YASHWANTRAO CHAVAN M AHARASHTRA O PEN U NIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
(F ORMERLY S CHOOL OF A RCHITECTURE , S CIENCE & T ECHNOLOGY )

V153: M.Sc. Physics

2023 {As per NEP 2020}

Pattern

PHY 609:
Nuclear and Particle
Physics

(4 Credits)

Semester –IV

Email: [email protected]
Website: www.ycmou.ac.in
Phone: +91-253-2231473

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 1

 Yashwantrao Chavan PHY609

Maharashtra Open NUCLEAR AND

PARTICLE PHYSICS
University

Brief Contents
Vice Chancellor’s Message ............................................................................... 3
Foreword By The Director ............................................................................... 4
Credit 01 ............................................................................................................... 5
Credit 01-Unit 01: Nuclear Interactions And Nuclear Reactions ....... 6
Credit 01-Unit 02: Characteristics of Nucleus ...................................... 48
Credit 01 -Unit 03: Nuclear Forces .......................................................... 86
Credit 01 -Unit 04: Direct And Compound Nuclear Reaction
Mechanisms ................................................................................................. 102
Credit 02 ........................................................................................................... 128
Credit 02-Unit 01: Nuclear Models ........................................................ 129
Credit 02-Unit 02: Shell Models ............................................................. 147
Credit 02-Unit 03: Nuclear Energy Level ............................................. 161
Credit 02-Unit 04: Collective Model ...................................................... 177
Credit 03 ........................................................................................................... 194
Credit 03 -Unit 01: Nuclear Decay ......................................................... 195
Credit 03 -Unit 02: Angular Momentum .............................................. 217
Credit 03 -Unit 03: Parity Selectionrules ............................................ 231
Credit 03 -Unit 04: Gamma Decay ......................................................... 250
Credit 04........................................................................................................... 271
Credit 04 -Unit 01: Elementary Particle Physics ................................ 272
Credit 04 -Unit 02: Hadrons And Leptons ........................................... 286
Credit 04 -Unit 03: Elementary Ideas of CP and CPT Invariance . 300
Credit 04 -Unit 04: Quark Model............................................................ 321
Feedback Sheet for the Student ................................................................. 335

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 1

 PHY609: NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYSICS
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University
Vice-Chancellor: Prof. Sanjeev Sonawane
School of Sciences
Director of the School: Dr. Chetana Kamlaskar
Programme Advisory Committee
Dr. Chetana Kamlaskar Dr. Sunanda More Prof. Dr. Dnyaneshvar Shaligram Patil
Director & Associate Professor, Former Director, Director, School of Physical Sciences &
School of Sciences, YCMOU, School of Sciences, Head, Dept. of Electronics, Kavayitri
Nashik YCMOU, Nashik
Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra
University,
Jalgaon 425 001
Prof. Dr.Mahendra D.Shirsath, Prof. Dr.Vaishali Bambole Dr.Shrikrishna Dattatraya Sartale,
Dept. of Physics, & Head, Professor, Dept. of Professor, Dept. of Physics,
Dept. of Electronics, Physics, University of SavitribaiPhule Pune University,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
Mumbai, Mumbai, 400032 Pune – 411 007
Marathwada, University
Aurangabad 431 004
Dr.Pravin Prabhakar Joshi, Dr. Ganesh Jagannath Mogal
Associate Professor, Gokhale Education Assistant Professor,
Society’s HPT Arts & RYK Science College, K.T.H.M. College,
Nashik 422005 Nashik 422 002
Kapade Sweta Dipakraj
Academic Coordinator, School of Sciences, YCMOU,
Nashik-422 222

Development Team
Instructional Course Coordinators Book Writer Book Editor
Technology Editor
Dr Sunanda More Dr. Dewrao M. Dr. Rajendra Vadnere
Kapade Sweta
Former Director, Pimpalshende M.Sc. Ph.D. (Physics,
Academic M. Sc. M. Phil. Ph. D. IIT Bombay, 1990)
School of Sciences, Coordinator, Dept. of Physics, Director (Retired)
YCMOU, Nashik
School of Sciences, Dr. Ambedkar College of School of Continuing
YCMOU, Nashik-422 Arts, Commerce & Science, Education, YCMOU
222 Chandrapur-442401 Nashik-422 222

This work by YCMOU is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non

Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License.
 Book Publication: 04-March-2024 Publication No. :
 Publisher: Shri. Dilip Bharad, Registrar, YCMOU, Nashik- 422 222, MS
 ISBN:
 This SLM Book V141: M.Sc. Physics {2022 Pattern}, dtd. 04/03/2024
used in V153: M.Sc. Physics {2023 Pattern}, dtd. 31/08/2023, 04/03/24

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 2

 V ICE C HANCELLOR ’ S M ESSAGE

Dear Students,
Greetings!!!

I offer cordial welcome to all of you for the Master’s degree programme of
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University.

As a post graduate student, you must have autonomy to learn, have information
and knowledge regarding different dimensions in the field of Physical Sciences and at the
same time intellectual development is necessary for application of knowledge wisely. The
process of learning includes appropriate thinking, understanding important points,
describing these points on the basis of experience and observation, explaining them to
others by speaking or writing about them. The science of Education today accepts the
principle that it is possible to achieve excellence and knowledge in this regard.

The syllabus of this course has been structured in this book in such a way, to give
you autonomy to study easily without stirring from home. During the counseling
sessions, scheduled at your respective study center, all your doubts will be clarified about
the course and you will get guidance from some qualified and experienced counselors/
professors. This guidance will not only be based on lectures, but it will also include
various techniques such as question-answers, doubt clarification. We expect your active
participation in the contact sessions at the study center. Our emphasis is on ‘self study’.
If a student learns how to study, he will become independent in learning throughout life.
This course book has been written with the objective of helping in self-study and giving
you autonomy to learn at your convenience.
During this academic year, you have to give assignments, complete laboratory
activities, field visits and the Project work wherever required. You have to opt for
specialization as per programme structure. You will get experience and joy in personally
doing above activities. This will enable you to assess your own progress and thereby
achieve a larger educational objective.

We wish that you will enjoy the courses of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open
University, emerge successful and very soon become a knowledgeable and honorable
Master’s degree holder of this university.

I congratulate “Development Team” for the development of this excellent high

quality “Self- Learning Material (SLM)” for the students. I hope and believe that this
SLM will be immensely useful for all students of this program.

Best Wishes!
- Prof. Sanjeev Sonawane
Vice-Chancellor, YCMOU

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 3

 F OREWORD B Y T HE D IRECTOR

Dear Students,
Greetings!!!
This book serves the primary goal of acquainting postgraduate level students,
particularly those in the field of Science, with the conceptual and practical foundations
of Physics essential for their study. It offers a complete ex ploration of physics
principles and their practical applications. Throughout the book, you will find
numerous illustrative examples designed to enhance your understanding and skills.
We have taken a "learn at your own pace" approach, so each unit of the bo ok is
designed to be as user-friendly as possible. To do this, the book is written in a self -
instructional format, making sure that each unit follows a carefully structured approach.
This not only facilitates comprehension but also keeps the learning proce ss engaging.
Each unit of book commences with clearly defined learning objectives, using action
verbs aligned with Bloom's Taxonomy to help you understand what you'll achieve.
Additionally, each unit begins with an introduction to stimulate the learner's c uriosity
and enthusiasm for the upcoming content. As you progress, you'll encounter detailed
explanations supported by tables, figures, exhibits, and solved illustrations, all
thoughtfully included enhancing the ability to learn.
This SLM book is written in simple language with conversational style, concise
sentences and covers the entire syllabus. The topics within each unit are presented in a
logical sequence, starting from simple concepts and progressing to more complex one,
ensuring that the material is approachable for learners with varying levels of
intellectual capacity.
To enrich learning experiences, each unit contains a diverse range of exercises,
including multiple-choice questions, conceptual questions, and practical problems.
These exercises aim to guide students in understanding every aspect of a particular
concept, gradually building their knowledge and skills.
We are grateful to the learners, resourceful writers, diligent editors, and the
dedicated School faculty and staff who contributed to the development of this Self-
Learning Material (SLM) book.
Hope this book becomes a valuable companion to support your academic pursuits
and enrich your understanding of content covered in this course.
Let’s Grow Together….Best Wishes to all of you!!

- Dr. Chetana Kamlaskar

Director,

School of Sciences, YCMOU

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 4

 C REDIT 01

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 5

CREDIT 01-UNIT 01: NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS AND NUCLEAR
REACTIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -
 Explain the basics of the structure of nucleus.
 List the constituents of nucleus.
 Describe nuclear structure in terms of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 Explain the interaction between the nucleons.
 Discuss the different kinds of nuclear reactions.
 Analyze and balance a nuclear reaction.
 Describe the various conservation laws in nuclear reactions
 Elaborate about nuclear forces and their interaction.
 Discuss the concept of the strong nuclear force.
 Discuss what happens when the balance of forces is upset.
 Explain the exchange of forces.
 Define and describe the tensor forces.
 Explain Mesons theory of nuclear forces.

INTRODUCTION:
We are familiar with the different sources of energy like fuel energy, solar
energy, wind energy, nuclear energy etc. Nuclear energy is, basically, the energy which
was used in forming the nucleus and thus can be said to be the energy stored inside an
atom by the forces that hold together the nucleus of the atom. Therefore, the nuclear
energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms and the process is called nucle ar
fission. The energy liberated in nuclear fission in a nuclear reactorgenerates heat to
produce steam, which is used by a turbine generator to generate electricity. Nuclear
technology uses the energy released by splitting the atoms of certain elements li ke
uranium. It was first developed in the 1940s, and during the World WarII. Research
initially focused on producing bombs. United States realized the importance of the
nuclear bomb in the war and hence employed scientists and allotted funding to be sure
they were the first to have the bomb. On July 16, 1945 the first atomic bomb was
exploded in the New Mexico desert. The explosion was massive and the equivalent to
18,000 tons of TNT. Scientists figured that the temperature at the center of the
explosion was three times hotter than at the center of the sun.During the Second World
War, first atomic bomb was dropped on 6 th August, 1945 on city Hiroshima and on 9 th
August, 1945 another atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. The explosion was

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 6

gigantic, both cities were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were killed
and disabled. Figure 1 shows the intensity of explosion of bomb dropped on Nagasaki.

Fig. 1: The mushroom cloud above Nagasaki, Japan from the atomic bomb
(Source: US Government)

Although, the scientists were satisfied thatthey had successfully made the bomb
to end the World War at an earlier stage they also were sad and fearful. This bomb
would change the world and could cause mass destruction and death.

The scientists also realized that the tremendous heat produced in the process
could be tapped either for direct use or for generating electricity. It was also clear that
this new form of energy would allow development of compact long -lasting power
sources which could have various applications, especially in submarines. In the 1950s
attention turned to the peaceful use of nuclear fission, controlling it for power
generation.The first nuclear reactor to produce electricity (albeit a trivial amount) was
the small Experimental Breeder reactor (EBR-1) designed and operated by Argonne
National Laboratory and sited in Idaho, USA. The reactor started up in December
1951.In 1953 President Eisenhower proposed his "Atoms for Peace" program, which
reoriented significant research effort towards e lectricity generation and set the course
for civil nuclear energy development in the USA. Fig. 2 shows the nuclear -powered
ship of U. S. Navy. This nuclear energy is invented with the study and research of
nuclear physics. The primary aim of nuclear physic s is to understand the force between
nucleons, the structure of nuclei, and how nuclei interact with each other and with other
subatomicparticles. These three questions are, to a large extent, related with each other.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 7

 Fig. 2: Nuclear poweredAircraft career USS Enterprise and escorts of the U.S.
Navy(Source: US Government)

There are many branches of physics including the nuclear physics and Particle
Physics. Nuclear physics is the branch of Physics which deals with the study of the
constituent particles of atomic nuclei called nucleons, and the interactions between
them. These interactions are able to hold the particles together at extremely small
distances of the order of a few nanometers (10 -9 m)to femtometers (10 -15 m).The primary
aim of nuclear physics is to understand the force between nucleons,the structure of
nuclei, and how nuclei interact with each other and with other subatomicparticles.
These three questions are, to a large extent, related with each other.

Particle physics deals with the study

of fundamentalparticles and forces thatinteracts to constitute matter and radiation.
Fundamental particles or elementary particles are a subatomic particle that is not
composed of other particles. The elementary particle includes the
fundamental fermions which generally are "matter and antimatter particles", as well as
thefundamental bosons whicharetheforceparticleswhichfacilitate interactions among the
fermions.

The nuclear physics studies the physical phenomena related to

the core atomic, as power transitions, radioactive decay, nuclear fission, and nuclear
fusion etc. The study of nuclear physics involves the development of models that
explain the functioning of atomic nuclei and their constitution, production and
applications of nuclear energy in medical treatments,
development of technologies forradiation detection, new sources of energy, etc.In
recent years, Nuclear Physics has enabled, through nuclear medicine, the emergence of
technologies of great impact on human health. A growing number of imaging studies
have been performed using different types of radiation and particles. In addition, a
large number of patients receive cancer treatment through radiation produced by

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 8

particle accelerators or natural sources of radiation, such as Cesium-137, Iodine-
131, and others found in nature.

The atomic nucleus is the central part of an atom. In comparison to an atom, it is

much smaller and contains most of the mass of the atom. Atomic nuclei are not
elementary particles, they are themselves composed of more funda mental particles.
An elementary or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of
other particles. An elementary or fundamental particle includes Fermions (which
generallyare matter and antimatter particles)and the Bosons which generally are force
particles. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is called a composite
particle.

Nucleons: The particles that make upatomic nuclei are termed as nucleons.
A nucleon is the collective term for protons andneutrons.Nucleons are bound together
in the atomic nucleus, as a result of strong force holding the atoms together where they
account for 99.9 percent of the atom’s mass. Electrons are not nucleons and do not feel
the strong force. Nucleons are, however, not elementary particle s. We shall attempt
here only an introduction to certainaspects of strong interaction essential to nuclear
physics.

A proton is one of the subatomic particles that make up matter. In the universe,
protons are abundant, making up about half of all visible matter. It has a positive
electric charge (+1e) and a rest mass equal to 1.67262×10 −27 kg (938.272 MeV/c 2 )
marginally lighter than that of the neutron but nearly 1836 times greater than that of the
electron. The proton has a mean square radius of about 0.87 × 10 −15 m.

A neutron is other subatomic particles that make up matter. In the universe,

neutrons are also abundant, making up more than half of all visible matter. It has no
electric charge and a rest mass equal to 1.67493 × 10 −27 kgmarginally greater than that
of the proton but nearly 1839 times greater than that of the electron. The neutron has a
mean square radius of about 0.8×10 −15 m. The neutrons exist in the nuclei of typical
atoms, along with their positively charged counterparts, the protons.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 9

 Fig. 3: Nucleons, Proton, Neutronand Quarks

Quarks: Protons and neutrons have also their structure. Inside the protons and
neutrons, we find ‘true’ elementary particles called quarks. Quarks are the basic
building blocks of hadrons, particles interacting witheach other through strong
interaction.Quarks are held together by a force dubbed the chromo force, represented by
particles named gluons. Quarks and gluons are the building blocks of protons and
neutrons, which in turn are the building blocks of atomic nuclei. Within the nucleus,
protons and neutrons are bound together through the strong force. Fig.3 illustrates the
structure of nucleon.

Nuclear Force: Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together
through the residual strong forcealso known as the nuclear force. The residual strong
force acts to hold neutrons and protons t ogether in nuclei. In nuclei, this force acts
against the enormous repulsive electromagnetic force of the protons.

Atomic Structure: Atom is assumed to be a spherical in shape. It consists of number of

neutrons and protons at center called as nucleus and the number of electrons revolving
around the nucleus.

Nucleon Numbers (Mass number): The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is called the atomic mass number (also called nucleon number) of
the atom and is given the symbol A.

Atomic number: The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called
the atomic number (or the proton number) of the atom and is given the symbol Z.

Neutron number: The total number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called
the neutron number of the atom and is given the symbol N i.e. N=A-Z. Neutron number
plus atomic number is equals to nucleon number, i.e.N+Z=A. The difference between
the neutron number and the atomic number is known as the Neutron Excess (E N ).
Mathematically, E N = (N – Z) = (A – 2Z).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 10

Atomic Mass Unit (amu): An atomic mass unit is defined as precisely (1/12) th the mass
of an atom of 6 C 12 . In inexact terms, one amu is the average of the proton rest mass and
the neutron rest mass. This is approximately 1 amu = 1 .66054 × 10 −27 kg. Now we can
remember the rest mass of these three, Mass of proton= 1 .007276 amu; Mass of
neutron= 1.008665 amu; Mass of electron= 0.00055 amu.
Mass Defect: Mass defect is the difference in mass of a nucleus and the sum of the
masses of the nucleons (protons & neutrons). It is that the actual mass of the nucleus is
always going to be different than the sum of the individual mass of the totalnumber of
neutrons and protons. Mathematically mass defect is given by -
m = (n P m P + n N mN ) –M
Where,n are numbers; m are masses; suffix P and N indicates proton and neutron
respectively and M is mass of the formed nucleus.
Binding energy (BE): Theminimum energy required to disassemble the nucleusinto its
individual component partsneutrons and protons. The binding en ergy is always
apositive number, and thus we need to spend energy in moving the nucleons away from
each other (against the nuclearforce). BE is also defined as the amount of energy
required to hold thenucleons together inside the nucleus. Thisenergy is giv en by the
Albert Einstein’s energy and mass equivalence relation E = mC 2 . Here C is the velocity
of light. This equation indicates that adding energy increases the mass (both weight and
inertia), whereas removing energy decreases the mass. The change in ma ss, i.e. mass
defect is converted into energy that holds the nucleus which is nothing but the binding
energy. Thus, mathematically, E=m x C 2 .

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: Find the energy in MeV corresponding to 1 amu.

Solution: Einstein’s mass energy formula is

E = mC 2

E = 1.6605 × 10 −27 kg × (2.9979 × 10 8 ) 2 (m/sec) 2

= 15.0639 × 10 −11 J
As we know that 1.6022 × 10 −19 J = 1 eV,
E = 15.0639 × 10 −11 / 1.6022 × 10 −19 = = 931.5 x 10 6 eV
E = 931.5 MeV
Problem 01-02: Find the binding energy for the α-particle.
Solution: α-particle is the 2 He 4 nucleus. This nucleus contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
Now sumof the masses of the individual constituents are -
M′ = 2 × 1.007276 amu + 2 × 1.008665 amu
= 4.031882 amu

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 11

 And the mass (M) of the α-particle is 4.001506 amu.
 Mass defect, m = 4.031882 amu− 4.001506 amu
m= 0.030376 amu.
Hence the binding energy,E = m × 931.5MeV/amu
E= 0.030376 × 931.5= 28.29MeV.

