PHYS 1110A Tutorial

Notes and Exercises

Last updated: September 11, 2024
Written by Elwin K. Y. Li
Reference: HKPhyO Hand-written Notes, Alvin K. Y. Li

Contents
1 Tutorial 1 - September 12, 2024 2
1.1 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Tangents and Derivative at a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Special Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Usual Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.5 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.7 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2.1 Sigma Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2.2 Riemann Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.3 Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.2.4 Change of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2.5 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2.6 Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.2.7 Initial Value Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1
1 Tutorial 1 - September 12, 2024
1.1 Differentiation

1.1.1 Tangents and Derivative at a point

During the lectures, we learned that we could obtain the slope of the tangent to a curve at
a certain point by differentiation.

We know that:
∆y f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
slope = = (1)
∆x ∆x

If we want to know the slope at x, we have to lower the value of ∆x such that it becomes
very close to 0. By using limit, we can write our expression as
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
slope = lim (2)
∆x→0 ∆x

Therefore, the slope of the curve at any point x in general is:

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
slope = f ′ (x) = lim (3)
∆x→0 ∆x
where f ′ (x) is called the first derivative of f (x), and the above way of finding the slope of a
curve is called differentiation by first principle.

2
[Practice 1.1]

Consider the function

y = x2 (4)
(a) Find y ′ by first principle.
(b) What is y ′ when x = 10?
(c) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at (1, 1).

3
Physical Interpretation
While learning the topic ”Mechanics” during high school Physics lessons, we understood
the concepts of ”Displacement”, ”Velocity” and ”Acceleration”. By defining rightward as
positive, we have the following displacement-time graph (or we call that s-t graph), which
describes the particle’s movement:

The slope of the s-t graph is the instantaneous velocity of the particle. This is also why
the slope of a graph with the x-axis in unit ”time” is sometimes interpreted as the ”rate of
change” of something.

Tips: My high school Physics teacher mentioned that when you see the word ”rate”, it
must be something to do with time, i.e., it should be something that changes with time.

Similarly, the slope of a v-t graph gives you the instantaneous acceleration.

But how about the area under the graph, you may ask? This is a very good question.
Again, let’s use the v-t graph as an example. What is the dimension (i.e., the unit) of the
area under the graph? In fact, we need another mathematical tool, integration, to find the
area under the graph, which will be mentioned in another sub-section of this chapter/tutorial.

4
[Practice 1.2]

Differentiate the following from first principle:

(a) y = C, where C is a constant 1

(b) y = x

[Practice 1.3]

The displacement (s) of a particle is given by:

s(t) = kt2 + 2t − 3 (5)

where t is the time of travel and k is a constant.

(a) Find the instantaneous velocity v(t) of the particle.
(b) If the velocity at time t = 2 is 10, find the value of k.
(c) Find the instantaneous acceleration a(t) of the particle.

5
1.1.2 Special Limits
Consider the following limit:
sinθ
lim (6)
θ→0 θ
Do you think this limit exists?
Before answering this question, we first try to find the limit.

First of all, we define a new angle definition here, radian (We will talk about this again in
Chapter 6), where
π
θradian θdegree (7)
180◦

Sector OSPA here is a quarter circle of radius 1.

(1)(sinθ) sinθ
Area of ∆OAP = 2
= 2

(1)2 (θ) θ
Area of sector OSPA = 2
= 2

(1)(tanθ) tanθ sinθ

Area of ∆OAR = 2
= 2
= 2cosθ

It is obvious that
Area of ∆OAP ≤ Area of Sector OSPA ≤ Area of ∆OAR

sinθ θ sinθ
i.e. 2
≤ 2
≤ 2cosθ

sinθ
sinθ ≤ θ ≤ cosθ

θ 1
1≤ sinθ
≤ cosθ

6
If θ → 0, then we have

θ 1
1 ≤ lim sinθ ≤ 1
θ→0

θ
1 ≤ lim sinθ ≤1
θ→0

Therefore, we get lim sinθ

θ
is larger than or equal to 1 and smaller than or equal to 1.
θ→0
In this case, the inequality forces us to pick
sinθ
lim =1 (8)
θ→0 θ
(This skill of finding limit is called the Squeeze Theorem in Mathematics)

[Practice 1.4]

