbps = 155.52 * 10^6 bps
Time = Cell Length / Transmission Rate Time = 424 bits / 155.52 * 10^6 bps ≈ 2.727
microseconds
Therefore, the time required to transmit a single ATM cell is approximately 2.727
microseconds.