01-01: INTERACTIONS
An idea of existence field, force and an idea of actionbetween the particles is
the nuclear interaction.The interaction between two nucleons is one of the central
questions in physics and its importance goes beyond the properties of nuclei. To
understand the things, we will study four categories of interactions as given below in
order of decreasing strength.

(a) Strong interaction: It is the interaction between the nucleons in the nuclei
of atoms. The strong interaction or nuclear force holds subatomic particles
like neutrons and protons together, and then it holds the atomic nucleus together.It
holds nucleons together even with strong repulsion between them. The force due to
strong interaction is independent of electric charge and is a short -rangeforce. The
-15
range of strong interaction is limited to 2x10 m and time interval of such an
-23
interaction is approximately 10 sec. The strong interaction includes the process like
scattering of nucleons, Scattering of mesons, nuclear reactions; decay of certain types
of particles and origination of resonant states.

(b) Electromagnetic interaction: The electromagnetic force between the

electric charge , like electrons and protons is the electromagnetic interaction. It
includes the electric force, which acts on all charged particles, and the magnetic force,
which only acts on moving charges.It acts between charged particles and provides the
binding forces in the atoms and molecules. The atomic and molecular forces are due to
electromagnetic interaction. Thus, electromagnetic interactions are charge dependent. It
is attractive between opposite charges and repulsive between similar cha rges. The
characteristic time for electromagnetic interaction is 10 -21 sec. This interaction is 10 -3
time weaker than the strong interaction. The examples of electromagnetic interaction
are the pair formation for γ-photons and the decay of a natural pion into gamma ray
photons.

(c) Weak interaction: Weak interaction or weak nuclear force is one of the
four fundamental forces. As particles take longer time to respond to such an interaction,
the force involved must be very weak compared with strong nucleon force. The Weak
interactionincludes beta decay. The beta-decay takes 10 13 times greater than 10 -23 sec.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 12

of the strong interaction. Since most of the particles involved in beta -decay are
subjected to the nuclear force or have electric charge or both, there must be some rule
which stops the process. But eventually, the decay does happen. Hence the interactio n
is different. The range of weak interaction is about 10 -15 m. The characteristic time for
weak interaction is of the order of 10 -10 sec.

(d) Gravitational interactions: It is the weakest interaction among all and it

has an infinite range. It has a great influence on the macroscopic behavior of the matter.
It has negligible effect for atoms and sub nuclear particles. The gravitation is due to
this interaction and it can he explained in terms of the interactions of gravitons whose

mass must be zero and therefore they must travel with the velocity of light (c ≈3 10 8

m/s).
01-02: N UCLEON -N UCLEON I NTERACTION
The nucleon–nucleoninteraction (or nuclear force or residual strong force) is
theforce between two or more nucleons. It is responsible for bindin g of protons
andneutrons into atomic nuclei. The energy is released from the nuclei while breaking it
due to mass defect. This is the energyused in nuclear power and nuclearweapons.The
force is powerfullyattractive between nucleons at distances ofabout 1 f emtometer (fm)
but rapidly decreases with distances.
The concept of a nuclear force was exposed initially that atomic nuclei were
made of protons and neutrons, held together by an attractive force. The nuclear force at
that time was imagined to be transmitted by particles called mesons, which were
expected in theory before being discovered in 1947. In the 1970s, further
understanding assumed these mesons are combinations of quarks and gluons,
transmitted between nucleons that themselves were made of quark s and gluons. This
new model allowed the strong forces that held nucleons together, as residual strong
forces.
Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are the lowest -energy bound states of
quarks and gluons. When twoor more of these particles are put tog ether, they interact,
scatter and sometimes form bound states dueto the strong interactions. The nuclear
force is now understood as aresidual effect of the even more powerful strong force, or
strong interaction, which isthe attractive force that binds part icles calledquarks
together, to form the nucleonsthemselves. This more powerful force is controlled by
particles called gluons. Gluonshold quarks together with a force like that ofelectric
charge, but with a greater power.
Even though nucleons are made of quarks in combinations which cancel most
gluon forces, some combinations of quarks and gluons nevertheless leak away from

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 13

nucleons, in the form of short-range nuclear force fields that extend from one nucleon
to another nucleon that is close by. These nuclear forces are very weak compared to
direct gluon forces inside nucleons and the nuclear forces extend only over a few
nuclear diameters, falling exponentially with distance. On the other hand, they are
strong enough to bind neutrons and protons over short distances, and overcome the
electrical repulsion betweenprotons in the nucleus.We can understand many of the
properties of the multi-nucleon systems by the nucleon-nucleon interactions. If the
nucleons are non-relativistic, the interaction can be describe d by a potential.

Fig. 4: Strong proton–neutron interaction mediated by a neutral pion.

Time proceeds from left to right.

Nucleon–nucleon (NN) potentials:

Two-nucleon systems such as the deuteron, the nucleus of a deuterium atom, as
well as proton-proton orneutron-proton scattering are ideal for learning the NN force.
Such systems can be explained by attributing a potential (such as the Yukawa potential)
to the nucleons and using the potentials in a Schrodinger equation. Theform of the
potential is derived phenomenon logically, although for the long-range interaction,
meson-exchangetheories help to construct the potential. The parameters of the potential
are determined by fitting to experimental datasuch as the deuteron binding energy or
NN elastic scattering cross sections etc. A more recent approach is to develop effective
field theories for a consistent description of nucleon –nucleon andthree-nucleon forces.
In particular, chiral symmetry breaking can be analyzed in terms of an effective field
theory(called chiral perturbation theory) which allows perturbative calculations of the
interactions between nucleons withpions as exchange particles.Theeventual goal of
nuclear physics would be to describe all nuclear interactions from the basic interactions
betweennucleons and is called as the microscopic approach of nuclear physics.
Nuclear potentials:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 14

 A better way of describing nuclear interactions is to construct one potential for
the whole nucleus instead ofconsidering all its nucleon components. This is cal led the
macroscopic approach. For example, scattering of neutrons from nuclei can be
described by considering a plane wave in the potential of the nucleus, which comprises
a real partand an imaginary part. This model is often called the optical model since it
resembles the case of light scattered byan opaque glass sphere.Nuclear potentials can be
local or global. Local potentials are limited to a narrow energy range or a
narrownuclear mass range, while global potentials, which have more parameters and are
usually less accurate, are functionsof the energy and the nuclear mass and can
therefore, be used in a wider range of applications.
01-03: N UCLEAR R EACTIONS
A nuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei, or a nucleus and an
external subatomic particle, collide to create one or more new nuclides. That means a
nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another.
Anuclear reaction can involve in more than two particles colliding, but probability of
three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is much less than for
two nuclei. The term "nuclear reaction" may refer either to a change in a
nuclide induced by collision with another particle or to a spontaneous change of a
nuclide without collision.A typical nuclear reaction involves two reacting particlesa
heavy target nucleus and a light bombarding particleand produces two new particlesa
heavier product nucleus and a lighter ejected particle.If a nucleus interacts with
another nucleus or particle and they then separate without changing the nature of any
nuclide, the process is simply referred to as a type of nuclear scattering, rather than a
nuclear reaction.Nuclear reactions and nuclear scattering are used to measure the
properties of nuclei. Reactions that exchange energy or nucleons can be used to measure
the energies of binding and excitation, quantum numbers of energy levels, and transition
rates between levels. In order for a nuclear reaction to occur, the nucleons in the incident
particle, or projectile, must interact with the nucleons in the target. Thus, the energy must
be high enough to overcome the natural electromagnetic repulsion between the protons.
This energy “barrier” is called the Coulomb barrier. If the energy is below the barrier, the
nuclei will bounce off each other.

The interaction of monoenergetic light nuclear particles (p, n, d) or nuclei on a

target material (nuclei) is called nuclear reaction. So atypical nuclear reaction can be
written as:

X+a→Y+b

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 15

Where, X=Target nucleus;a=projectile; Y= Product nucleus and b=ejecting/ outgoing
particle / -radiation etc. The above reaction is denoted in short -cut notation by
X (a, b) Y.
Some examples of reactions induced by  particle are:

(i) (, p)

(ii) (, n)

For projectile having low energy (< 10 MeV), the most nuclear reactions involve
emission of one nucleus and production of product nucleus in ground state or excited
state which returns to ground state with emission of one or more -rays. Therefore,
reactions at low energy are as:

( , r); (n, p); (α, n); (α, p); (p, r); (p, n); (d, n); (d, p) etc.

For projectile having energy range 20-30 MeV, more than one light particleis formed

together with product nucleus. Thus, we have reaction as : ( ), (n, 2n).Andprojectile

having energy > 200 MeV, the nuclear reactions produce pion and K -mesons. The
nuclear reactionsare given as:

The study of nuclear reactions includes the following measurements:

 Energy and Intensity of the projectile/incident particle.

 The number of ejected/emitted particles and their detection.

 Energy spectrum and angular distribution of emitted particles.

 Induced activity of the product nucleus.

 Recoil energy and momentum of residual nuclei.

 The minimum energy (Threshold energy) at which the reaction takes place.

 The total reaction cross-section and differential cross-section.

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  Calculation of Differential cross-section; energy spectrum and angular
distribution based on the reaction mechanism/theories such as Comp ound
Nucleus (CN); Direct interaction (DI), optical model etc.

01-03.01: Various types of nuclear reactions

The various types of nuclear reactions are as mentioned below:
(a) Elastic scattering: Here, the ejected particle b and projectile a,are same (a=b) i.e.
the projectile after striking the target nucleus leaves it without loss of energy (same
energy) either in the same direction or an altered direction.

(i) (α)

(ii)

(b) Inelastic scattering: In this reaction the projectile and ejected particle are the same
but have different energy and angular momentum i.e. the projectile loses some energy
to the target nucleus which goes to excited (higher energy) state. Therefore,the residual
nucleus is left in an excited state (*) which goes to groun d state(g. s.) by emission of -
rays.

(i) p + +

(ii) 

(c) Radioactive capture: In this case the projectile is absorbed/combined to the target
nucleus to form the excited compound nucleus which subsequently goes down to th e
ground state by emission of one or more -rays.

(i)

(ii) p +

(d) Disintegration process: In this case the projectile is absorbed by the target nucleus
and different particle is ejected. The first nuclear transmutation obs erved by Lord
Rutherford was disintegration i.e. 14
N (α, p) 17
O

(i) +

(ii)

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(e) Photo-disintegration: In this reaction the projectile is a γ-ray which breaks the
target nucleus into two or more parts i.e. the breakup of deuteron into proton and
neutron by the -ray as:

(i) +

(f) Direct interaction: In this case either the projectile pulls out a nucleon from the
target nucleus (Pick-up reaction) or projectile gives up (loses) a nucleon to the target
nucleus (stripping reaction) as shown below:

(i) (Stripping of n)

(ii)

(iii) N+

(g) Nuclear fission: The projectile is captured by the heavy nucleus which then breaks
up/ejects several particles/nuclei as:

(i)

(h) Heavy ion reaction: When the projectiles are heavier nuclei than α- particles and
have fairly high energy of several hundred MeV then these reactions are called heavy
ion reactions.
10
(i) B ( 16 O, He) 22
Na

124
(ii) Sn ( 10 B, 4n) 126
I

01-03.02: C onservation l awsin nuclear r eactions

Followingconservation laws are obeyed in nuclear reactions.

(a) Conservation of mass number/number of nucleons: In a nuclear reaction the
nucleons are neither created nor destroyed. Thus, the total number of neutrons and
protons in the nuclei taking part in nuclear reaction remains unchanged after the
reaction. Therefore, the number of nucleons minus the number of Anti -Nucleons in
the Universe remains constant.

(i) No. of nucleons: 2+2 = 3+1

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 (ii) (p) + No. of nucleons:1+7=7+1

(b)Conservation of charge / atomic number: The total electric charge before the
nuclear reaction and after the nuclear reaction is equal i.e. the total number of protons
of the nuclei taking part in a nuclear reaction remains unchanged afte r the reaction.

(i) + Charge units: 0+4 = 2+2

(ii) Charge units:1+3 = 4+0

(c)Conservation of Spin: The total spin of an isolated system is unchanged i.e. the
statistics before and after the nuclear reaction is unchanged. Therefore , in a nuclear
reaction there is a conservation of linear and angular momentums separately. Hence, for
a nuclear reaction X (a, b) Y we have:

(i) X+ a = Y b

(ii) I x+ I a = I y + I b

Where,P x , P a , P y and P b are the momentum vectors and I X , I a , I Y and I b are the
spins of target nuclei, projectile; product nucleus and outgoing particle, respectively.

(d)Conservation of Parity: In strong nuclear reactions the total parity of projectile and
target nucleus is equal to the total parity of product nucleus and outgoing particle.

Thus, for a reaction: X ( , b) Y i.e. a + X  Y + b we have:

Where,P a , P X , P Y andP b are the internal parities of the projectile, target nucleus,

product nucleus and outgoing particle respectively, while and are the orbital

angular momenta for the initial (X + a) and final (Y + b) systems.

(e) Conservation of Isotopic spin: The nuclear interaction is independent of the type of
nucleon. The nuclear interaction is invariant under rotations in isotopic spin space. For

a reaction (X+aY+b) we denote the initial and final states isotopic spins as and

then

, i.e., T X +T a = T Y +T b

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 Where, T i = T X +T a and T f= T Y +T b

Isotopic spin is a characteristic of the nuclear level. Hence the above conservation law
can be used to identify the levels of the nuclei produced in the reaction.

(f) Conservation of Energy: The total energy of the initial and final reaction channels
is equal. Thus, in a reaction a+X →Y+b, the energy conservation is given by:
E 1 + T 1 = E 2 +T 2

Where,T 1 = T a +T X = the kinetic energy of projectile and target,

E 1 = (ma + m x ) c 2 = Rest mass energies of the projectile and target,

T 2 = T b + T y = K.E. of the product nucleus and outgoing particle and

E 2 =(mb +m Y )c 2 = Rest mass energies of the product and outgoing particle.

01-03.03: Q-v alue of a nuclearr eaction

In nuclear physics, the Q value for a reaction is the amount of energy released
or absorbed by that reaction. Sobasically, it is the energy balance term in a nuclear
reaction. The energy conservation relation enables the generaldefinition of Q based on
mass-energy equivalence.

To calculate the Q-value, consider a nuclear reaction,

X+a→Y+b

Where, X=Target; a= Projectile; Y=Product nucleus and b= outgoing particle.

Let their rest masses are M X ; m a ; M Y; m b while their Kinetic energies are T X ;
T a ; T Yand T b respectively.

After the reaction the ejected light particle b goes out at angle θ and the
product/residual nucleus Y recoils at an angle ϕwith respect to the incident direction as
shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Graphical representation of Nuclear Reaction

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The conservation of mass/energy law gives the relation:

M X c 2 + T X (=0) + m a c 2 + T a = M Y c 2 + T Y + mb c 2 + T b

 (ma + M X ) c 2 +T a = (m b + M Y ) c 2 + T y + T b

 (ma + M X ) c 2 – (m b + M Y ) c 2 = (T y + T b ) – T a ………….(1.1)

[(ma +M X )–(mb +M Y )]c 2 =(T y +T b )–T a ………….(1.2)

The kinetic energy released in the nuclear reaction is represented by Q value

which is equal to the rest-mass energy difference between the reactants and the
resultants. Therefore,Qvalue is given as:

Q = [(ma +M X )–(mb +M Y )]c 2 =(T y +T b )–T a ………….(1.3)

Or Q =E 1 – E 2 = T 2 – T 1 ………….(1.4)

Where, E 1 = (ma +M X )c 2 : Rest mass energy of reactants (projectile & target);

E 2 = (mb +M Y )c 2 : Rest mass energy of products (resultants);

T 1 = T a + T X = T a :(K.E. of projectile and target);

T 2 = T b + T Y :K.E. of product nucleus and outgoing particle).

In general,E 1 ≠ E 2 . Hence, the difference between these two energies is called Q

value of the reaction. Thenuclear reactions can be classifiedinto the following three
types according to the Qvalue.

1. When Q = 0, the reaction is Elastic scattering: Thus,from equation (1.4) we have,

E 1 = E 2 Or T 2 = T 1

For example, (i) 12 N + n 14 N + n

2. When Q > 0 (i.e. Positive)the reaction is Exoergic reaction:Thus, from equation

(1.4) we have,

E1> E2

For example,(i) H + H He + n + 3.25 (Q)

(ii) H+ H He + n + 17.6 (Q)

10 13
(iii) B+ N + n +1.06 (Q)

12 13
(iv) C+ N + y +1.94 (Q)

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3) WhenQ<0 (, i.e.negative) the reaction is Endoergic reaction: Thus, from equation
(1.4) we have,

E1< E2

For example,(i)n+ S P + p - 0.92 (Q)

12 13
(i) d+ C N + n - 0.28 (Q)

(ii) + Al P + n – 2.69 (Q)

(iii) + Al Na + He - 3.14 (Q)

THRESHOLD ENERGY OF NUCLEAR REACTION:

The minimum energy required to have a nuclear reaction is called Threshold

energy for the said reaction. The threshold energy is given by the relation -

= = ………….(1.5)

The energy of the outgoing particle is given by:

Tb= . ………….(1.6)

GENERAL EQUATION FOR Q VALUE:

From Fig. 5, we resolve linear momentum in the direction of the incident beam
and perpendicular to the direction of beam to apply the Conservation Law:

Parallel: . ………….(1.7)

Perpendicular: 0= ………….(1.8)

In a nuclear reaction experiment the kinetic energy of the projectile T a is known

while the kinetic energy of the outgoing particle T b is measured at an angle θ to the
direction of incident particle. But the kinetic energy of product nucleus T y and its recoil
angle ϕ are not measured. Thus equations (1.7) and (1.8) may be written as:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 22

 - ………….(1.9)

. ………….(1.10)

Squaring and adding equations (1.9) and (1.10) we get

2M y T y (cos 2 + sin 2 ) = 2m b .T b . sin 2

+2m b .Cos 2 θ -

 2M Y . = 2m b + 2ma T a – 4 . ………….(1.11)

Now put the value of T y from equation (1.3) into equation (1.11) to give

2 M y . (Q + Ta – Tb) =2m b T b + 2ma .T a – 4 .

Or Q + T a – Tb = Tb. + Ta. - .

 Q = Tb Ta - . ………….(1.12)

This is a Q-value equation. In this equation the mass m a , m b and M Y are taken
from the nuclear tables while the quantities T a , T b and θ are measured. Hence, the value
of Q is determined from equation (1.12). The masses can be replaced by the mass

numbers to sufficient degree of accuracy. The Q value equation is simplified for θ = 90

when the cosine term vanishes (, i.e., cosθ =0). The equation (1.12) may be re -written

as a quadratic equation in as under:

) 2- . – =0 ………….(1.13)

The solution of this equation gives the value of kinetic energy of the outgoing
particle as:

= . –4 T a – Q]/

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  = ………….(1.14)

When real and positive, then only the nuclear reactions are energetically possible.