Find the following limits:

t
(a) lim sin(3x)
3x
(b) lim sin(7t)
θ→0
θ→0

sin(3x)
(c) lim+ x
(d) lim sin(3t)
6t
θ→0 θ→0

7
We consider the limit
ex − 1
lim (9)
x→0 x

We let
t = ex − 1

ex = 1 + t

x = ln(1 + t)

As x → 0, t → 0, and the limit becomes

t
lim ln(1+t)
t→0
h i−1
= lim 1t ln(1 + t)
t→0

1 −1
h i
= lim ln(1 + t) t
t→0

Let w = 1t . As t → 0, w → ∞.
h i−1
1 w
= lim ln(1 + w )
w→∞

= [ln(e)]−1

=1

Therefore,
ex −1
lim =1
x→0 x

8
[Practice 1.5]

Find the following limits:

ex+4 −e4 ex −e−x

(a) lim (b) lim x
x→0 4x x→0 3xe

2 sin(1−e2x )
1−e−x (d) lim
(c) lim 2x x→0 1−ex
x→0

e2x +e−2x −2
(e) lim xsin(4x)
x→0

9
1.1.3 Usual Derivatives
In this section, some usual derivatives are introduced. You are encouraged to prove them
from first principles.

a) Constant Functions (Proved in Practice 1.2 (a))

y=C → y′ = 0

[Proof]

b) Power Functions

y = xn → y ′ = nxn−1

[Proof]

c) Trigonometric Functions (Let’s work on this again after Ch. 6!)

y = sin(x) → y ′ = cos(x)

[Proof]

10
y = cos(x) → y ′ = −sin(x)

[Proof]

y = tan(x) → y ′ = sec2 (x)

[Proof]

y = sec(x) → y ′ = sec(x)tan(x)

[Proof]

11
 y = csc(x) → y ′ = −csc(x)cot(x)

[Proof]

y = cot(x) → y ′ = −csc2 (x)

[Proof]

d d d
dx
sin(x) = cos(x) dx
cos(x) = −sin(x) dx
tan(x) = sec2 (x)

d d d
dx
sec(x) = sec(x)tan(x) dx
csc(x) = −csc(x)cot(x) dx
cot(x) = −csc2 (x)

12
d) Constant Product Functions

y = Cg(x) → y ′ = Cg ′ (x)

[Proof]

e) Sum of Functions

y = a(x) ± b(x) → y ′ = a′ (x) ± b′ (x)

[Proof]

f) Logarithmic Functions

y = ln(x) → y′ = 1
x

[Proof] (Think about the special limit we have gone through in 1.1.2)

13
g) Exponential e

y = ex → y ′ = ex

[Proof] (Think about the special limit we have gone through in 1.1.2)

14
1.1.4 Product Rule
We consider the function
f (x) = a(x)b(x)
a(x+h)b(x+h)−a(x)b(x)
f ′ (x) = lim h
h→0
a(x+h)b(x+h)−a(x)b(x)−a(x)b(x+h)+a(x)b(x+h)
= lim h
h→0
h i h i
a(x+h)−a(x)
= lim h
b(x + h) + lim b(x+h)−b(x)
h
a(x)
h→0 h→0

d d
= dx
(a(x))b(x) + dx
(b(x))a(x)

= a′ (x)b(x) + b′ (x)a(x)

Therefore,
d
dx
(a(x)b(x)) = a′ (x)b(x) + b′ (x)a(x)

which is known as the Product Rule.

[Practice 1.6]

Differentiate the following with respect to x:

(a) y = (2x2 + 3)(3x − 2) (b) y = sin(x)cos(x)

(c) y = xln(x) (d) y = x2 tan(x)ln(x)

15
[Practice 1.7]

Consider the following function:

g(x)
f (x) = x

(a) Let h(x) = x1 . Find h′ (x)

(b) By writing f (x) = g(x)h(x), show that

xg ′ (x)−g(x)
f ′ (x) = x2

Thus, this is called the Quotient Rule with the form:

a(x) a′ (x)b(x)−a(x)b′ (x)
f (x) = b(x)
→ f ′ (x) = (b(x))2

16
1.1.5 Chain Rule
Consider the functions:

y = f (x) and x = x(u)

In here, we got two functions. One is y which is a function of x, another one is x which is a
function of u.

d
Then, what is du
y?

We can derive the answer from first principle again:

d f (x(u+h)−f (x(u))
du
y = lim h
h→0
h i
f (x(u+h)−f (x(u)) x(u+h)−x(u)
= lim h
· x(u+h)−x(u)
h→0
h i
= lim f (x(u+h))−f (x(u)) x(u+h)−x(u)
x(u+h)−x(u)
· h
h→0
h i h i
= lim f (x(u+h))−f (x(u))
x(u+h)−x(u)
· lim x(u+h)−x(u)
h
h→0 h→0

Let m = x(u + h) − x(u), then x(u + h) = x(u) + m. For h → 0, m → 0

h i h i
= lim f (x(u)+m)−f
m
(x(u))
· lim x(u+h)−x(u)
h
h→0 m→0

df dx
= dx
· du

Therefore,

d
dx
[f (g(x))] = f ′ (g(x))g(x)

17
Example 1.1
Differentiate the following function with respect to x:

f (x) = ln(2x)

[Sol]

Let u = 2x.

f (x) = ln(2x) = ln(u)

df df du
du
= du
· dx

= ( u1 ) · 2

1
= ( 2x )·2

1
= x

[Practice 1.8]

Differentiate the following with respect to θ:

(a) y = sin(2θ) (b) y = ln(θ2 ) (c) y = e2θ

3 +sin3 θ

18
1.1.6 Implicit Differentiation
So far we have only deal with functions in the form
y = f (x)

But what if we cannot express the function in the above form? (E.g. Equation of cir-
cle).

Let us consider the equation of circle with radius 1 centered at the origin:

x2 + y 2 = 1
dy
What is dx
?

[Sol]
Differentiate both sides with respect to x:

d d
dx
(x2 + y2) = dx
(1)
dy
2x + 2y dx = 0 [Here we used Chain Rule by letting u = y 2 ]
dy
dx
= − xy

[Practice 1.9]
dy
Find dx
for the following:

√
(a) xy + y 2 = 1 (b) 2 y = x − y

(c) sin(x) + cos(y) = tan(ln(x)) (d) y = 2x

19
1.1.7 Graph Sketching
[Stationary Point]
dy
A stationary point is a point of the graph with the instantaneous slope = 0. (i.e., dx
= 0)

[Local Maximum/Minimum]

Basically is a special type of stationary point.

20
[1st Derivative Test]

To determine whether the stationary point is a local maximum or local minimum, we use
the [1st Derivative Test] (i.e., differentiate the function and put the derivative to zero).

[Example]

Given the function:

f (x) = x2 + 5x + 4

Find all the local maximum/minimum points.

[Sol]

1. ”d” the function once:

f ′ (x) = 2x + 5

2. Put the derivative to zero:

2x + 5 = 0

x = − 52

3. Apply the 1st derivative test:

x x < − 52 x = − 52 x > − 52

f (x) [NA] − 49 [NA]

f ′ (x) -ve 0 +ve

Recall that the derivative of a function is actually the instantaneous slope of the function.
From the table above, we understand that the slope of the curve is negative when x < − 52
and become positive when x > − 25 , while x = − 52 is the stationary point. Therefore, the
point ( 52 , − 94 ) is the local minimum.

21
[Concavity and Point of Inflexion]

We consider the 2nd derivative of the function:

d df
f ′′ (x) = dx dx
= d
dx
[slope]

The second derivative test tells us how the slope of the function f ′ (x) changes with x.

Point of inflexion is where the concavity of the graph changes.

Consider the following function:

f (x) = x3

Find all the points of inflexion.

[Sol]

1. Apply the first derivative test and find all the stationary points and ”undefined
points”:

f ′ (x) = 3x2

3x2 = 0

x=0

22
 2. ”d” the function again and put it to zero:

f ′′ (x) = 6x

6x = 0 → x = 0

3. Similar to the first derivative test, we have to draw a table:

x x<0 x=0 x>0

f (x) [NA] 0 [NA]

f ′′ (x) -ve 0 +ve

(If you get +ve...0/undef ined... − ve or −ve...0/undef ined... + ve, you may get an in-
flexion point.)

Therefore, the point (0, 0) is the point of inflection.

23
[Asymptotes]

Asymptotes tell us how the graph behaves at infinity and near undefined region.

[Vertical Asymptotes]

Consider the function:

1
y= x−3

When x = 3, the function breaks down and becomes undefined.

Therefore, x = 3 is the vertical asymptote.