For exoergic reactions Q>0 and M y >ma i.e. the residual/product nucleus is much

heavier than the projectile then has a single value for all values of the projectile

energy and its value is given by:

= ………….(1.15)

It has smallest value forθ=, i.e.in backward direction.

For endoergic reaction θ=0, then there is the smallest value of T a (K.E. of
incident particle) for which the reaction can take place. This energy is called the
threshold energyi.e. (Ta) Thres . . The smallest value of T a when the reaction is possible is
given by:

. + (- My + (M y – ma ) = 0

This gives the value of as-

= ………….(1.16)

The value of is minimum for = 0.Thus, the threshold value for a nuclear reaction

is given by-

. = . ………….(1.17)

SOLVED PROBLEMS 02
Problem 02-01: Determine the threshold energy and K. E. of resultant product from the
following reaction.

H (d) + C N + n – 0.28

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Solution: (i) Threshold energyE Thres = Q.

 = 0.28 x = 0.28

T Thres .=0.33

(iii) The K.E. of outgoing particle ( n) is

Tb = T n = 0.33 =

 = 0.0033MeV

13
(iv) The recoil energy of N nucleus is

T y = 0.28 13 = 0.043

Problem 02-02:Calculate Q value of the following nuclear reaction.

The exact mass of Al=26.9815 amu; Si= 29.9738 amu; He=4.0026 amu and
H=1.0078 amu.

Solution:Mass of reactants=26.9815+4.0026=30.9841 amu,

Mass of products =29.9738+1.0078=30.9816 amu

 Mass defect M =30.9841- 30.9816 =0.0025 amu

 Q value =M x 931.5=0.0025 x 931.5

 Q value = 2.33 MeV

Problem 02-03: How much energy is released if two protons and two neutrons are
brought together to form a helium nucleus ?

Solution: Q = 2m p c 2 + 2m n c 2 - mH e c 2

= 2mpc 2 + 2mnc 2 - [2mp c 2 + 2m n c 2 - B.E.( 4 He) ]

= B.E.( 4 He).

Substituting for the B.E. of 4 He, we find

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 25

 Q = 28.2959 MeV= 4.55x10 -12 J.

Hence, the energy liberated in the production of a 4 He nucleus is 4.6 x 10 -12 J.

Problem 02-04:Calculate the threshold energy for following reaction. (Given: mn=1.0087 amu and
m=4.0026amu)

Solution: Threshold energy E Thres = Q.

E Thres = 18 x = 18

T Thres .=22.54

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS / MCQ 01

1. 01-01: What is the Q-value of the following reaction?
14 4 1 17
N + He = p + O
(14.003074) (4.002603) (1.007825) (16.999131)
a) 1.191 MeV
b) -1.191 MeV
c) 1.279X10 -3 MeV
d) -1.279X10 -3 MeV

2. 01.02: Which of the following statements is incorrect?

a) Mass defect is the amount of matter that would be converted into energy if a
nucleus were formed from initially separated protons and neutrons.
b) Nuclear binding energy is the energy released in the formation of an a tom
from subatomic particles.
c) Nuclei with highest binding energies are the most stable nuclei.
d) Mass number is the sum of all protons and electrons in an atom.
3. 01.03: Threshold energy for the said reaction is…...
a) The maximum energy required to have a nuclea r reaction
b) The minimum energy required to have a nuclear reaction
c) No energy is required to have a nuclear reaction
d) The minimum frequency required to have a nuclear reaction
4. 01.04: When Q = 0, the reaction is …..
a) With maximum energy
b) Elastic scattering

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 c) Exoergic

d) Endoergic

Ans:1.-b); 2.-d); 3.-b); 4.-b).

01-04: EXCHANGE FORCES

Whether we realize it or not but the four fundamental forces act upon us every
day. The forces that all of us experience every day can be divided as: Gravity
(gravitational force), the weak force, electromagnetism, and the strong force. These
forces explain everything that happens in the universe. These forces are called
fundamental forces. All four of the fundamental forces involve the exchange of one or
more particles.We come across another context for the exchange force is as
the exchange interactiondue to Pauli’s exclusion principle.

Following table illustrate the interacting particles in the exchange forces.

Sr. No. Force Exchange Particle

1. Strong Force Gluon

2. Electromagnetic Force Photon

3 Weak Force W and Z

4. Gravity Graviton

The favorite meaning of exchange force is in particle physics, where it denotes a

force produced by the exchange of force carrier particles, such as
the electromagneticforce producedbytheexchangeof photons between electrons and
the strong force produced by the exchange of gluons between quarks. The idea of an
exchange force implies a repeated exchange of virtual particles which accompany the
interaction and transmit the force, a process that receives its operational justification
through the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. All interactions which affect matter
particles can be thought of as involving to an exchange of force carrier
particlesincluding the virtual particle. What we normally think of as forces are actually
the effects of force carrier particles on matter particles. We are familiar with attractive
forces in everyday life (such as magnets and gravity), and so we generally take it for
granted that an object's presence can just affect anothe r object. But when we think that
how can two objects affect one another without touching then we think that the
invisible force could be an exchange of force carrier particles. Particle physicists have
found that we can explain the force of one particle ac ting on another to incredible
precision by the exchange of these force carrier particles. One important thing to know

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 27

about force carriers is that a particular force carrier particle can only be absorbed or
produced by a matter particle which is affected by that particular force.

The exchange forces may be either attractive or repulsive, but are limited in
range by the nature of the exchange force. The maximum range of an exchange force is
dictated by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle since the particles involved are created
and exist only in the exchange process - they are called "virtual" particles. Such
exchange forces are often depicted using Feynman diagrams.

Range of Exchange Forces:

If a force involves the exchange of a particle, that particle has to get back home
before it is missed it means that it must fit within the constraints of the uncertainty
principle. A particle of mass m and rest energy E=mc 2 can be exchanged if it does not
go outside the bounds of the uncertainty principle which is give n in the form-

E.tmc 2 .t > ћ /2

A particle which can exist only within the limitation of the uncertainty principle
is called a virtual particle, and the time in the expression above represents the
maximum lifetime of the virtual exchange particle. Since this exchange particle ca nnot
exceed the speed limit of the universe, it cannot travel further than c times that lifetime.
The maximum range of the force would then be on the order of

Rangec.t ћ /2mc

Thisexpression indicates that a zero mass for the exc hange particle implies a force of
infinite range. The rest masses of the exchange particles for the electromagnetic force
and gravity (the photon and the graviton), are taken to be zero and those forces are
presumed to be infinite in range.

Feynman Diagrams for exchange forces:

The graphical ways to represent exchange forces are given by Feynman

diagrams. Each point at which lines come together is called a vertex, and at each vertex
one may examine the conservation laws which govern particle interactions. Each vertex
must conserve charge, baryon number and lepton number. Feynman developed diagram
to describe the interactions in quantum electrodynamics (QED), and these diagrams
have found use in describing a variety of particle interactions. They are space t ime
diagrams, ctversusx. The time axis points upward and the space axis points right.
Particles are represented by lines with arrows to denote the direction of their travel,
with antiparticles having their arrows reversed. Virtual particles are represented by
wavy or broken lines and have no arrows. All electromagnetic interactions can be
described with combinations of primitive diagrams like this one Fig. 6(a).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 28

 (a)

(b)

Fig. 6: Feynman Diagramsshowing graphical representation of exchange forces

(a) ExplainingElectromagneticinteraction and (b) explaining repulsion of like charges.

Only lines entering or leaving the diagram represent observable particles. In Fig.
6(b), two electrons enter; exchange a photon, and then exit. The vertical direction
indicates the progress of time upward, but the horizontal spacing does not give the
distance between the particles.Other electromagnetic processes can be represented, as in
the Fig. 7. A backward arrow represents the antiparticle, in these cases a positron. Keep
in mind that time progresses upward, and that a downward arrow is not a particle
progressing downward, but an antiparticle progressing upward (forward in time).

Fig. 7: Feynman Diagramsshowing otherelectromagnetic processes

(1) Strong Exchange Force:

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 At the most fundamental level, the strong force is an exchange
force between quarks mediated by gluons. The use of Feynman diagrams to visualize
the strong interaction involves primitive vertices with quarks and gluons. Quarks
interact with each other by the exchange of gluons; a primitive vertex in the Feynman
diagram involves a change in "color" and can take the form as shown in Fig. 8a. The
concept of color here is different than that of optical color which we use in our daily
life language. The color is a quantum property of an elementary particle. The gluons
carry the "color charge" and therefore the emergent quark will not have the same color
as the entering quark. This process is very different from the electromagnetic force
since the photon as the exchange particle for the force between charges does not itself
carry charge. An interaction between quarks could be represented by the Fig. 8b. The
interaction depicted here is responsible for binding quarks together
into mesons and baryons, and responsible for holding protons and neutrons together to
form nuclei.

Fig. 8: Feynman Diagramsfor Strong Exchange forces

(2) Weak Exchange Force:

One of the four fundamental forces, the weak interaction involves

the exchange of the intermediate vector bosons, the W and the Z. Since the mass of
these particles is on the order of 80 GeV, the uncertainty principle dictates a range of
about 10 -18 meters which is about 0.1% of the diameter of a proton. The weak
interaction changes one flavor of quark into another. The primitive vertices in the
Feynman diagrams for the weak interaction are of two types, charged and neutral. For
leptons they take the following form as shown in Fig. 9.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 30

 Fig. 9: Feynman Diagramsfor Weak exchange forces

The electron is used as an example in these diagra ms, but any lepton can be
substituted on the incoming side. The exit side (top) will be the same for the neutral
vertex, but determined by the charge of the W in the charged vertex. Besides
conserving charge, the vertex must conserve lepton number, so the process with the
electron can produce an electron neutrino but not a muon neutrino.

(3) Electromagnetic Exchange force:

The photon is an exchange particle responsible for the electromagnetic force.

Photon is the name given to a quantum of light or other electromagnetic radiation. The
photon energy is given in the Planck relationship. The force between two electrons can
be visualized in terms of a Feynman diagram as shown in Fig. 10. The infinite range of
the electromagnetic force is owed to the zero -rest mass of the photon. While the photon
has zero rest mass, it has finite momentum, exhibits deflection by a gravity field, and
can exert a force.The photon has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of 1, so that
the electron transitions which emit a photon must result in a net change of 1 in the
angular momentum of the system. This is one of the selection rules for electron
transitions.

Fig. 10: Feynman Diagrams(Electromagnetic exchange force)

(4) Gravity Exchange force:

The graviton is the exchange particle for the gravity force. Although it has not
been directly observed, a number of its properties can be implied from the nature of the
force. Since gravity is an inverse square force of apparently infinite range, it can be

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 31

implied that the rest mass of the graviton is zero. Forces are transmitted by bosons
including the photon for the electromagnetic force and the W and Z bosons for the weak
interaction. Associated with the color force, the gluons are the exchange particles. All
of these except the graviton have spin 1, but the graviton has spin 2. The Feynman
diagram for the gravitational interaction (force) of two identical massive bosons of zero
spin is shown in Fig.11.

Fig. 11: Feynman Diagrams(Gravity exchange force)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS / MCQ 02

1. 02.01: Exchange particle responsible for the electromagnetic force are…...

a) Photons
b) Gravitons
c) Gluons
d) Mesons
2. 02.02: Which of the following is the weakest force?

a) Nuclear force
b) Electromagnetic force
c) Gravitational force
d) None of above
3. 02.03: Which of the following has infinite range?

a) Electromagnetic force
b) Gravitational force
c) Both above
d) None of above
4. 02.04: Feynman diagrams represent graphically the exchange force of …….

a) Electromagnetic force
b) Gravitational force
c) Strong force
d) All of above

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 32

 5. 02.05: Zero mass for the exchange particle implies a force of ……..

a) Zero range
b) Infinite range
c) Negative range
d) Positive range
Ans:1.-a); 2.-c); 3.-c); 4.-d); 5.-b).

01-05: TENSOR FORCES

A force which is dependent on a spin is called a tensor force. This force is
usually experienced between nucleons with similar interaction form between magnetic
dipoles.A non-central force is a tensor force between two nucleons. Example of tensor
forces are: Nuclear force based on particle spin, Tensor force between two nucleons,
Magnetic system acting between two current carrying loops.

Experimental evidence of non-central forces:

In a structure made up of two particles, one expects that the total magnetic
moments to be the vector sum of the magnetic moments due to spin and magnetic
moments due to orbital motion of charged particles. Since deuteron is supposed in l=0
states, no contributions from orbital motion are expected, and we should have magnetic
moment of deuteron equal to μ d =μ 0 +μ T =- 0.8797 μ B . But the experimentally measured
value of magnetic moment of deuteron is μ d = 0.8574 μ N . The small difference in
expected and measured magnetic moments suggests that there is some orbital motion in
ground state of deuteron and out inference that, I=0 in the deuteron ground state is not
completely correct. Kellong in 1939 discovered serious discrepancies between the
predicted and observed fine structure in radio frequency magnetic resonance spectrum
of deuterium. The discrepancies in the fine structure could be explained by assuming
that deuteron possesses a quadrupole moment, Q=2.84 ×10 -27 cm2 . If the ground state of
deuteron is assumed in l=0 state, the system will be spherically symmetric and
quadrupole moment will be zero. The non-zero value of quadrupole moment in the
ground state deuteron can be accounted only wh en there exists a 4 % probability that
deuteron will be found in D-state while 96 % it is in S-state. It is noted that in both the
states (l=0 or l=2), spin of the deuteron is 1. The foregoing explanation based on
mixing of l values violates the principle of conservation of orbital angular momentum.

It is known that angular momentum is changed only by some torque acting on

the system, which is defined as-

 = r×F-rF θ = ………….(1.18)

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 A changing orbital angular momentum implies that the potential V is a function
of θ and not merely a function of r. Since a central force is defined as one for which V
is a function only of r. Thus,F θ is a non-central force. It is called a tensor force. The
angle θ is measured from the direction of spin vector S and force is function of S r . Fig.
12 shows the two situations for the same separation r. The positive value of quadrupole
moment of deuteron indicates that in deuteron they prefer to line up their spins one
after the other rather than side by side; implying, thereby, that is former case of force is
attractive and in the latter it is repulsive.

Fig. 12:Quadrupole moment spin orientation

Now the assumption that nuclear force is derivable from a potential, requires
that potential should be such that it remains invariant under the rotation and reflection
of the coordinates used to describe it.

The combination of space and spin coordinates which satisfy the above
requirement is-

( 1× ).( 2× )= r 3 1. 2 -( 1. 2 )- ( 1. ). ( 2. )…………. (1.19)

The non-central potential is taken such that its average over all directions of r vanishes.
Now,

∫( 1. ).( 2. ) d= ½ r 2 ( 1 . 2) …………. (1.20)

The equation (1.20) makes it possible to define the tensor operator such that -

12 = ( 1 . ).( 2 . ) - ( 1. 2 )…………. (1.21)

If is the unit vector in the direction of , then

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 34

 12 = 3 ( 1 . ).( 2 . ) - ( 1. 2 ) …………. (1.22)

Thus, non-central force is derivable from the potential.

V= VT(r). 12

As is zero for singlet states, there emerges a generalization that tensor force
does not exist in singlet state. Physically, it is supported by the fact that in singlet
states no preferred directions exists from which θ can be measured.

01-06: MESON THEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCES

Introduction to Nuclear Forces: One of the main plans of nuclear physics is to
find out the nature of nuclear forces. Nuclear forces are different from all other known
types of forces. They cannot be of electrical origin since they act between charged
particles as well as neutral particles (like a neutron and a proton indeuteron). These
forces cannot be magnetic either because the interaction between themagnetic moments
of the nucleons is extremely weak. Thus, nuclear interactions cause by forces,which
differ from all known types of forces and are called nuclear forces. Let us recall the
main properties of nuclear interactions.Most of the information about forces among
nucleons is obtained from the study of a simple twonucleonsystem like deuteron. The
ground state of the deuteron is characterized by the followingmeasured quantities.
 Binding energy: E = 2.22MeV
 Nuclear spin: J = 1
 Even parity
 Magnetic dipole moment: μ = +0.857μ n
 Electric quadrupole moment: Q = +2.7 x10 -31 m 2
 Charge distribution half-value radius: a = 2.1 fm
The fact that the deuteron has an electric dipole moment Q indicates that its
probability densityfunction is not spherical ly symmetrical. This immediately tells us
that the nuclear potential,which specifies the force acting between the two nucleons is,
itself, not spherically symmetric.The point is that all spherically symmetric potentials
have l = 0 Eigen functions for their groundstates, indicating a zero-quadrupole moment
for their charge distributions.Calculations show that the measured electric quadrupole
moment is obtained if the ground state of the deuteron is a mixture in which 96% is l =
0 state and 4% is l = 2 state. Inspectroscopic notation, the dominant state is 3 S 1 and the
less probable state is 3 D 1 . Calculationsalso show that this mixture of states lead to the
measured magnetic dipole momentμ = +0.857μ n . The value differs by 3% from what
would be obtained if the deuteron were in a pure 3 S 1 state, i.e.
μ = μ P + μ N = +2.7896μ n -1.9103μ n = +0.8793μ n .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 35

We conclude from allthese considerations that the nuclear potential is not precisely
spherically symmetric, since itdoes not lead to a pure S ground state for the deuteron .

Properties of Nuclear Forces:Summery of some properties of nuclear forces are given

below.
1) Nuclear forces are forces of attraction, as can be seen from the existence of
stable nucleiconsisting of protons and neutrons.
2) Nuclear forces are short range. This can be proved by Rutherford’s experiment
on the scattering of alphaparticles. The scattering of alpha particles by nuclei
showed that up to distances of about 10 -12 cm, the experimentalresults can be
explained by assuming that the interactions between alp ha particles andnuclei is
purely of Coulomb type. This means that the nuclear forces are short range
andtheir range can be estimated as the average distance between nucleons that
are boundwithin the nucleus by nuclear forces.

Range, a  ( ) 1/3

Where, V is the volume. But, R= (R o / A) 1/3 with R o =1.1 fm

a [  R 3 / A] 1/3  2 x 10 -13  2 fm

b) The constant value of the average binding energy per nucleon for most nuclei
indicatesthat the nuclear forces have the property of saturation.
c) Nuclear forces are spin dependent. We know that there are no bound deuterons
withnucleon spins essentially antiparallel, i.e. in a state of 0 S 1 . This indicates
that thenuclear potential is spin dependent, being appreciably weaker when two
nucleonsinteract with their spins antiparallel (in a singlet state).
d) The similarity in the level structure of some light nuclei leads to the hypothesis
ofcharge independence (isotopic invariance) of nuclear forces. The concept of
isotopicinvariance will be discussed later.