24
[Horizontal/Oblique Asymptotes]

Horizontal/Oblique Asymptotes behaves at infinity.

Consider the function:

(x+1)2
f (x) = (x2 +1)

Consider:
(x+1)2 x2 +2x+1
lim 2 = lim x2 +1
x→∞ (x +1) x→∞

2x
= lim (1 + x2 +1
)
x→∞

Now, we apply the limit:

=1+0

=1

Therefore, y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.

25
Consider another function:

x2 +4
g(x) = 2x

Consider:

x2 +4
x 2

lim = lim +
x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2 x

Since when we apply the limit, the first term does not go to zero but the second term
does. Therefore, y = x2 is the oblique asymptote.

26
[Special Properties]

Transformation

f (x) = x
g(x) = x + 10 = f (x) + 10

Periodic

f (x) = sin(x)
f (x + 2π) = sin(x + 2π) = sin(x)

27
Odd Function

f (x) = x3
f (−x) = −x3

Periodic

f (x) = cos(x)
f (−x) = cos(−x) = cos(x)

28
[Summary on Graph Sketching]

1. Find the domain of the function. (Check for undefined points if any)

2. Find the x and y-intercepts

3. Locate all the turning points

4. Locate all the inflexion points

5. Find all the asymptotes

6. Investigate all the special properties (if any)

7. Sketch the graph

[Practice 1.10]

Find all the turning points, points of inflexion and asymptotes of the following function,
and sketch out the function.

x3 +5
y= x2 −3x

29
1.2 Integration
Integration is just the reverse of differentiation! (End of Section )
No! There is much more to learn before mastering Integration.

1.2.1 Sigma Notation

Suppose we need to calculate the following:

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 50

What you could do, is to write them all one-by-one. But this is nonsense and time-
consuming.

Mathematicians therefore invented a useful tool to replace the bunch of numbers:

50
P
= n
n=1

The number on top indicates where the summation ends. The number at the bottom indi-
cates where the summation starts, while the function (here is n) on the right hand side of
the notation indicates the general term. This is what we called the Signma Notation.

For those who has learnt C-language before, the sigma notation is nothing but for-loop:
50
P
n ≡ for(int n = 1; n <= 50; n++){n += n}
n=1

[Examples]
40
02 + 12 + 22 + ... + 402 = k2
P
k=0

Properties
Below are the properties of finite sums:
n
P n
P n
P
a) (ak ± bk ) ≡ ak ± bk
k=1 k=1 k=1
Pn n
P
b) Cak ≡ C ak (C is a constant)
k=1 k=1
Pn
c) C ≡ Cn (C is a constant)
k=1

30
[Practice 1.11]

Rewrite the infinite series below using sigma notation:

x3 x5 x7 x2 x3
(a) sin(x) = x − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ... (b) ex = 1 + x + 2!
+ 3!
+ ...

[Practice 1.12]

Evaluate the following:

5 3
(3k − k 2 )
P P
(a) (b) (k + 4)
k=1 k=1

31
1.2.2 Riemann Sum
Recall that when we want to obtain the displacement travelled of a particle from a v-t
graph, what should we do? We calculate the area under the graph! However, given that the
v(x) = sin(x) as shown below, what is the displacement travelled from t = a to t = b?

What we can do, is to draw many rectangles with width ∆x. We try to divide ∆t = b − a
into n intervals, then

b−a
∆x = n

Then we can write:

s = v(a)∆x + v(a + ∆x)∆x + v(a + 2∆x)∆x + ... + v(a + (n − 1)∆x)∆x

n−1
P
= v(a + i∆x) · ∆x
i=0
n−1
v(a + i b−a b−a
P
= n
)· n
i=0

This is what we called the Riemann Sum.

32
What we just shown above is the Left-hand Riemann Sum, which means the upper-left
corners of the rectangles touch the curve, while Right-hand Riemann Sum means that
the upper-right corners of the rectangles touch the curve. This leads to the difference in the
summation expression:

n−1
P
Left-hand Sum = f (a + i∆x) · ∆x
i=0

n
P
Right-hand Sum = f (a + i∆x) · ∆x
i=0

33
To evaluate the exact value of the sum, we ”push” n to infinity such that:

b−a
∆x = lim n
→∞
n→∞

and hence
∞
Sum = lim lim f (a + i∆x) · ∆x
∆x→∞ i=1
Rb
= a
f (x)dx

and this is what we called definite integral.