MESON THEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCES

The meson theory of nuclear forces is constructed in analogy with quantum

electrodynamics. Itis well known that in quantum electrodynamics, the electromagnetic
field is considered jointlywith the particles (photons) associated wi th it. The field as if
consists of photons which are thequanta of this field. The field energy is equal to the
sum of the energies of the quanta. Photonsare created (annihilated) during emission
(absorption) of electromagnetic radiation (say, light). The e lectric charge is the source
of photons. The interaction between two charges is responsiblefor the emission of a
photon by one charge and its absorption by the other. Such an approachmakes it
possible to consider new phenomena associated with the interacti on of radiatingsystems

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 36

with the intrinsic radiation field. It explains, for example, the anomalous
magneticmoment of the electron and the muon, Lamb's shift of levels in the fine
structure of the hydrogenatom, and many other fine effects.The basic idea of quantum
electrodynamics, viz. the quantum nature of interactions, can be alsoextended to other
types of interaction, including nuclear interaction. This idea was first put forthby L.
Tamm in 1934. Tamm's idea provided a clear graphic interpretation for suc h properties
ofthe nuclear interaction as its exchange nature which can be explained by assuming
that theproton and the neutron exchange charge during their interaction and that this
leads to saturation.It seemed quite natural to assume that the exchange m echanism
involves the transfer (at theinstant of nuclear interaction) of some light particles from
one nucleon to the other. Theseparticles can be, for example, electrons or neutrinos.
However, it was shown later by Tamm thatthese particles cannot be quant a of the
nuclear field; since they cannot simultaneously explain thesmall range of nuclear forces
and the high binding energy. No other light particles were knownat that time.
Tamm's idea was later developed by the Japanese physicist Yukawa who
assumed (in 1935) thatthe role of nuclear quanta is played by unstable charged or
neutral particles, the mesons, whichhad not been experimentally discovered at that
time, but which were supposed to have a mass m 200m e . Yukawa proposed that the
nuclear force originate from the exchange of non-zero rest mass particle called meson.
He postulated that each nucleon is surrounded by a meson cloud and nucleon
continuously emit and absorb mesons. This exchange of mesons creates the nuclear
force. The exchange of mesons must take place in very short time so that according to
Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation in quantum mechanics, i.e., E.t ћ
Putting E = mc 2 , we can assume that the energy E = ћ /t may be responsible
for thecreation of a virtual meson with mass m= E/c 2 = ћ/c 2 .tfor a short time t in the
immediatevicinity of the nucleon.

Unlike ordinary particles that can move freely in space and in time, virtual
particles exist onlyfor a short time t during which they must be separated from the
nucleon by a distance a notexceeding a = c.t.
After the passage of timet, the virtual particle is captured once again bya
nucleon. Thus, it can be assumed that a nucleon is surrounded by a cloud of virtual
mesonsthat are continuously being created and annihilated. The radius of thi s meson
cloud is given by-
a = ћ.c / E = ћ /mc.
A virtual meson can be absorbed not only by its "own" nucleon, but also by
some other nucleon, ifit happens to be in the meson cloud of the latter. It is this transfer
of a virtual meson from onenucleon to another that is responsible for the nuclear

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 37

interaction (force). Quantitative estimates for the nuclear interaction time T nuc and the
virtual meson mass m can beeasily obtained by equating a to the range of nuclear
forces. Assuming this value to be 2x10 -13 cm, Yukawa obtained
(i) T nuc =t = a/c = 0.7 x10 -23 s,
(ii) E  ћ / t  100 MeV,
(iii) m E / c 2 200m e
This is how the nuclear quantum or the Yukawa meson was predicted.
If Yukawa mesons do exist in actual practice, they can be detected only if they are
created in afree state and not virtually, i.e., if they are separated from the place of their
origin by a distanceexceeding the range of nuclear forces. Such a process is possible
only when the law of energyconservation is obeyed. Hence, the creation of mesons
requires large kinetic energy of thecolliding nucleons, a part o f which may be
transformed into the rest energy of the createdmesons.
The discovery of nuclear quanta is associated with an interesting and instructive
course ofevents. It was first decided that the -mesons (now called muons) with a mass
m  = 207 m e ,which were detected in 1938 in cosmic rays, are the nuclear quanta.
However, it was soon foundthatmuons do not participate in a strong nuclear interaction.
Later, in 1947-50, pions or (+ ,  - , 0 -mesons)were detected first in cosmic rays and
then in accelerators. Pionsare strongly interacting particles with a mass of
approximately m =270m e .It is the pions that play the role of nuclear quanta.
It can be easily seen that form= 270m e (corresponding toE =140MeV),
tћ/E= 0.5 x 10 -23 s, and
Range a= ћ/mc = 1.4x10 -13 cm.
The discovery of π-mesons stimulated the development of specific versions of
meson theorientating into account the properties of nucleons and π -mesons. We cannot
go into details of thesetheories, and shall confine ourselves to just the rough
semiqualitative concepts of the mesontheory obtained in analogy with quantum
electrodynamics (QED).
Quantum Mechanics to Mesons:
It was mentioned above that according to quantum electrodynam ics, the
mechanism ofelectromagnetic interaction involves the transfer of a photon from one
charge to another. Theequation of motion for a freely moving photon can be written in
the form:
E2 = p2c2.
In order to obtain the equation for the potential field of a unit charge, we must
make thesubstitution

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 38

 E ; p

The equation for the potential in empty space will then assume the form

- =0

For the time-independent case, =0 and the solution of the above equation is the

function

This, of course, can be verified by substituting the solution in the differential equation
and takingnote of

The solution is the expression for the interaction potent ial energy of a

unit charge(-e) in the potential V given by

It follows from the above analysis that the electromagnetic interaction has an
infinitely long range.We have mentioned earlier that according to meson theories, the
transfer of interaction takesplace through a π-meson that is a particle with a non-zero
mass (m ≠ 0). The equation for a freelymoving particle with m ≠ 0 is written in the form
E2 = p2c2 + m2c4
After the substitution for the energy and momentum operators, the equation for t he
mesonpotential field of a nucleon in empty space assumes the form -

= 0

For the time-independent case ( / t =0), the solution of this equation has the form-

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 39

In the above equation, and ( )is the strength of the Yukawa potential. It

plays a rolesimilar to the dimensionless quantity for electromagnetic

interactions. The magnitude ofthe “charge” g N can be determined from a comparison

with the experiment. The wave function is related to the meson field surrounding a
nucleon.

This rapidly decreasing function

is called the Yukawa potential.

The Compton wavelength =ћ/mc of the meson can serve as a measure of the rate at
whichthe function  decreases (i.e. a measure of the "radius" of the meson cloud).
Form  =270m e wegetCompton wavelength of meson,
  =1.4 x10 -13 cm.
Apparently, the quantity   coincides with the range a of the nuclear forces introduced
above:

a c.t =

Experimental Verifications:
Experimental evidence for the exchange of pions be tween two interacting
nucleons is found inneutron-proton scattering. The first high energy experiment was
performed with incidentneutrons of energy 90 MeV. The measurements show that the

differentials cross section isapproximately symmetric about a scattering angle of 90 0 .

Thus, there is an equally pronounced preference for large scattering angles. The
physicalinterpretation of the observed preference of large angles is that in
approximately half thescattering, the neutron changes into a proton and the proton
changes into a neutron, when the twonucleons are very close. One way this can happen
is indicated by the set of reactions:

np + then + p n

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 40

That is, the neutron emits a negatively charged meson into its field, becoming a

proton. Thenthe meson joins the field of the proton, and it is absorbed by the proton,

which becomes aneutron. The same scattering process can also happen through the set
of reactions:

pn+ then + np

In this case, the proton emits a positively charged meson, which is subsequently

absorbed bythe neutron. Thus, in about half the neutron -proton scatterings, a meson
transfers charge as wellas momentum between the two interacting nucleons.In about
half of the scatterings, the neutrons and protons do not exchange identities when
theyinteract but they still must exchange a meson that carries the transferred
momentum. The twosets of reactions that occur are:

nn+ then + pp

and pp+ then + nn

The neutral -meson transfers momentum but no charge between the

interacting nucleons.
This picture implies that an isolated proton should be surrounded by a meson

field which willsometimes contain a -meson and sometimes contain a - meson.

Of course, the nucleonmust absorb the meson it has emitted within a very short time,
but then it can emit another one.Similarly, the meson field surrounding an isolated

neutron should sometimes contain a -meson and sometimes a - meson. But the

proton files cannot contain a - meson and theneutron field cannot contain a -

meson.
Experimental verification of these predictions is provi ded by electron scattering
measurements ofthe charge distribution of the proton and of the neutron. The Fig. 13
shows the radialdependence of the charge densities of the two species of nucleons.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 41

 Fig. 13: Radial dependence of the charge densities of nucl eons.
The charge density of theproton is everywhere positive, and extends out to a

distance r of about 2 fm. At larger r, thischarge is carried by a - meson. For the

neutron, the charge density is not everywhere zero. Atsmaller r, it is positi ve and at
larger r it is negative. The volume integral of the charge density ishowever zero since
the neutron is neutral and has no net charge.At values of r approaching 2 fm, the
nucleon charge densities are proportional to some measureof the intensity of their
meson field. Both proton and neutron charge densities are decreasingfairly gradually as
r increases. The nucleon force, that acts between two nucleons when theirmeson fields
overlap, also therefore decreases gradually as their separation increases. Thus, theonset
of the attractive part of the nuclear potential, describing the nucleon force acting when
thetwo nucleons are beginning to get close enough to interact, is fairly gradual and it is
not asdepicted in the following figure. Nevertheless, this i s a good approximation for
description ofmany features of nuclear potential.
Meson theory also provides an explanation of how the neutron can have an
intrinsic magneticdipole moment, even though its net charge is zero. The neutron

sometimes become a proton plusa -meson. The proton has an intrinsic magnetic

moment, and the -meson can produce acurrent that makes an additional contribution

to the magnetic dipole moment.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 03
Problem 03.01: The nuclear forces are of exchange nature. A nucleon emits a virtual
pion of rest mass 140 MeV. What is the range of nuclear force?

Solution: When a nucleon emits a pion then loss of energy will be

E= m  c 2

By Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, E.t  ћ

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 42

 t ћ/E= ћ/ m  c 2

The pion travels a distance r in time t will be,

r=c.t =c. ћ/ m  c 2 = c.h/2 m  c 2

 Range r=

Problem 03.02: A deuteron’s potential well depth is 35MeV and its radius is 2f. Find
the kinetic energy of nucleus.

Solution:ByHeisenberg’suncertainty principle, P x .x ћ

Given, xR= 2f

P x  ћ/xћ / R

K.E will be K= (1/2) mv 2

K
= =

K=5.2 MeV

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (MCQ) 03

1. 03.01:Which of the following best define nuclear forces?

a) The attraction between protons and neutrons

b) Repulsion between protons and neutrons

c) The attraction between protons and electrons

d) The attraction between electrons and neutrons

2. 03.02:Find the true statement.

a) Nuclear charge is dependent on the charge

b) The nuclear force is weaker than the electromagnetic force

c) The nuclear force is independent of charge

d) The nuclear force is weaker than the gravitational force

3. 03.03:The nuclear force is short-ranged.

a) True
b) False

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 43

4. 03.04:In quantum electrodynamics (QED), electroma gnetic forces are mediated by
………

a) The interaction of electrons

b) Action at a distance

c) The weak nuclear interaction

d) Theexchange of virtual photons.

5. 03.05:Conservation laws that describe events involving the elementary particles

include the conservation of………..

a) Energy

b) Linear and angular momentum

c) Baryon and lepton numbers

d) All of these are correct.

6. 03.06:The correct expression relating the energy E of a particle to its rest mass m 0 ,
its momentum p, and the speed of light c, is ……….

a) E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 0 c 2

b) E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (m 0 c) 2

c) E 2 = p 2 c + (m 0 c 2 ) 2

d) E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (m 0 c 2 ) 2 .

7. 03.07:The interaction that describes the forces among nucleons that hold nuclei
together is ……….

a) The strong nuclear interaction

b) Theelectromagnetic interaction

c) Theweak nuclear interaction

d) Thegravitational interaction

Ans: 1.- a); 2.-c); 3.- a); 4.-d); 5.-d); 6.-d); 7.- a).

SUMMARY
Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together
through the residual strong force also known as the nuclear force. An idea of existence
field, force and an idea of action between the particles is the nuclear interaction.Four
types of interactions are- (a) Strong interaction: It is the interaction between the
nucleons in the nuclei of atoms. The strong interaction or nuclear force holds subatomic

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 44

particles like neutrons and protons together, and then it holds the atomic
nucleus together. (b) Electromagnetic interaction: The electromagnetic force between
the electric charge, like electrons and protons is the electromagnetic interaction.(c)
Weak interaction: Weak interaction or weak nuclear force is one of the
four fundamental forces. The weak force involved is very weak compared with strong
nucleon force.(d) Gravitational interactions: It is the weakest interaction among all and
it has an infinite range. It has a great influence on the macroscopic behavior of the
matter.

The nucleon–nucleon interactionis the force between two or more nucleons. It is

responsible for binding of protons and neutrons into atomic nuclei. Nucleon–nucleon
(NN) potentials:Two-nucleon systems such as the deuteron, the nucleus of a deuterium
atom, as well as proton-proton or neutron-proton scattering are ideal for learning the
NN force.A better way of describing nuclear interactions is to construct one potential
for the whole nucleus instead of considering all its nucleon components. This is called
the macroscopic approach.

Nuclear reactionis a process in which two nuclei, or a nucleus and an

external subatomic particle, collide to create one or more new nuclides. That means a
nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another.The
interaction of monoenergetic light nuclear particles (p, n, d) or nuclei on a target material
(nuclei) is called nuclear reaction. So atypical nuclear reaction can be written as:

X + a → Y + b.

The various types of nuclear reactions are (a) Elastic scattering, (b) Inelastic
scattering, (c) Radioactive capture, (d) Disintegration process, (e) Photo -
disintegration, (f) Direct interaction, (g) Nuclear fission and (h) Heavy ion
reaction.Conservation laws obeyed in nuclear reactions are- (a)Conservation of mass
number/number of nucleons, (b) Conservation of charge / atomic number, (c)
Conservation of Spin, (d) Conservation of Parity, (e) Conservation of Isotopic spin and
(f) Conservation of Energy.

TheQ value for a reaction is the amount of energy released or absorbed by that
reaction.The energy conservation relation enables the general definition of Q based on
mass-energy equivalence. The Q value of reaction is given by:

Q = [(m a + M X )–(m b +M Y )]c 2 =(T y +T b )–T a .

When Q = 0, the reaction is Elastic scattering, When Q > 0 the reaction is

Exoergic reaction and When Q< 0 the reaction is Endoergic reaction.The minimum

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 45

energy required to have a nuclear reaction is called Threshold energy for the said
reaction.

Exchange forces: The forces administer everything that happens in the universe.
These forces are fundamental forces. All the fundamental forces involve the exchange
of one or more particles. The favorite meaning of exchange force is in particle physics,
where it denotes a force produced by the exchange of force carrier particles, such as
the electromagnetic force produced by the exchange of photons between electrons and
the strong force produced by the exchange of gluons between quarks. The idea of an
exchange force implies a repeated exchange of virtual particles which accompany the
interaction and transmit the force. The exchange forces may be either attractive or
repulsive, but are limited in range by the nature of the exchange force. The
maximum range of an exchange force is dictated by the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle and is given by: Rangec.t ћ /2mc. The graphical ways to
represent exchange forces are called Feynman diagrams.A force which is dependent on
a spin is called a tensor force.

The meson theory of nuclear forces is constructed in analogy with quantum

electrodynamics.Yukawa assumed (in 1935) that the role of nuclear quanta is played by
unstable charged or neutral particles, the mesons, which had not been experimentally
discovered at that time, but which were supposed to have a mass m 200m e . Yukawa
proposed that the nuclear force originate from the exchange of non-zero rest mass
particle called meson.He postulated that each nucleon is surrounded by a meson cloud
and nucleon continuously emit and absorb mesons. This exchange of mesons creates the
nuclear force. The discovery of π-mesons stimulated the development of specific
versions of meson theories taking into account the properties of nucleons and π -
mesons.Meson theory also provides an explanation of how the neutron can have an
intrinsic magnetic dipole moment, even though its net charge is zero.

KEY WORDS
Nuclear interaction, Nucleon–Nucleon interaction, nuclear reaction, Q value,
Threshold energy, Exchange force, Tensor force, Meson theory, Pions, Muons.

REFERENCES
MOOCS:
1) https://www.mooc-list.com/tags/nuclear-physics.

2) https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.57.260 .

YOUTUBE VIDEOS:
1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43AyN24jZw8.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 46

 2) https://youtu.be/JvM7LhHpa6A.

3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qd06VFE9nvw&pp=ygUMdGVuc29yIGZvc
mNl.

4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGDWgEr4zKY&pp=ygUPRXhjaGFuZ2Ug
Zm9yY2Vz.

5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hq0ZIWz_XdU&pp=ygURTnVjbGVhciByZ
WFjdGlvbiA%3D.

6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRzuEO5wr1I&pp=ygUebnVjbGVvbuKAk2
51Y2xlb24gaW50ZXJhY3Rpb24g.

WIKIPEDIA :
1) Exchange force-wikipedia.html.

2) Nuclear force-wikipedia.html.

3) https://physics.weber.edu/amiri/physics3710/nuclearphys -1.pdf.

REFERENCEB OOKS:
1) Fundamentals of NUCLEAR PHYSICS By Johan Singh, PragatiPrakashan,
Meerut.
2) Nuclear Physics by D. C. Tayal, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai,
5 th Edition, 2011,ISBN: 978-93-5024-743-31.
3) Nuclear and Particle Physicsby Dr A. B. Gupta, ISBN: 9788194845560.
4) Nuclear Physicsby S. N. Ghoshal, S. Chand Publication, ISBN: 9788121904131.
5) Nuclear and Particle Physicsby K.S. Thind, M.S. Heer, Leif Gerward& Vijay
Kumar, https://www.amazon.in.

6) Nuclear and particle physics by Dr. A. B. Gupta,physics/nuclear-and-particle-

physics-by-dr-a-b-gupta.html.

7) Introductory Nuclear Physics, by Samuel S. M. Wong, University of

Toronto,Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
8) Basic of Nuclear and particle physics By Alexander Belyave.

9) Physics PG 2 nd SemNuclearPhysics.

10) 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,

(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde-
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20P
hysics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 47

CREDIT 01-UNIT 02: CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEUS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -
 Discuss the structure of atom and nucleus.
 Explain the basic properties of nucleus.
 Describethe characteristics of nucleuslike size, mass, n uclear radius and density,
nuclear magnetic moment, angular momentum, Binding Energy etc .
 Explainthe constituents of nucleus.
 Describe nuclear structure in terms of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 Describenuclear reaction and scattering.
 Explainn-p scattering, p-p scattering,n-n scattering.
 Explain Nucleon - nucleon scattering, scattering length at low energies with
Specific Square well potential.
 Discussn-p scattering and comparatively study the results of low energy n -p
scattering.
 Describe Effective range theoryof n-p scattering.
 Explaincharacteristics of the nuclear force.
 Demonstrate Spin dependence of nuclear forces.

I NTRODUCTION
There weremany theories and assumptions regarding the structure and stability
of an atom. Initially atom was described by Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model then
Rutherford Atomic Model. These model fails they did not say anything about the
arrangement of electrons in an atom and could not explain the stability of an atom .
These drawbacks were removed by Niels Bohr in 1913 with a new model calledBohr
Atomic Model. According to this model,thecentral part of an atom contains most of the
mass and is called atomic nucleus and the electrons moves around the nucleus in a fixed
orbits and fixed energy.In comparison to an atom, nucleus is much smaller and contains
most of the mass of the atom. Atomic nuclei are not elementary particles, they are
themselves composed of more fundamental particles. The particles that comprise atomic
nuclei are termed nucleons. A nucleon is either a proton or a neutron. Nucleonsare
bound together in the atomic nucleus, where they contribute 99.9 percent of the atom’s
mass.
02-01:C HARACTERISTICS O F N UCLEUS
Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together
through the residual strong force also known as the nuclear force which acts to hold
neutrons and protons together in nuclei. The total number of protons and neutrons in the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 48

nucleus of an atom is called the atomic mass number (also called nucleon number) of
the atom and is given the symbol A. The total number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is called the atomic number (or the proton number) of the atom and is given the
symbol Z. The total number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the neutron
number of the atom and is given the symbol N i.e. N=A-Z. Neutron number plus atomic
number is equals to nucleon number, i.e.N+Z=A.

Main properties of atoms, molecules, liquids, solids can be explained on the

basis of behavior of nucleus. Here we introduce following some important properties of
nucleus.

1. Nuclear Radius and Density:

The size of nucleus was first investigated in α particle scattering experiment of

Rutherford. From this experiment typical nuclear radii are found of the order 10 −14 m.
Assuming spherical shape; nuclear radii can be calculated according to following
formula:

R = R 0 . A 1/3 …………………. (1)

Where R 0 = 1.2 x 10 -15 m.

Nuclear density: It is the density of the nucleus of an atom. It is the ratio of mass per
unit volume of the nucleus.

Nuclear density ρ =M/V

As atomic nucleus carries most of atom’s mass and atomic nucleus is very
small as comparison to entire atom, the nuclear density is very high.

Nuclear volume V= = …………………. (2)

The nuclear volume is proportional to the number of nucleons (i.e., mass number A).
If the mass of proton and neutron are approximately same, say, m= m p=mn then
nuclear mass M= mA.

Nuclear density ρ = = =

Or Nuclear density ρ = …………………. (3)

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 49

 The nuclear density for a typical nucleus can be approximately calculated from
the size of the nucleus and from its mass. It is independent of mass number A, i.e.,
mass density is approximately same for all nuclei.
2. The nuclear force:
The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus
together. This force can exist between protons and protons, neutrons and protons or
neutrons and neutrons. This is the force which holds the nucleus together.

The charge of protons, which is +1e, tends to push them away from each other
with a strong electrostatic repulsive force, following Coulomb’s law. But nuclear
force is strong enough to keep them together and to overcome that resistance at short
range.

Some of the properties of nuclear forces are given below.

(a) Nuclear forces are strong attractive forces: These are strongest forces and are
about 100 times stronger than electrostatic forces and about 1038 times stronger than
gravitational forces. Hence these forces hold nucleons within a nucleus.
(b) Nuclear forces are short range forces: The nuclear forces are most effective up
to a distance of the order of 10-15m or less. These forces decreases rapidly as the
separation distance between nucleons increases and becomes negligible when
separation between nucleons is of the order of 10 fermi (10 -15m). The effective range
up to which nuclear forces are effective is known as nuclear range.

(c) Nuclear forces are the charge independent:Nuclear forces acting between two
protons, two neutrons and between a proton and neutron have same strength and the
nature of force is attractive.

(d) Nuclear forces are not central forces: These forces do not obey inverse square
law. The magnitude of nuclear force depends on the direction of spin of nucleons.
(e) Nuclear forces are saturated forces: A nucleon experiences the force only due to
its nearest neighboring nucleons.

3. N-Z graph & nuclear stability:

A nucleus is said to be stable if it cannot be transformed into another

configuration without adding energy from the outside. About 250 nuclides are stable
out of the thousands of existing. A nuclear stability is determined by the competition
between two fundamental interactions. Protons and neutrons are attracted each other
via residual strong force. On the other hand, protons repel each other via the electric

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 50

force due to their positive charge. Therefore, neutrons within the nucleus act
somewhat like nuclear glue, neutrons attract each other and protons, which helps
offset the electrical repulsion between protons.

A plot of the number of neutrons (N) versus the number of protons (Z) is
calledN-Z graph(Fig. 1), by which the nuclear stability can be explained. There are
only certain combinations of neutrons and protons (i.e. N/Z ratio), which forms stable
nuclei. The straight blue line in the figure represents nuclei that have an N/Z ratio 1:1.
Note that the lighter stable nuclei, in general, have equal numbers of proto ns and
neutrons and are more stable. The N/Z ratio increases till the lead ( 208Pb82) where the
ratio N/Z is 1.5:1. Beyond the Pb the nuclei are unstable. The stable nuclides are
indicated with red line, which have a particular N/Z ratio called as stability ratio.

The nucleus having N/Z ratio different than stability ratio are unstable and try to
reach in stable N/Z ratio. The unstable nuclides are indicated by the green region.
When the N/Z ratio is larger than stability ratio, the nucleus is said to be neutron rich
or proton deficient. Such nucleus emits the electron to convert neutron into proton. If
the N/Z ratio is less than stability ratio, the nucleus is said to be neutron deficient or
proton rich. The excess positive charge is neutralized by (i) cap turing the electron
called as K-capture which occur in higher Z nuclei. (ii) by emission of positron (e + ).

Fig. 1: Plot of N-Z and Nuclear stability

4. Mass defect & Packing fraction:
According to nuclear particle experiments, the total mass of a
nucleus (mnuc) is less than the sum of the masses of its constituent nucleons (protons

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 51

and neutrons). The difference between the mass of a nucleus and total mass of
constituent nucleons (mass number) is called as mass defect or the mass difference.

Mass defectis given by- Δm =M− A ………………….(4)

Where, M= Actual or isotopic mass of the nuclide in a.m.u. and A= mass number.Here
it is assumed that masses of proton and neutron are equal. The mass defect is(more
precisely) given by

Δm=(Zm p +Nm n )−m nuc …………………. (5)

Where, Zmp is the total mass of the protons, Nm n =(A−Z)m n is the total mass of the
neutrons, and m nuc is the mass of the nucleus.

The ratio of mass defect to the mass number is called as packing fraction. It is
denoted by f and is given by-

f= …………………. (6)

It has been found that the packing fraction is a fundamental property of a

nucleus and directly related to the availability of nuclear energy and stability. The
negative packing fraction indicates that the nucleus is stable while positive packin g
fraction indicates that the nucleus is unstable.

5. Binding Energy (BE) & BE per Nucleon:

According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity, mass is a measure of

the total energy of a system, i.e. (E= mc 2 ). Here, c is the velocity of light.Thus,
the total energy of a nucleus is less than the sum of the energies of its
constituent nucleons. The formation of a nucleus from a system of isolated protons and
neutrons is therefore an exothermic reaction i.e. it releases energy while forming the
nucleus. The energy emitted, or radiated, in this process is E= (Δm) c 2 .

Now if we have to break the nucleus, the same energy must be put into the
system. The amount of energy required is called the total binding energy (BE) i.e. Eb.

Binding Energy:The binding energy is the amount of energy required in forming the
nucleus. It is therefore given by-

E b = (Δm).c 2 …………………. (7)

Experimental results indicate that the binding energy for a nucleus with mass number
A>8 is roughly proportional to the total number of nucleons (A) in the nucleus.

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Binding Energy per Nucleon (BEN):The relative stability of a nucleus is correlated
with its binding energy per nucleon.It is defined as the total binding energy per unit
mass number (or nucleon). It is given by-

BEN=E b /A…………………. (8)

This quantity is the average energy required to remove an individual nucleon

from a nucleus. If the BEN is relatively large, the nucleus is relatively stable. The
graph of BEN versus mass number (A) is shown in the Fig. 2.

The graph shows that-

(i) Typical BEN values range from 6–10 MeV, with an average value of about 8
MeV. In other words, it takes several million electron volts to pry a nucleon
from a typical nucleus, as compared to just 13.6 eV to ionize an electron in the
ground state of hydrogen. This is why nuclear force is referred to as the strong
nuclear force.
(ii) The graph rises at low value of A, peaks very near iron (Fe,A=56) and then
tapers off at high A. The peak value suggests that the iron nucleus is the most
stable nucleus in nature.

Fig. 2: Plot of BENversus mass number (A)

(iii) The reason the graph rises and tapers off has to do with competing forces in the
nucleus. At low values of A, attractive nuclear forces
between nucleons dominate over repulsive electrostatic forces between protons.
But at high values of A, repulsive electrostatic forces between protons begin to
dominate, and these forces tend to break the nucleus rather than hold it together.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 53

6. Semi-Empirical Mass Formula (SEMF):
The semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF) which is also called as the
Weizsacker formula or Bethe–Weizsacker formula is used to approximate the mass and
various other properties of an atomic nucleus from its number of protons and neutrons.
As the name suggests, it is based partly on theory and partly on empirical
measurements. It was first formulated in 1935 by German physicist Carl Friedrich von
Weizsacker and although refinements have been made to the coefficients over the years,
the structure of the formula remains the same today.
The plot of binding energy per nucleon (BEN) verses mass number (A) explains
that the BEN is overall simply proportional to A, since BEN is mostly constant.
However, there are corrections to this trend. The dependence of BEN on A (and Z) is
captured by the semi-empirical mass formula. This formula is based on the
firstprinciple considerations (a model for the nuclear force) and on experimental
evidence to find the exact parameters defining it. In this model, the so -called liquid-
drop model, all nucleons are considered to be uniformly distributed inside a nucleus.
They are also assumed to be bound together by the nuclear force while the Coulomb
interaction causes repulsion among protons. Characteristics of the nuclear force (its
short range) and of the Coulomb interaction explain part of the semi-empirical mass
formula. However, other (smaller) corrections have been introduced to take into
account the variations in the binding energy that emerge because of its quantum -
mechanical nature (and that give rise to the nuclear shell model). Therefore, the mass of
atomic nucleus is given by the semi -empirical mass formula (SEMF) as
M (Z,A) = Zm p + Nm n – BE/c 2
Where, Z= Number of protons, N= Number of neutrons, m p = Rest mass of a proton
andm n = Rest mass of a neutron, A= Atomic mass number, c= velocity of light and BE
is the binding energy of the nucleus. The binding energy BE is given by semi -
empirically as-
BE = a V A – a S A 2/3 –a C Z(Z-1).A -1/3 –a Sym (A-2Z) 2 .A -1 + δap A -3/4
Each of the terms in this formula has a theoretical basis. The coefficients a V , a S , a C ,
a Sym , and δap are determined empirically and are explained in the following discussion.
1) Volume term (a V A): The first term is the volume term which descr ibes the binding
energy is mostly proportional to A. The constant of proportionality is a fitting
parameter that is found experimentally to be a V = 15.5MeV.
2) Surface term (- a s A 2/3 ): The second term is the volume term which is based on the
strong force and is a correction to the volume term. This term is similar to surface
forces that arise like in droplets of liquids, a mechanism that creates surface tension in
liquids. This term is subtracted from the volume term and the value of coefficient
calculated experimentally is found to be a S = 13−18 MeV.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 54

3) Coulomb term [−a C Z (Z −1)A −1/3 ]: The third term is the Coulomb term which derives
from the Coulomb interaction among protons, and of course is proportional to Z. This
term is subtracted from the volume term since the Coulomb repulsion makes a nucleus
containing many protons less favorable to bind the nucleus. The value of constant a C
can be estimated theoretically and found to be a C ≈ 0.691 MeV
4) Symmetry term (– a Sym (A-2Z) 2 .A -1 ): The Coulomb term seems to indicate that it
would be favorable to have a smaller number of protons in a nucleus than the neutrons.
However, this is not the case and there are roughly the same number of neutrons and
protons in stable nuclei. Therefore, the fourth symmetry term (correc tion) is introduced
in SEMF which tries to take into account the symmetry in protons and neutrons. The
value of coefficient is a Sym =23MeV.
5) Pairing term (δap A -3/4 ): The final term is introduced which is related to the
pairing of proton and neutron in the nucleus. The binding energy is greater (i.e., δ > 0)
if we have an even-even nucleus, where all the neutrons and all the protons are paired -
off. The binding energy is less (i.e., δ < 0) if we have an odd -odd nucleus, and it is thus
favorable to convert one of the protons into a neutron or vice -versa. Thus, we have to
subtract (- δ) a term from the binding energy for odd -odd configurations. And for even-
odd configurations the term (δ = 0). Thus, the pairing term has the value as -
δap A -3/4 = + δap A -3/4 for even-even pair
= - δap A -3/4 for odd-odd pair
=0 for even-odd pair

7. Nuclear Angular Momentum:

Nucleon (i.e., proton & neutron) possesses spin and orbital angular
momentum. Spin angular momentum is given by-

= = = …………………. (9)

Here, s =½ is spin angular momentum quantum number.

Proton and neutron are fermions each with spin quantum number s =1/2.
The magnitude of orbital angular momentum can be expressed as -

= …………………. (10)

Where, l= orbital quantum number.

Total Angular Momentum: The magnitude of the total angular momentum of the
nucleon is-

= …………………. (11)

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 55

The net angular momentum of the nucleus is the resultant of all the spin angular
momenta and orbital angular momenta of the constituent nucleons.

The magnitude of the nuclear angular momentum due to all nucleons is -

= …………………. (12)

Where, I is called total angular momentum quantum number or nuclear spin which may
be an integer or a half integer.

Greatest possible component of the total angular momentum along any direction
is-

…………………. (13)

Here, m I = – I, – I +1, …………, I –1, I

Where, m I = magnetic total angular momentum quantum number.

The word spin usually refers to the resultant angular momentum of a nucleus in
nuclear physics, whereas, in atomic physics the word spin refers to t he intrinsic spin
angular momentum. It is found that nuclei with even Z and even N have the total
angular momentum zero, because pairs of protons are formed in such a way that their
angular momenta cancel and similarly pairs of neutrons are formed in such a way that
their angular momenta cancel.The total angular momentum quantum number I is
integral for nuclei with even mass number A and half integral for nuclei with odd mass
number A.

Following table summarize about total angular momentum of a nucleus.

Mass Proton Neutron Nuclear

Number (A) Number (Z) Number (N) spin I
Even Even 0
Even
Odd Odd 1,2,3,.........

Even Odd , , ,.......

Odd
Odd Even , , , .......

8. Magnetic Moment:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 56

 The spacing in hyperfine structure indicates that the magnitudes of nuclear

moments are of the order of Where, m p is the mass of the proton. The magnetic of

a nucleus is expressed in terms of the nuclear magneton µ N as-

5.05 x 10-27 J/T = 3.15 x 10 -8eV/T

We know that Bohr Magneton,

Therefore, the magneton ratio, ≈1836…………………. (14)

Spin Magnetic Moment:A free proton has spin magnetic moment component in any
direction (say z direction) is given by:
(𝛍 sp ) z =2.793𝛍 N
The spin magnetic moment of the proton is parallel to its spin
angularmomentum.The spin magnetic moment component of a neutron in any direction
(say z direction) is given by:
(𝛍 sn ) z = ˗ 1.913𝛍 N
It means that spin magnetic moment of the neutron is opposite to its spin
angular momentum.

In order to understand the magnetic moments of a proton and a neutro n, internal

structures of them are considered. We can express the spin magnetic moment for proton
and neutron as-

and𝛍sz =gs𝛍NmS…………………. (15)

Where, magnetic spin quantum number m s = ±1/2 and g s = nuclear g factor.

For proton, g sp =+5.5855 and for neutron, g sn =−3.826.

Because (𝛍 sp ) z =2.793𝛍 N and(𝛍 sn ) z = ˗ 1.913𝛍 N

Orbital Magnetic Moment: There may be orbital angular momentum due to motion of
the nucleons within the nucleus. The component of the orbital magnetic momen t of a
proton along the z axis (arbitrary direction) is

= = …………………. (16)

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 57

Where, m l = magnetic orbital quantum number. Neutron does not have the
orbitalmagnetic moment because it has no charge.

For proton g lp =1 and for Neutron g ln =0

Resultant Magnetic Moment:To a good approximation, resultant magnetic moment of a

nucleus is directly proportional to the nucleus spin I and we can write

µ nucleus =µ N .g. I…………………. (17)

Here g is the characteristic of each nucleus.Nucleus with zero nuclear spin (total
angular momentum) has no magnetic moment. Thus, even N - even Z nuclei have no
magnetic moment. Paired nucleons do not contribute to the magnetic moment.

9. Parity:
The parity of a wavefunction ψ is related to the symmetry properties of the
wavefunction ψ.

If = and …………………. (18)

If the spatial part of the wavefunction of a nucleus is unchanged when the space co -
ordinates (x, y, z) are substituted by (–x, –y, –z)

i.e. ψ (–x, –y, –z) = +ψ (x,y,z) …….……………. (19)

i.e.if wavefunction is invariant under reflection (function is symmetric as regards

spatial inversion),then system is said to have even parity.

If the spatial part of the wavefunction of a nu cleus changes sign when the space co-
ordinates (x,y,z) are substituted by (–x, –y, –z)

i.e.ψ (–x, –y, –z) = –ψ (x,y,z)…………………. (20)

Then system is said to have odd parity i.e. function is anti-symmetric as regards spatial
inversion.

The equations (19) & (20) may be combined in the form-

ψ (–x, –y, –z) = Pψ (x,y,z)…………………. (21)

Where, P= 1 …………………. (22)

P= +1 corresponds to even parity (positive parity) and P= –1 corresponds to odd parity

(negative parity).