[Example]

Find the area under the graph y = x2 between x = 1 and x = 2.

2−1 1
∆x = n
= n

n
f (1 + ni ) · 1
P
Right-hand sum = n
i=1
n
(1 + ni )2 · 1
P
= n
i=1
n
i2
( n1 + 2i
P
= n2
+ n3
)
i=1
n n
n 2
(i) + n13 (i2 )
P P
= n
+ n2
hi=1 i i=1h i
2 n(n+1) 1 n(n+1)(2n+1)
=1+ n2 2
+ n3 6

n+1 (n+1)(2n+1)
=1+ n
+ 6n2

1
=1+1+ n
+ 31 + 1
2n
+ 1
6n2

7 3 1
= 3
+ 2n
+ 6n2

For n → ∞:
7 3 1 7
Sum = lim + + 6n2
=
n→∞ 3 2n 3

34
1.2.3 Definite Integral
It would be time-consuming to calculate the area under the graph using Riemann Sum every
time. Recall that we mentioned the definite integral in the previous sub-section. Given
that we want to find the area under the curve y = f (x) from x = a to x = b, we can write
the summation in integral form:
Rb
Sum = a
f (x)dx

where f (x) here is the function to be integrated (we call it ”integrated”), dx indicates
Rb
that we are integrating the function with respect to x, and a is basically the upgraded
”sigma notation”, meaning that the width of the rectangle is infinitesimally small (or the
number of rectangles are infinitesimally large). This is what we called the Definite Integral.

Since Integration is just the reverse of Differentiation, so we have:

Rb h ib
d n n−1 n xn+1 bn+1 an+1
dx
x = nx → a
x dx = n+1
= n+1
− n+1
a

Rb
d
dx
sin(x) = cos(x) → a
cos(x)dx = [sin(x)]ba = sin(b) − sin(a)

Rb
d
dx
cos(x) = −sin(x) → a
sin(x)dx = [−cos(x)]ba = −cos(b) + cos(a)

Rb
d
dx
tan(x) = sec2 (x) → a
sec2 (x)dx = [tan(x)]ba = tan(b) − tan(a)

Rb
d
dx
cot(x) = −csc2 (x) → a
csc2 (x)dx = [−cot(x)]ba = −cot(b) + cot(a)

Rb
d
dx
ln(x) = 1
x
→ 1
a x
(x)dx = [ln|x|]ba = ln|b| − ln|a|

Rb
d x
dx
e = ex → a
ex dx = [ex ]ba = eb − ea

[Useful Properties]

Rb Rb Rb Rb Ra
a
[f (x) ± g(x)] dx = a
f (x)dx ± a
g(x)dx a
f (x)dx = − b
f (x)dx

Rb Rb Rb Rc Rc
a
kf (x)dx = k a
f (x)dx (k is a constant) a
f (x)dx + b
f (x)dx = a
f (x)dx

35
[Practice 1.13]

Evaluate the following definite integrals:

R1 R2
(a) 3
7dx (b) 0
(2t − 3)dt

R1 R21
(c) 1 24u2 du (d) 1 x
dx
2

36
[Practice 1.14]

Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Rn R0
(a) 0
sin(x)dx (b) a
ex dt

Rb
(c) a
3sec2 (u)du

37
1.2.4 Change of Variables
Suppose we are to evaluate
Rπ
0
cos(2x)dx

Do this look familiar? Remember when we encountered this when learning Differentia-
tion, we change the variable to-be differentiate. We do something similar here as well:

Let u = 2x:

u = 2x

du d
dx
= dx
(2x)

du
dx
=2

du = 2dx

du
2
= dx

Don’t forget about the limits:

For x = π, u = 2π.

For x = 0, u = 0.