For Parity Operator ,

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 58

 …………………. (23)

With eigenvalue P = ± 1. Parity is associated with quantum number ±1 and it is also

denoted by symbol π. In spherical polar coordinates (r,θ, ) a reflection about the origin
is equivalent to the following transformation -

rr; -  ; + …………………. (24)

An intrinsic parity of proton as well as of neutron is even , i.e.

P Intrinsic Nucleon = +1

It is found that parity of a nucleus in a given state is related to orbital quantum number
l in the following manner

P =(-1) l

The orbital’ss, p, d, f, ….... correspond to l= 0,1,2,3, …….… respectively. Parity is

even for even l and parity is odd for odd l.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
238
Problem 01.01: Find the nuclear radius and density of U.
238
Solution:Natural uranium consists primarily of isotope U (99.28%);therefore, the
238
atomic mass of uranium element is close to the atomic mass of U isotope
(238.03u).

Its radius of this nucleus will be: R = R 0.A1/3 = 7.44 x 10-15 m.

Assuming it is spherical, its volume will be: V = 4πR 3/3 = 1.73 x 10 -42 m3.

Nuclear density of Uranium will be:

ρ = 238 x 1.66 x 10 -27 / (1.73 x 10 -42) = 2.3 x 1017kg/m3.

Problem 01.02:Find the Energy of 1 atomic mass unit (amu).

Solution:By using the Einstein’s mass and energy relation, we can calculate the energy
of 1amu as follows.

1 amu=1.66x10 -24 gm=1.66 x 10 -27 Kg and Velocity of light c=3 x 10 8 m/s.

 By Einstein’s mass and energy relation, E = m.c 2

= 1.66 x 10 -27 x (3 x 10 8 ) 2

E=14.9x10 -11 J
Now, 1 eV= 1.6 x 10 -19 J,  E=14.9x10 -11 /1.6 x 10 -19 = 9.31x10 8 eV

= 931x10 6 eV

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 59

 E = 931 MeV

1 a.m.u. ≈ 931 MeV =14.9x10 -11 J

Problem 01.03:Calculate the equivalent energy of 1 gm of an atom in MeV and kWh.

Solution: By Einstein’s mass and energy relation, E = m.c 2

Now, 1 gm = 10 -3 kg & c =3 x 10 8 m/s.

E = m.c 2 = 10 -3 x (3 x 10 8 ) 2

E= 9 x 10 13 J
(i) Now, 1 eV= 1.6 x 10 -19 J,  E= 9 x 10 13 /1.6 x 10 -19

= 5.625 x 10 32 eV = 5.625 x 10 26 MeV

(ii) Now, 1 kWh= 36 x 10 5 J,  E= 9 x 10 13 /36 x 10 5 = 2.5 x 10 5 kWh

Problem 01.04:Calculate the mass defect and the binding energy of the deuteron. The
mass of the deuteron m D =2.01473amu; mass of the proton m p =1.00813amu;
mass of the neutron m n =1.00893 amu.

Solution: For the deuteron Z=1 and N=1.

The mass defect for the deuteron is, Δm = (m p +m n )−m D

Δm = (1.00813amu +1.00893 amu) - 2.01473amu

= 0.00233 amu

The binding energy of the deuteron is,

Eb = mc 2 = (Δmamu) x 931 MeV

Eb= 0.00233 x 931=2.2 MeV.

Problem 01.05: Calculate the mass defect and the binding energy of the  particle. The
mass of the  particle m  =4.00389amu; mass of the proton m p =1.00813amu;
mass of the neutron m n =1.00893 amu.

Solution: For the  particle, Z=2 and N=2.

The mass defect for the  particle is, Δm = (2m p +2m n )−m 
Δm= (2x1.00813amu +2 x1.00893 amu) - 4.00389 amu

Δm = 0.03023 amu

The binding energy of the  particle is,

Eb = mc 2 = (Δmamu) x 931 Mev

Eb= 0.03023 x 931=28.14 MeV.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 60

 Note: Same will be result for He nucleus as  particle is equivalent to 4 He 2 .
35
Problem 01.06:The mass of the Cl 17 is 34.98amu. Calculate the mass defect, binding
energy and binding energy per nucleon of the Chlorine. Mass of the proton
m p =1.007825amu; mass of the neutron m n =1.008665amu.
35
Solution: For the Cl 17 element, Z=17 and N=(35-17) =18.

(i) The mass defect for the 35

Cl 17 element is, Δm = (17 m p +18 m n )−mCl
Δm = (17x1.007825amu +18 x1.008665amu) - 34.9800amu

= 0.3090 amu

(ii) The binding energy of the 35

Cl 17 element is,
Eb = mc 2 = (Δmamu) x 931 Mev

Eb = 0.3090x 931= 287.95 MeV.

35
(iii) The binding energy per nucleon BEN = E b /A ( Here A=35 for Cl 17 )
BEN = 287.95 / 35 = 8.22 MeV/nucleon

Problem 01.07:Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of an 4 He 2 (α particle).

Solution: For 4 He 2 we have, Z=N=2.

The total binding energy is BE={[2m p +2m n ]−m( 4 He 2 )}c 2

These masses are-

m( 4 He 2 )=4.002602 amu, mp =1.007825 amu, and m n =1.008665 amu.

Thus we have, E b =([2x1.007825+2x1.008665]-4.002602)c 2

=(0.030378 amu)c 2

Now, 1amu=931.5MeV/c 2 , we get

Eb=(0.030378)(931.5MeV/c 2 )c 2

Eb=28.3MeV

As A=4, the total binding energy per nucleon is BEN=BE/A= 28.3MeV /4

BEN= 7.07MeV/nucleon.
56
Problem 01.08: Calculate the Binding Energy per Nucleon of Fe26
(At. mass is 55.9349 amu).
Solution: For the 56Fe26 atom, Z=26, N= (56-26) =30. Given me=55.9349
amu,mp=1.00783amu, mn=1.00867amu.
Mass defect, m=[(26×1.00783amu)+(30×1.00867amu]−55.9349amu

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 61

 =[26.204+30.260 -55.935]amu

m = 0.530 amu

Binding energy Eb=(m)c 2 =(0.530 amu)c 2

Now, 1amu=931.5MeV/c 2 , we get

Eb=(0.530)(931.5MeV/c 2 )c 2

Eb = 493.695 MeV =493.695 x 10 6 eV

Binding energy per nucleon is BEN= Eb/A(Here A=56 for 56

Fe 26 )

= 493.695 / 56

= 8.82 MeV/nucleon.

BEN= 8.82 x10 6 eV/nucleon.

We can calculate the binding energy in joules also.

Now 1eV= 1.602 x10 -19 J,  BE=493.695 x 10 6 x 1.602 x 10 -19

 BE=790.899 x 10 -13 J

BEN= BE/A =790.899 x 10 -13 / 56

BEN= 14.123 x 10 -13 J/nucleon

41
Problem 01.09: Find the angular momentum and parity of the nucleus Ca.
41
Solution:Nucleus Ca 20 has 20 protons and 21 neutrons. 20 protons and 20 neutrons
1
form closed 2shells whereas 21st neutron goes to quan tum state f 7/2 . The
41
spinparity of Ca 20 is determined by the unpaired neutron in the state 1 f 7/2 . For
this state I=7/2 and the orbital shellf correspond to l= 3.

Parity P= (–1) l = (–1) 3 = -1.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01

Que. 02.01:What is the value of nuclear magneton?

Ans: 5.05 x 10-27 J/T = 3.15 x 10 -8eV/T

56
Que. 02.02: Binding energy per nucleon is maximum for iron isotope Fe 26 . Is this
statement true?

Ans: True.

Que. 02.03:What are the eigen values of parity operator ?

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 62

Ans: 1.

Que. 02.04: What is the order of nuclear mass density?

Ans:Nuclear mass density is of the order of 10 17 Kg/m 3 .

MCQ 01

1. The nuclear radius is of the order of…….

a) 10 –14 m
b) 10 –6 m
c) 10 –15 m
d) 10 +14 m
2. The radius of a nucleus is……
a) directly proportional to its mass number
b) inversely proportional to its atomic weight
c) directly proportional to the cube root of its mass number
d) None of these
3. When the number of nucleons in nuclei increases, thebinding energy per nucleon
……….
a) increases continuously with mass number
b) decreases continuously with mass number
c) remains constant with mass number
d) first increases and then decreases with increase of mass number

4. The mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its constituents.
This mass defect is converted into ……..

a) heat energy
b) light energy
c) energy which binds nucleons together
d) electrical energy
5. Which of the following statement is not true regardingEinstein’s mass energy
relation?
a) Mass disappears to reappear as energy.
b) Energy disappears to reappear as mass.
c) Mass and energy are two different forms of the same entity.
d) Mass and energy can never be related to each other.
6. The curve of binding energy per nucleon as a function of atomic mass number has a
sharp peak for helium nucleus. This implies that helium ……
a) can easily be broken up
b) is very stable

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 63

 c) can be used as fissionable material
d) is radioactive
7. Nuclear forces are…….
a) spin dependent and have no non-central part
b) spin dependent and have a non-central part
c) spin independent and have no non-central part
d) spin independent and have a non-central part
8. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
e) Nuclear binding energy is the energy released in the formation of an atom
from subatomic particles.
f) Nuclei with highest binding energies are the most stable nuclei.
g) Einstein postulated the theory of relativity in which he stated that matter and
energy are equivalent.
h) Mass number is the sum of all protons and electrons in an atom .
9. The difference between mass of nucleus and its constituent nucleons is called as
…….
a) Packing fraction
b) Mass defect
c) Binding energy
d) Binding energy per nucleon
10. The nature (shape) of graph of ln(R/R o ) verses ln(A)showing relation between
nuclear radius and mass number is …..
a) Exponential curve
b) Ellipse
c) Straight line with slope 1/3
d) Parabolic curve

Ans: 1.-a); 2.-c); 3.-d); 4.-c); 5.-d); 6.-b); 7.-b); 8.-d); 9.-b); 10.-c).

02-02: NUCLEON–NUCLEONSCATTERING
We have seen the nuclear forces in previous unit. Now the question is that, what
is nuclear scattering? Whenan intense and collimated beam of nucleons is bombarded
on target nuclei, there is an interaction between incident nucleus and target nuclei. Due
to this interaction, there are the following two possibilities:

1. The interaction does not change the incident particles, i.e. incoming and outgoing
particles are the same. The change is in the path of incoming nucleons, i.e. they are
deviated from their original path. This process is known as scattering.In scattering
processes, the outgoing particles may have same energy as that of incident particles

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 or may have the changed energy value. The former is known as elastic scattering
and latter is known as inelastic scattering.

2. The second possibility is that the outgoing particles are different from the incident
particles. Then the interaction process is known as nuclear reaction.

It should be remembered that any of the above alternative may occur, either
alone or with other competing processes. The three types scattering of a two -nucleon
system are di-neutron (n-n), di-proton (p-p) and deuteron, i.e., neutron proton ( n-p).
Among the nucleon-nucleon scattering, neutron-proton (n-p) scattering is thesimplest
one, because here the complications due to coulomb forces are not present. The
neutron-neutron (n-n) scattering is not practically possible because of the non -
availability of neutron target. However, there are evidences to support if n -n forces are
similar to p-p forces, a bound state for two neutrons cannot exist.In practice, it is not
possible to make a neutron target and therefore scattering experiments are limited only
to neutron proton (n-p) scattering and proton- proton (p-p) scattering.In this unit we
will focus only on n-p scattering.

(a) Scattering:Nucleon-Nucleon scattering is represented in lab for system or center of

mass (C.M.) system as shown in Fig. 3. If we assume m n ≈ n p then in the CM system the
velocity is equally shared in n and p.

Fig. 3: N-N Scattering representation

The relation between the angles between two systems is obtained as under:

 l +  l =90 o and  c +  c = 180 o

Fromthese we get,  c =2 l or l = c / 2

And  c =2  l or  l =  c / 2

Similarly, the relation between energies in two systems is obtained as:

E lab = and E cm = +

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Or E cm = = =

E cm = ………………… (25)

(b) Scattering cross section:The probability of nuclear process taking place between
the incident nucleons and the nucleus is proportional to the target area presented by the
nucleus. The effective target area presented by the nucleus to the incident beam of the
nucleons for a particular nuclear process is called as cross section (  ) which has the
dimensions of area and it has unit of Barn(1Barn=10 -28 m2 ). There is a difference
between geometric cross section ( g =R 2 where R is the radius of nucleus) and cross
section for nuclear/event process ( n =b 2 where b is the impact parameter). Generally,
 n > g as shown in Fig.4(a).

Fig. 4: Concept of scattering cross-section

Let t is target, N o is number of incoming nucleus incident per seco nd, A is total
area hit by the incident nucleons, n is the number of nuclei per unit volume of the target
and is the target area of each nucleus presented to the incoming nucleons as shown in
Fig. 4(b).

Then the probability for a given kind of event to tak es place is given by:

P= =

Where, –dN is number of particles/nucleons involved in the event. Then the probability
of scattering is given by-

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  = =n.dx

 = n.dx………………… (26)

Integrating equation (26) over the total thickness

log e N o =-nt +C ………………… (27)

Where, C is the constant of integration.

At t=0, let N o are the nucleons entering per sec and after thickness t, the emerging
nucleons are N e . Then from equation (26) we have

Log e (N e /N o )=-nt

N e = N o e -nt ………………… (28)

Thus, the number of un-scattered nucleons decreases with increasing target thickness.
Hence the number of scattered particles per nucleon is:

N SC = N o – N e = N o (1- e -nt ) ………………… (29)

If incident nucleon hits smaller area of the nucleus, i.e. d (,) then we define
the differential cross section as:

(,)= d(,)/d………………… (30)

Where d is the solid angle.

The total cross section for the process is obtained by integrating over the whole
space as:

………………… (31)

By solving above equation, we get,

………………… (32)

This is the expression forcross section for an un -polarized beam as the

differential cross section is independent of .

02-02.01: NEUTRON-PROTON (N-P) SCATTERING AT LOW ENERGY

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 In n-p scattering neutron proton system is analyzed in the state of positive
energy, i.e. in a situation when they are free. In the experiment, a beam of neutrons
from an accelerator is allowed to impinge on a t arget containing many essentially free
protons. The molecular binding energy is so small about 1eV; therefore, for the
impinging neutrons of energy greater than 1eV, protons are treated as free. The
presence of electrons also does not affect the process be cause they are too light to cause
any appreciable trouble to incoming neutrons. When neutrons impinge on protons, some
of them are capturedto form deuteron and balance of energy is radiated in the form of 
rays; but the great majority of neutrons undergo elastic scattering. In the process, the
interaction between two nucleons is of such an order that the neutrons changed their
velocities in magnitude as well as in direction.
Neutron – Proton Scattering (S-Wave)at Low Energies:
In the low energy range, most of the measurements of scattering cross section
are due to E. Melkonian and L. J. Rainwater et.al. The n -p scattering cross section at
low energy is shown in Fig. 5. Results from fig. 5 show that the scattering cross section
depends very much on the energy of the incident neutrons. At low energies below 10
MeV, the scattering is essentially due to neutrons having zero angular momentum ( l=0)
and hence in the center of mass system, the angular distribution of scattered neutrons is
isotropic. In order to avoid complications due to Coulomb forces we shall considerthe
scattering of neutrons by free protons i.e. those not bound to molecules. However, in
practice the protons are of course bound to molecules but the molecular binding energy
is only about 0.1 eV. The protons can be regarded as free.

Fig. 5: n-p Scattering cross section

In describing elastic scattering events like the scattering of neutrons by free

protons it is more convenient to use the center of mass system. The quantum

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mechanical problem describing the interaction between two particles, in the center of
mass system, is equivalent to the problem of interaction between a reduced mass such
as the system. Although while wording out the following theory we shall think in terms
of a neutron being scattered by a proton but it applies equally well to spin less, reduced
mass particle which is being scattered by a fixed force center.

Let us suppose that the neutron and the proton interact via a spherically
symmetric force field whose potential function is V (r), where r is the distance between
the particles.The Schrodinger equation for a central potential V(r) in the center of mass
system, for the n-p system is

………………… (33)

Where M is the reduce mass of the n-p system.

To analyze the scattering event, we have to solve this equation under proper
boundary conditions. In the immediate vicinity of the scattering center, the actionwill
be violent and its description is difficult. At a considerable distance from the scattering
center where the experimentalist lies in wait for the scattered particles, things will
however be simpler. For scattering the boundary condition is that at large distances
from the scattering center the wave should be made up of two parts:

1. An incident plane wave that describes the un-scattered particles and super- imposed
upon it,

2. An outgoing scattered spherical wave which emanates from the scattering center.

To solve in asymptotic form,

ψ = ψ inc + ψ sc ………………… (34)

The wave function that describes an incident plane wave (a beam of particles) moving
in the positive z-direction is-

ψ inc =e ikz =e ikz cos.θ ………………… (35)

Where, k= which is a solution of the wave equation with V(r) set eq uation zero,

 inc = 0 ………………… (36)

Setting V(r) equal to zero in this manner actually amounts to switching off the
scattering potential and there by eliminate scattering so that the total wave function

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becomes identical with the incident wave function. The wave function represents one
particle per unit volume since the square of the wave function is equal to unity. Having
known the form of the incident wave function, the next problem is to devise a suitable
form for the scattered wave function. This obviously is-

 sc = = ……….……… (37)

For large r,f(θ) in this expression indicate amplitude of the scattered wave in the
direction . This wave function is a necessary consequence of the assumption that the
scatterer simply scatters the particles and does not absorb them at all.

The probability density and hence the number of scattered particles per

unitvolume shall be proportional to . If scattering is considered to be isotropic,the

density (number per unit volume) of scattered particles through a large spherical shell
of radius r is inversely proportional to r 2 since the volume of thespherical shell, being
given by 4πr 2 .dr, is proportional to r 2 and density therefore is proportional to 1/r 2 which

is also proportional to . Hence 1/r 2 is dependence ofψ sc .

Therefore, the wave function, is in a form that we are actually interested , i.e.,
asymptotic, and may be written as-

=  inc +  sc = ………………… (38)

Now, in Fourier analysis we often expand as arbitrary function into a sense of harmonic
functions of various frequencies. So, we expand the in cident plane wave function e ikz in
terms of Legendre Polynomials P l (cos) and write-

 inc = ………………… (39)

Where,l is an integer representing the various partial waves. This

particular way of writing the wave function is termed as the partial
wave expansion.

The radial functions B 1 (r) in this equation are given by-

………………… (40)

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  inc = ………………… (41)

Where J l (kr) is the Spherical Bassel function which is related to

the ordinary Bessel function through the formula

………………… (42)

and can be represented as-

………………… (43)

Whence asymptotically,

………………… (44)

Asymptotically, B l (r) from is given by-

………………… (45)

The Spherical Bessel function J l (kr) for various values of l is given below.