Therefore:
Rπ R 2π
0
cos(2x)dx = 0
cos(u) · ( du
2
)

1
R 2π
= 2 0
cos(u)du

= 21 [sin(u)]2π
0

=0

38
[Practice 1.15]

Evaluate the following definite integrals:

R2√ R1 1
(a) 0
2u + 1du (b) −1 x+2
dx

R1
(c) −1
e2m dm

39
[Common Substitutions]

Below are substitution examples for some common cases. Try to evaluate the integrals
using the given substitutions.
1. Let x = rsin(θ):
Rb
√ 1 dx =
a r2 −x2

2. Let x = rtan(θ):
Rb
√ 1 dx =
a r2 +x2

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3. Let u = sec(θ) + tan(θ):
Rb
a
sec(θ)dθ =

4. Let u = sin(θ):
Rb
a
cos3 (θ)dθ =

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1.2.5 Integration by Parts
Recall that Product Rule in differentiation:

d dg df
dx
(f (x)g(x)) = f dx + g dx
dg d df
→ f dx = dx
(f g) − g dx

By integrating both sides with respect to x:

Rb dg
Rb d
Rb df
a
f dx = a dx
(f g) − a
g dx
Rb Rb
a
f dg = [f g]ba − a
gdf
Rb Rb
a
f g ′ dx = [f g]ba − a
gf ′ dx

This technique is what we called Integration by parts.

[Example]
R1 R1
0
xex dx = 0
xd(ex )
R1
= [xex ]10 − 0
d
ex dx (x)dx
R1
=e− 0
ex dx

= e − [ex ]10

= e − (e − 1)

=1

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[Practice 1.16]

Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Rπ R2
(a) 0
x2 sin(x)dx (b) 1
x2 ln(x)dx

R1
(c) 0
x3 e2x dx

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1.2.6 Indefinite Integrals
Indefinite integrals are integrals without the limits. Sometimes we are not interested in the
change, but we want the instantaneous effect. For example, we want to obtain the position
of a particle at any time t given its velocity function v = v(t).

The answers of indefinite integrals are the same of that of definite integrals, except we
have to add an arbitrary constants for the answers.

Why? Consider the following position function:

s(t) = 3x2 + 2

To get the velocity function, we can simply differentiate s(t) with respect to t:

v(t) = 6x

Assume that we don’t know the position function s(t), how can we obtain it from the
velocity function v(t)? We can simply integrate v(t) with respect to t, and we obtain the
following answer:
R
6xdx = 3x2

By comparing this to the original position function, what are we missing here? The constant
2! As you can see, adding an arbitrary constant is necessary after evaluating an indefinite
integral. Since it is an arbitrary function, it can also be zero, depending on the condition
(or initial condition) of the situation.

44
[Practice 1.17]

Evaluate the following indefinite integrals:

R R 1
(a) sinxdx (b) 2x
dx

R
(c) x2 e2x dx

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1.2.7 Initial Value Problem
As mentioned in sub-section 1.2.6, we can find out the value of the arbitrary constant through
some initial conditions.

[Example]

Suppose the velocity of a particle is given by:

v(t) = t2 + 3

We know that the displacement of th particle is then:

t3
R
s(t) = (t3 + 3)dt = 3
+ 3t + C

To find the exact displacement, we need to impose initial conditions. For example, given
that at t = 0, the particle is of displacement 0. By substitute this condition to our answer:

0=0+C →C =0

Therefore:

t3
s(t) = 3
+ 3t

Recall that the two of the four equations of uniform accelerated motion:

v = at + u s= at2
+ ut
2

Now you do not have to recite these two equation anymore. Why? Think about this:

a(t) = a

Here is nothing but just saying that the acceleration of a motion equals to a. But wait,
what if we integrate them with respect to t:
R
v(t) = adt = at + C

By performing dimensional analysis (comparing the units of each terms), the unit of the
constant C must be the same as that of velocity, which means C should also be a velocity.
However, in order to complete the equation, C must be the initial velocity of the motion!

46
Hence:

v(t) = at + u (10)

If we further integrate v(t) with respect to t:

at2
R
s(t) = (at + u) = 2
+ ut + D

Again, by performing dimensional analysis, the unit of the constant D must be the same
as that of displacement, which means D should also be a displacement. To complete the
equation, D must be the initial displacement of the motion. However for most of the case,
we assume the initial position of the particle as reference point, which means the initial
displacement is zero. Therefore, D is set to be zero, and hence:

at2
s(t) = + ut (11)
2

And now you obtained two of the four equation of uniform accelerated motion!

47
[Practice 1.18]

The acceleration of a particle at any time t is given by

a(t) = g

where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

(a) Find the displacement s(t) and the velocity v(t) of the particle.
(b) If the particle is initially at rest, find v(t) exactly.
(c) If the particle is at s = 0 when t = 0, find s(t) exactly.
(d) Suggest a physical situation which can be described by this problem.

∼ End of Tutorial 1 ∼

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