………………… (46)

These functions are plotted in the Fig. 6.

Fig. 6:Spherical Bessel function J l (kr) for various value of l

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Similarly,f () may also be expanded in terms of the Legendre Polynomials as follows -

………………… (47)

Substituting from equations (37) & (41) in equation (47) we obtain,

=  inc +  sc = ………………… (48)

Since each term in the equation with a specific value of the orbital angular
momentum quantum number l, represents a solution of the wave equation in spherical
polar co-ordinates for constant potential energy. Therefore, the expansionclassifies the
particles in the beam according to their angular momenta which is of great practical
importance since at lower energies below 10 MeV, most of the scattering is due to l=0
particles, i.e. the number of partial waves is severely limited in this case and it suffices
to study the scattering only for l=0, i.e. S-wave.

For l=0,

And for l=1,

………………… (49)

We have found out the ratio of the square, because the probability
density isdetermined by B l 2 (r).

To have an idea of the magnitude of this ratio, consider a

neutron of energy 1 MeV in the L-system, it will be 0.5 MeV in the C-
M system. Neutron momentum then is p=1.63x10 -15 gm.cm/ sec.

Therefore, its wave number k = p/h ≈ 1.55 x 10 12 /cm =1.55 x 10 14 m-

1
.

If we assume the nuclear forces to have a range r = 2 Fermi, then

= (1.55x 10 14 x2x10 -15 ) 2 = (0.31) 2 =0.0961

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Thus, at an energy of 1 MeV only about 9% of the scattering is due to
neutrons with l=1. Similar calculation for a neutron of energy 10 MeV
raises this percentage to about 49%. Therefore, in the energy range
below 10 MeV, S-wave scattering (l=0) is predominant.

02-02.02: RESULTS OF LOW ENERGY N-P SCATTERING

The theory for the scattering cross-section developed is infact of a theory for the
phase shift δ l which in turn depends up on the assumptionsregarding the nature of the
scattering potential V(r). We now proceed to carry out the calculations for the
rectangular potential.The radial Schrodinger equation inside and outside the nuclear
square potential for l=0, may be written as-

For r <r o , 0 ………………… (50)

And for r <r o , ………………… (51)

As in the present case of n-p scattering, the negative binding energy is replaced by a
small positive energy E which is much smaller than the well -depth V 0 . These equations
may be written as-

For r <r o , 0 ………………… (53)

And for r <r o , ………………… (54)

Where,Ui is the wave function inside the well and U o that outside the well.And

and .

The solutions of these equations are,

And or

In order to understand the significance of the phase shift δ, the Schrodinger’s

equation would be equation V(r) set equal to zero, the solution of wh ich would have to

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be of the form: U(r) = Sin kr. As it must vanish at r= o, the solution which holds well
only outside the well.

Thus, δ is the phase shift at large distances introduced by switching on

thescattering potential.We now require that the solu tion and join smoothly at r=r o .Thus,

………………… (55)

With this condition, solution with the aid of equation gives

………………… (56)

This result may be compared with the continuity condition equation for the ground state
of the deuteron.

To simplify the matching condition in case of n -p scattering, we assume that

inside the well, the scattering wave function is not much different from the deuteron
wave function. This appears quite reasonable since the two situations differ only in that
the total energy E in this case although small, is positive whereas the deuteron binding
energy E B is small, but negative. We therefore assume that the logarithmic derivative
K.cot(Kr o ) of the inside wave function for scattering could be approximated by the
value of the logarithmic derivative of the ground state wave function of deuteron viz. γ.

Where and, .

At this point we introduce another approximation that r o is very small (possiblyzero)

compared to k= so that kr o may be neglected in the aboveequation and then

or

Therefore,the total scattering cross-section for l=0 from above equation is given by-

………………… (57)

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 ………………… (58)

02-03: SPIN DEPENDENCEOF NUCLEAR FORCE

Fermi and E. P. Wigner suggested that the inter -nucleon forces are spin-
dependent.Sinceneutron and proton are ½ spin particles, therefore in n -p scattering the
neutron andproton spins may either be parallel or anti parallel. In deuteron the bound
state of the n-p system, whose binding energy E B , the neutron and proton spins are
parallel and therefore equation for possibly holds good for parallel spin case.The state
of parallel spins, is a triple state and has a statistical weight 3 corresponding to the
three allowed orientations of the angular momentum vector under an external magnetic
field. The state of anti-parallel spins is a singlet state on account of the non -
orientability of a vector of zero length and has a statistical weight.

In a scattering experiment in general neutron and proton spins are randomly

oriented and so are the spins of neutrons in the incident beam and therefore singlet and
triplet state of the n-p system will occur in proportion to the statistical weightfactors
for these states which are ½ and ¾ respectively. Therefore,the total scattering cross -
section shall be made up of two parts, i.e.,(i) δt,0: the cross -section forscattering in the
triplet state and (ii) δs,0: the cross-section for scattering in the singlet state, as follows -

………………… (59)

Therefore, we take  t = 4.6 b and using the measured value of σ = 20.4 b for the
low-energy cross section, we deduceσ s = 67.8 b.

This calculation indicates that there is an enormous difference between the cross
sections in the singlet and triplet states that is, the nuclear force must be spinning
dependent.

02-03.01: SCATTERING LENGTH

Fermi and Marshall also introduced a very useful concept the scattering length
‘a’ for the discussion of nuclear scattering at very low incident neutron e nergy i.e. E0
and scattering length ‘a’ is defined as follows.

) )………………… (60)

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 With this definition, equation giving the total scattering cross section form S -
wave (l=0) may be written for very low incident neutron energy as -

………………… (61)

This equation indicates that ‘a’ has the geometrical significance of being the
radius of a hard sphere surrounding the scattering center from which neutrons are
scattered and so has the dimensions of length, hence is called as scattering length.

Now it is to be noted from equation (61) that, as k0 (i.e.,) as the energy E of
theincident neutron approaches 0, the cross section δ must approach either 0 or π
otherwise the cross-section at zero neutron energy would become infinite which is
physically illogical.Therefore, at very low incident neutron en ergies (E0), equation
(61) reduces toa = δ/k.

Then at very low incident neutron energies, the wave function outside the range
of nuclear force as expressed by this equation may be written as -

………………… (62)

This equation gives a simple graphical interpretation of the scattering length. This
equation represents a straight line for U(r) and the scattering length ‘a’ is the intercept
on the r-axis as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig.7: Scattering length curve for n-p scattering length

The scattering length may be positive or negative. Thesignificance of attaching

a positive or a negative sign with the scattering length is that it tells us whether the
system has a bound or an unbound state. Positive scattering length indicates a bound
state and negative scattering length indicates a virtual or unbound state.

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02-03.02: CONCLUSIONFOR N-P SCATTERING
The analysis of n-p scattering predicts the following conclusion.

1) The total cross-section for S-wave scattering (l=0) is given by .

2) The interaction between n and p with parallel spin is very strong to form a bound
state (deuteron) with B.E.= 2.22 MeV and spin I=1.
3) The interaction between n and p with anti-parallel spin is very weak to form a
virtual state of B.E. = 0.07 MeV and spin I=0.
4) The nuclear potential is not simple function of V(r) but it contains a function of
the spin of interacting particles as-
V= V 1 (r) +V 2 (r) (S n .S p )
Where, S n and S p are the spin of n and p respectively.
5) The nuclear interaction is not only defined by th e distance r between n and p but
also by the relative orientation of their spin and interaction is called as ‘Tensor
force’ given as-

V= V 1 (r) +V 2 (r) (Sn.Sp) +V 3 (r) (Sn. ).(Sp. ).

Where, is unit vector in the direction of r.

6) The nuclear interaction is affected by the interaction between the spin and orbital
angular momentum and is given as-

V= V 1 (r) +V 2 (r) (Sn.Sp) +V 3 (r) (Sn. ).(Sp. ) +V 4 (r) (s.l).

02-04: EFFECTIVE RANGE THEORY OF N-P SCATTERING

The energy dependence of scattering cross section can be expressed in terms of
the scattering length ‘a’ and theeffective range parameter ‘r o ’. Theeffective range
theory expects the phase shift as a function of the energy. In this manner the first
calculation was done by J. S. Schwinger in 1947 and then H. A. Bethe gave simple
treatment s-wave scattering in 1949. The wave equations for two energies , i.e.,
E=ћ 2 k 2 /M and E=0are written as (here Uʹʹ= d 2 U/dr2)-

Uʹʹ + (k 2 - )U=0 ………………… (63)

And U o ʹʹ - U o =0 ………………… (64)

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Multiplying eqn. (63) by U o and (64) by U we get,

Uʹʹ.U o + (k 2 - )U.U o =0 ………………… (65)

And U o ʹʹ.U - U o. U =0 ………………… (66)

Subtracting eqn. (65) from (66) we get,

U o ʹʹ.U-Uʹʹ.U o - k 2 U.U o =0

Or ………………… (67)

Now we consider auxiliary wave-functions u and u o for the potential V=0 i.e., outside
the range of the nuclear potential. These wave-functions are allowed to exist anywhere.
However, outside the range of potential they coincide with the u and u o respectively.
Thus, u and u o are the solution of the equations:

uʹʹ+ k 2 u = 0 ………………… (68)

u o ʹʹ=0………………… (69)

Multiplying eqn. (68) by u o and (69) by u, then subtracting we get,

………………… (70)

Subtracting eqn. (70) from (67) we get,

………………… (71)

Integrating eqn. (71) from r=0 to ∞ we have,

…….………

(72)

Outside the potential well U=uandU o = u o . Thus, the expression of LHS in eqn. (72)
contributes nothing at the upper limit. Further taking U(0) =U o (0)=0, the eqn. (72)
becomes as:

……….. ……… (73)

It has an asymptotic form solution as:

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 u=C.sin(kr+δ) …… ……… (74)
Now we choose u to be unity at the origin then the constant C=1/sin δ. Therefore, we
may write

U(r) u(r)≡ .…… ……… (75)

The eqn. u o ʹʹ=0 has a straight line as the solution. Further outside the well U o ʹʹ= u o ʹʹ=0.
Hence,

U o (r) u o (r)≡ D(r-a) …… ……… (76)

The normalization gives u(o)=1 and we choose D so thatu o (r)≡1-r/a

Now using relation: u(0)=1, uʹ(0)=k cot δandu o ʹ(0)=-1/a we have from eqn. (73) as:

……….…… ……… (77)

Now the outside the region (r>a) the U and u function approach the same values and
their contribution to the integral is negligible. But in the inside the region, we can
assume U=U o and u=u o because the depth of the potential well ‘V’ is considerably
greater than the energy E i.e. the wave-function U and u depends only slightly on E
inside the potential well. Therefore, in the limit of zero energy neutrons, we define the
effective range as:

….…… ……… (78)

In this approximation, the eqn. (77) becomes:

Which gives: …………… ……… (79)

Therefore, the scattering cross section is given by:

….…… ……… (80)

Where,

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In the eqn. (80) the cross section has been expressed in terms of the effective range ‘r o ’
and the scattering length ‘a’. Now taking effective range and the scattering lengths in
the singlet as ‘r s ’ and ‘a s ’ while in triplet as ‘r t ’ and ‘a t ’ then scattering length is written
as:

……… ……… (81)

This is clearly independent of the form and shape of the nuclear potential. The four
parameters used here are:

, , and

Using these parameters in eqn. (81) we obtain theoretically cross section

which is very near to the experimental value .

SOLVED PROBLEMS 02
Problem 02.01:Find the total cross section for n-p scattering for neutron energy of
2MeV in lab system using the following parameters.

a t =5.38f; a s =-23.7f; r 0s =2.4f and r 0t =1.07f.

Solution: Neutron energy in C.M. system is given by-

E cm =1/2 E lab = ½(2MeV) =1 MeV=1.6x10 -13 J

Total cross section is given by-

Putting the values of a t ; a s ; r 0s ; r 0t and k 2 we get-

S HORT A NSWER Q UESTIONS 02

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Que.02.01: Whatisscattering?

Ans: See section 02.02.

Que.02.02: Drawaneutron-protonsscatteringcrosssectiongraph.

Ans: See fig. 5 of section 02.02.01.

Que.02.03: Discuss theresultsoflowenergyn-pscattering.

Ans: See section 02.02.02.

Que.02.04: State the conclusiondrawn from low energy n -p scattering

Ans: See section 02.03.02.

MCQ 02
1. In nuclear interaction processes the outgoing particles have same energy as that of
incident particles then it is known as……….

a) Nuclear reaction

b) Elastic scattering

c) Inelastic scattering

d) None of above

2. In nuclear interaction, the outgoing particles have different energy as that of

incident particles then it is called as………..

a) Nuclear reaction

b) Elastic scattering

c) Inelastic scattering

d) All of above

3. In low energy n-p scattering the nuclear force is stronger in ……..State.

a) Singlet

b) Doublet

c) Triplet

d) None of above

4. The total cross section in n-p scattering of Neutron energy 2 MeV (lab) is….. in
barn.

a) 2.904

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 b) 3.205

c) 3.409

d) 2.805

5. Scattering cross section () has the unit of ……….

a) Barn

b) Micron

c) m 3

d) Hertz

6. Scattering length is positive for …………

a) Bound state

b) Virtual

c) Unbound state

d) None of above

7. Scattering length for unbound state is …………

a) Positive

b) Zero

c) Negative

d) All of above

8. The total cross-section for S-wave scattering (l=0) is ……..

a)

b)

c)

d)

9. The interaction between n and p with parallel spinis …………

a) Very weak

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 b) Weak

c) Very strong

d) Strong

10. The interaction between n and p with anti -parallel spin is …………

a) Very weak

b) Weak

c) Very strong

d) Strong

Ans: 1.-b); 2.-c);3.-c); 4.-a);5.-a); 6.-a);7.-c); 8.-d);9.-c); 10.-a).

SUMMARY
Some important properties of nucleus related to nuclear radius, density, force,
stability, mass defect, BE, SEMF, Angular momentum, Magnetic moment and parity
has discussed. The interaction in which incoming nucleons changes the path. This
process is known as scattering. In scattering processes, the outgoing particles may have
same energy as that of incident particles or may have the changed energy value. The
former is known as elastic scattering and latter is known as inelastic scattering. The
three types scattering of a two-nucleon system are di-neutron (n-n), di-proton (p-p) and
deuteron, i.e., neutron proton (n-p). The effective target area presented by the nucleus
to the incident beam of the nucleons for a particular nuclear process is called as cross
section () which has the dimensions of area. The scattering cross section depends very
much on the energy of the incident neutrons. At low energies below 10 MeV, the
scattering is essentially due to neutrons having zero angular momentum ( l=0) and hence
in the center of mass system, the angular distribution of scattered neutrons is isotropic.
If scattering is considered to be isotropic, the density (number per unit volume) of
scattered particles through a large spherical shell of radius r is inversely proportional to
r 2 since the volume of thespherical shell, being given by 4πr 2 .dr, is proportional to r 2

and density therefore is proportional to 1/r 2 which is also proportional to . Hence,

1/r 2 is dependence of ψ sc . The total scattering cross-section for l=0 from above equation

is given by .

There is an enormous difference between the cross sections in the singlet and
triplet states that is, the nuclear force must be spinning dependent. Scattering length is
the term which tells us whether the system has a bound or an unbound state. Positive

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scattering length indicates a bound state while negative scattering length indicates a
virtual or unbound state. The interaction between n and p with parallel spin is very
strong to form a bound state while interaction between n and p with anti-parallel spin is
very weak to form a virtual or unbound state. The nuclear interaction is not only
defined by the distance r between n and p but also by the relative orientation of their
spin and interaction is called as ‘Tensor force’. The energy dependence of scattering
cross section can be expressed in terms of the scattering length ‘a’ and the effective
range parameter ‘r o ’. The effective range theory expects the phase shift as a function of
the energy.The scattering cross section is related to the effective range ‘r o ’ and the
scattering length ‘a’.

KEY WORDS
Nucleon, Interaction, Scattering, scattering length, Cross section, Effective
Range, Mass defect, BE, SEMF, Angular momentum, Magnetic moment,Parity,
Spin dependence, Tensor force, Bound and Virtual state.

REFERENCES
MOOCS:
1) https://www.lkouniv.ac.in/site/writereaddata/siteContent/20200327151342
6531onkar_Nucleon_nucleon_Scattering.pdf .
2) https://www.coursera.org/learn/particle-physics.

YOUTUBE VIDEOS:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NTAARK4rRo.

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DD3QLqA2kMg.

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGpRNSrb_3Q.

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=li5FBYVRkKA.

5. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=3O35wuighe0.

6. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=964HypVwTws.

WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleon.

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_scattering.

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 84

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Jahan Singh; Fundamentals of Nuclear Physics; A Pragati Publications, Meerut.
2. Herald A. Enge; Introduction to Nuclear Physics (1966), Addison We sley
Publishing Company.
3. Bernard L. Cohen; Concepts of Nuclear Physics (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
4. R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam; Nuclear Physics (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
5. D.C.Tayal; Nuclear Physics (Fourth Edition 2001), Himalaya Publishing House.
6. Robert D. Evans; The Atomic Nucleus (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
7. J.B. Rajam; Atomic Physics (Seventh Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
8. David Halliday; Robert Resnick& Kenneth S. Krane, Physics Volume -II (Fifth
Edition 2004), John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pvt. Ltd.
9. Physics PG 2 nd SemNuclearPhysics.
10. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf)
11. http://www.kaf07.mephi.ru/eduroom/Books/A_Das_T._Ferbel_Introductio
n_to_Nuclear.pdf .
12. http://www-pnp.physics.ox.ac.uk/~barra/teaching/subatomic.pdf
13. http://faculty.washington.edu/bulgac/560_2014/[Samuel_S._M._Wong]_In
troductory_Nuclear_Physics.pdf
14. https://anupturnedworld.files.wordpress.com/2016/06/irving_kaplan_nucle
ar_physics.pdf .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 85

CREDIT 01 -UNIT 03: NUCLEAR FORCES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, students will be able to-

 Explain the various concepts related to the forces

 Distinguishbetween different types of force.
 List and discussthe basic properties of forces.
 Discussthe nuclear force and general nature of nuclear force.
 Explain the properties of nuclear force.
 Represent nuclear force graphically.
 Describe the charge independence of nuclear force.
 Explain the charge symmetry of nuclear forces.
 ExplainIsospin formalism.
 Describe Yukawa theory of nuclear interaction.
 Analyze the Yukawapotential.

INTRODUCTION
At the opening of the twentieth century, the science of physics knew about three
basic forces; they are gravitational force, electricforce, and magneticforce. All forces,
whether they were action at a distance or field forces, could be always interpreted as
one these three forces and it was believed that all other forces like elastic forces,
collision forces,etc. could be understood in terms of these three forces.By the end of
first quarter of the twentieth century a fourth fo rce was found. This force is the nuclear
force. The nuclear force is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms.
The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus together.
This force can exist in nucleons, i.e.between protons and protons (p-p), neutrons and
protons (p-n) or neutrons and neutrons (n-n). This force is what holds the nucleus
together.Nuclear forces (also known as nuclear interactions or strong forces) are the
forces that act between two or more nucleons.They combinenucleons, i.e. protons and
neutrons to form atomic nuclei. The nuclear forces are approximately 10 million times
stronger than the chemical bond that holds atoms together in molecules.

With electrostatic, magnetic, and gravitational for ces, measurement could be

made in thelaboratory or on a macroscopic scale and the laws governing these forces
wereestablished.Butentirelynewmethodswererequiredtostudythe nuclear bindingforces;
by the 1960's the form of the laws governing these forces had n ot
beenestablishedonafirm basis.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 86

03-01:NUCLEAR FORCE& ITS GENERAL PROPERTIES
The nuclear force (or nucleon–nucleon interaction or historically strong force)
is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms. Neutrons and protons,
both nucleons, are affected by the nuclear force almost identically. Since protons have
charge +1 e, they experience an electric force that tends to push them apart, but at
short range the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to overcome the
electromagnetic force. The nuclear force binds nucleons into atomic nuclei.The
nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 fm (or
10−15 meter), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about
2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive. The
nuclear force is not simple, though, as it depends on the nucleon spins, has a tensor
component, and may depend on the relative momentum of the nucleons.

Nuclear force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature, the others being
gravitational and electromagnetic forces.The charge of protons, which is +1e, tends to
push them away from each other with a strong electric field repulsive force, following
Coulomb’s law. But nuclear force is strong enough to keep them together and to
overcome that resistance at short range.Nuclear force is hundred times larger than
magnetic forces and about 10 37 times larger than gravitational forces. Nuclear forces are
strange and most challenging in Physics since1911. Here we can compute the following
properties of nuclear force on the basis of various experimental
observationsandempiricalfacts.

1. Nuclear force is always attractive between two neutrons, or two protons orneutron
and proton. Existence of neutrons and protons in a bound state is itself
evidenceofthis.

2. Nuclear force is short ranged. It is very short-ranged in the order 0f 10 -15 m). If it
were not so, all the nucleons in differentnuclei will merge into one big nucleus and
everything will probably turn into ahuge nucleus like a super -neutron star, and there
will be no more a variety ofelementsinnature.

3. Nuclear force is very strong. This is evident from the large binding energy ofnuclei
(about 8 MeV per nucleon). The average binding energy of electrons
inatomsisintherangeofeVto KeVonly.

4. Nuclearforcesaturates. This is actually an outcome of the short-range natureof the

nuclear force. Each nucleon in a nucleus interacts with its neighbors only.As a
result, the binding energy per nucleon rises rapidly for light mass nuclei
andquicklysaturates.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 87

5. Nuclear force is charge symmetric. It is same for a p-p and an n-n
pair(ignoringtheCoulombrepulsion betweenp-p).

6. Nuclear force is charge independent. The force is same for n-p as it is for n-nandp-
ppairsprovidedthen-ppairisinthesameisospinstate(T=1).Ap-pandann-
npaircanoccupyisospinT=1stateonly.Ifthen -
ppairalsooccupiesT=1statethentheforceisthesame. Thus, the nuclear force is char ge
independent.

7. Nuclear force is spin dependent. As an example, deuteron in its ground state (and
the only bound state) exists only in spin triplet state. The spin singlet state is
unbound.

8. Nuclear force has a tensor nature.

Themagneticmomentofdeuteroncannotbeexplainedwithoutthetensornatureofnuclearf
orce.

9. Nuclearforcealsohasvelocitydependenceor,adependence onthespin-
orbitterm.ItisattractivewhenLandS(=1/2(1 +2 )areparallelandrepulsivewhenthey
areanti-parallel.

10. Nuclearforcehas anexchangecharacter. Twonucleons, when interacting with each

other, can exchange their spin, isospin, or acombination of both.

03-02: R EPRESENTATION OFNUCLEAR FORCE

The nuclear force can be graphically represented in the form of nuclear
potential. The nucleus is complex and is compose d of many nucleons. But its simplest
form we can consider nucleon-nucleon potential as central and attractive. Physicist
Wigner represents the nuclear potential as a function of separation between two
nucleons (r) and the depth of the nuclear potential wel l as shown in Fig. 1. The nuclear
potential is given as-

a. V(r)= -V 0 .e -r/ro for r>b and up to r=r o

b. V(r)= ∞ for r<b<r o

Generally, range is r o =2x10 -15 m=2fm andthe depth of the potential V o =-30 MeV.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 88

 Fig.1: Inter-nucleon Forces

On the basis of BE of nuclei and the scattering experiment Wigner suggested following
types of nuclear potentials which purely depend upon the separation between nucleon.

1) Square-well or Rectangular Potential:It is represented as-

(i) V(r)= -V 0 for r ≤ r o and

(ii) V(r)= 0 for r>r o

Where, r is the relative coordinate of the two nucleons and V o is the depth of the
potential and parameter r o corresponds to the range. It is shown in Fig. 2(a).

2) Exponential Potential:It is represented as-

V(r)= -V 0 .e -r/ro

Thus, at r=r o we get, V(r o )= -V 0 .e -ro/ro =-V 0 .e -1 =-V 0 /e

This is shown in Fig. 2(b).

3) Gaussian Potential:It is represented as-

V(r)= -V 0 .e -r2/ro2

Thus, at r=r o we get, V(r o )= -V 0 /e

It is similar to exponential potential.

4) Yukawa Potential:It is represented as-

V(r)= -V 0 .e -r/ro /(r/r o )

Thus, at r=r o we get, V(r o )= -V 0 /e

It is shown in Fig. 2(c).

5) Potential with hard repulsive core:It is represented as-

(i) V(r)= -V 0 .e -r/ro for r>band

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 89

 (ii) V(r)= +∞ for r< b <r o

It is shown in Fig. 2(d).

Fig. 2: Types of Wigner Nuclear Potential wells

Among the above potentials, the square well potential is simple and it can be
solved exactly in quantum mechanics. Hence square well potential is frequently used in
solving the problems.

03-03: C HARGE I NDEPENDENCE AND C HARGE S YMMETRY OF

NUCLEAR FORCES
In general, the force is charge-dependent means it is attractive when two charges
are unlike (opposite) and repulsive when they are like. But the nuclear force (Nucleon -
NucleonForce) is nearly charge independent. Thismeansthatthethreenuclearforces n -n,
p-p, andp-nareidentical,againcorrectingfor theCoulombforce.Chargeindependenceisthus
a stronger requirement than charge symmetry. Here the evidence is not soconclusive; in
fact, the singlet n-p scattering length(-23.7 fm) seems to differsubstantiallyfromthep -
pandn-nscatteringlengths(-17fm) as shown in fig.3.However, we see from fig.1that
large negative scattering lengths areextraordinarily sensitive to the nuclear wave
function near r= R,and a very
smallchangein;cangivealargechangeinthescatteringlength.Thus,thelargedifferencebetw
eenthescatteringlengthsmaycorrespondtoaverysmalldifference (of order 1 %) between
the potentials, which is easily explained by theexchangeforcemodel. Hence the nuclear
force is said to be nearly charge independent.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 90

 Fig. 3: Scattering length

The Nuclear (Nucleon-Nucleon) forceis also chargesymmetric. Thismeansthatthe

proton-protoninteractionisidenticaltotheneutron-neutroninteraction, after we correct for
the Coulomb force in the proton-proton system.Here "charge" refers to the character of
the nucleon (proton or neutron) and not toelectric charge. Evidence in support of this
assertion comes from the equality ofthe p-p and n-n scattering lengths and effective
ranges. Of course, the p-p parametersmust first be corrected for the Coulomb
interaction. When this is done, theresultingsingletp-pparametersare

a= -17.1±0.2fm and r 0 =2.84±0.03fm

Theseareinverygoodagreementwiththemeasuredn -nparameters(a=-16.6±0.5fm
and r 0 =2.66±0.15fm),whichstronglysupportsthenotionofchargesymmetry. Hence the
nuclear force is charge symmetric.

03-04: I SOSPIN F ORMALISM

In nuclear physics and particle physics, isospin (I) is a quantum number
related to the up- and down quark content of the particle. More specifically, isospin
symmetry is a subset of the flavor symmetry seen more broadly in the interactions of
baryons and mesons. The name of the concept contains the term spin because its
quantum mechanical description is mathematically similar to that of angular
momentum. But unlike angular momentum, it is a dimensionless quantity and is not
actually any type of spin.

Isospin: Particles appear to arrange themselves in sets of particles of differentelectric

charge, but nearly the same mass. They are individually labeled with aquantum number
of -1, 0, 1, or other multiples of these.

We can express this is a more formal (mathematical), but useful way by

introducing the concept of “Isospin”. If we have two electrons with z - component of

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 91

their spin set to s z = +½and s z = − ½ then we can distinguish them by applying a (non -
uniform) magnetic field in the z-direction (the electrons will move in opposite
directions). But in the absence of thisexternal field these two cannot be distinguished
and we are used to thinking of these as two states of the same particle. Similarly, if we
could ‘switch off’ electromagnetic interactions we would not be able to distinguish
between a proton and a neutron. As far as the strong interactions are concerned these
are just two states of the same particle (a nucleon). We therefore think of an imagined
space (internal space) in which the nucleon has a property called isospin, which is
mathematically analogous to spin.

The proton and neutron are now considered to be a nucleon with different value s
of the third component of this isospin. Since this third component can take two possible
values, we assign I 3 = +½ for the proton and I 3 =− ½ for the neutron. The nucleon
therefore has isospin I = ½, in the same way that the electron has spin s= ½, with two
possible values of the third component. As far as the strong interactions are concerned
this just represents two possible quantum states of the same particle. If there were no
electromagnetic interactions these particles would be totally indistinguishabl e in all
their properties - mass, spin etc.

Isospin is conserved in the same way as that angular momentum is conserved.

This is an example of an approximate symmetry - inside the nucleus the strong forces
between nuclei do not distinguish between particles with different third component of
isospin and would lead to identical energy levels, but there are electromagnetic
interactions which break this symmetry and lead to small differences in the energy
levels of mirror nuclei. The electromagnetic interactions couple to the electric charge,
Q, of the particles and in the case of nucleons this electric charge is related to the third
component of isospin by Q= (I 3 + ½). Other particles can also be classified as isospin
multiplets.

For example, there are three pions, π + , π 0 , π − , which have almost the same mass
and zero spin etc. There are three of them with different charges but which behave in
the same way under the influence of the strong interactions. Therefore, they form an
isospin multiplet with I=1 and three possible third components, namely +1, 0, −1. In the
case of pions, the electric charges are equal to I 3 . Particles which are members of an
isospin multiplet have the same properties, with the exception of their electric charge,
i.e., they have the same spin and almost the same mass. In the same way that two
electrons can have a total spin S = 0 or S = 1, two nucleons can have a total isospin I =
0 or I = 1, and (systems of n nucleons can have isospins up to n/2). For two electrons
we may write the total wavefunction as-

Ψ 12 = Ψ(r 1 , r 2 ). χ(s 1 , s 2 )

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 92

Where, χ(s 1 , s 2 ) is the spin part of the wavefunction. For S = 1 we have,

χ(s 1 , s 2 ) = (↑↑), Sz = +1

χ(s 1 , s 2 ) = (↑↓ + ↓↑), Sz = 0

χ(s 1 , s 2 ) = (↓↓), Sz = −1

which is symmetric under interchange of the two spins, wh ich means that by fermi
statistics the spatial part of the wavefunction must be anti -symmetric under the
interchange of the positions of the electrons,, i.e.,Ψ(r 1 , r 2 ) = −Ψ(r 2 , r 1 ).

Forthe case of S = 0 we have,

χ(s 1 , s 2 ) = (↑↓ − ↓↑)

which is anti-symmetric under interchange of spins so it must be accompanied by a

symmetric spatial part of the wavefunction, Ψ(r 1 , r 2 ) = +Ψ(r 2 , r 1 ).

In the case of two nucleons, we also have a total isospin part of the
wavefunction, so the complete wavefunction is-

Ψ 12 = Ψ(r 1 , r 2 ). χ S (s 1 , s 2 ). χ I (I 1 , I 2 )

Where, χ I (I1 , I 2 )is the isospin part of the wavefunction.

For total isospin I = 1 we have,

χ I (I1 , I 2 )= (p p), I 3 = +1

χ I (I1 , I 2 )= (p n + n p), I 3 = 0

χ I (I1 , I 2 )= (n, n), I 3 = −1

which is symmetric under the interchange of the isospins of the two nucleons, so that
(as in the case of two electrons) it must be accompanied by a combined spatial and spin
wave-function that must be anti-symmetric under simultaneous interchange of the two

positions and the two spins. But we also have the I = 0 state χ I (I 1 , I 2 ) = (p n − n p),

which is anti-symmetric under the interchange of the two isospins and therefore when
the nucleons are combined in this isospin state they must be accompanied by a
combined spatial and spin wave-function which is symmetric under simultaneous
interchange of the two positions and the two spins.

03-05: Y UKAWA I NTERACTION & Y UKAWA P TENTIAL

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 93

 As we know nuclei consist of nucleons which consist of a group of three q uarks.
There are two types of nucleons: protons and neutrons. A proton contains
two up quarks, at electric charge ⅔ e each, and one down quark, at - ⅓ e. That makes
the net charge of a proton (⅔ e +⅔ e -⅓ e) equal to e. A neutron has one up quark and
two down one, making its net charge equal to zero. Protons and neutrons combine to-
gether into nuclei. However, the protons in nuclei repel each other because of their
electric charges. So, there must be some compensating force that keeps the nucleons to-
gether anyway. This force is what is called the nuclear force.
The nuclear forces should depend on the positions of the individual quarks in
the nucleons, not just on their average position. Nucleons do repel one another strongly
at very close distances, much like atoms do due to Pauli repulsion. In a particle ex-
change explanation of the nuclear force, roughly speaking nucleons have to pop up par-
ticles that other nucleons then absorb and vice-versa. The first question is what these
particles would be. The lowest energy particles are the pions; a pion is a meson consist-
ing of a quark and antiquark pair in its ground state. There are three types of pi ons.
The + pion consists of an up quark plus an anti -down quark. Antiparticles have the op-
posite charge from the corresponding particles, so the anti-down quark has charge -⅓
e. That makes the net charge of the + pion (⅔ e + ⅓ e) equal to e, the same as that of
the proton. The - pion consists of an anti-up quark plus a down quark, producing a net
charge (-⅔ e - ⅓ e) equal to –e. That is as it should be since self-evidently the  - is the
antiparticle of the + . The  0 pion is a quantum superposition of an up-anti-up pair and
a down-anti-down pair and is electrically neutral. Pions are bosons of zero spin and
negative intrinsic parity. These pions are the most important particles that protons and
neutrons exchange. The question is then of course where they come from?It is possible
due to a mix-ture of special relativity and the uncertainty inherent in quantum
mechanics.
The creation of particles out of energy is allowed by special relativity. Special
relativity gives the energy E of a particle as:

………………. (1)

Here c is the speed of light, p the momentum of the particle, and m its mass (at
rest). According to this expression, a particle at rest represents an amount of energy
equal to mc 2 . This is the rest mass energy. The charged + and  - pions have a rest mass
energy of about 140 MeV, and the neutral 0 about 135 MeV. So, to create an actual
pion requires at least 135 MeV of energy.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 94

 Quantum mechanics replaces the momentum p in the energy above by the opera-

tor in order to find the Hamiltonian. Then it applies that Hamiltonian to a pion

wave function   . Thus equation (1) can be written as-

………………. (2)

Now consider first a single nucleon located at the origin. Let this nucleon can
pop up a pion. But where would the nucleon get the 135 MeV or more of energy?
Surely, if there was a probability of actually finding a 135 MeV pion well away from
the nucleon, it would violate energy conservation. But remarkably, despite the positive
pion rest mass energy, the Klein-Gordon equation has a simple solution given as below
where the total pion energy E appears to be zero:

and ………………. (3)

Here r is the distance from the nucleon; R is range of nuclear force and C an ar-
bitrary constant.
In effect, this solution has a big negative kinetic energy. To check the above so-
lution, just plug it in the Klein-Gordon equation (2) with E=0, using the expression for
the Laplacian  2 found in the notations. But to be true, this substitution is somewhat
misleading. A more careful analysis shows that the left-hand side in the Klein-Gordon
equation does have a nonzero spike at r = 0. But there the pion will experience interac-
tion energy with the nucleon.
Now assume that the nucleon does indeed manage to create a pion field around
itself. A field that acts as a potential Ψ can produce forces on other nucleons. That
would be much like a charged particle creates an electrostatic potential that can produce
forces on other charged particles. Then it seems a plausible guess that the pion poten-
tial Ψ will vary with position just like the zero-energy wave function Ψ  above.
Now consider a second nucleon. This nucleon will of course also create a pion
potential. That is just like if it was all by itself. But in addition, it will interact with the
pion potential created by the first nucleon. So, there will be energy of interaction be-
tween the nucleons. Taking another cue from electromagnetic, this energy should pre-
sumably be proportional to the potential that the first nucleon creates at the position of
the second nucleon. That idea then gives the interaction energy between two nucleons
as-

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 95

 ……………. (4)

and

Here r is the distance between the two nucleons, and C Y is some positive con-
stant analogues to the charge in electromagnetic theory that must be de termined experi-
mentally. The above interaction energy is called the Yukawa potential after the Japan-
ese physicist who first derived it. It is really a potential energy, rather than a potential.
Graphically Yukawa potential is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Yukawa Potential

Note the following interpretation from the Yukawa potential.
1) The negative sign indicates Yukawa potential is attractive. This is in contrast to the

Coulomb potential, which is repulsive between like charges.

2) Note the exponential term in the Yukawa potential make it negligibly small as soon

as the distance r between the nucleons is significantly greater than R.

3) With =197 MeV.fm and the average pion rest mass energy about 138

MeV, range R is about 1.4 fm.

4) So unless the nucleons are within a distance not much greater than 1.4 fm from each

other, they do not experience a nuclear force from each other. Yukawa had derived

the typical range of the nuclear force.

5) Yukawa potential is a good approximation of the true nuclear potential.

6) Yukawa potential (graph) indicate how exchange of pion between nucleon lead to

attractive and repulsive force.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 96

7) The Yukawa potential also explained why heavy nuclei are unstable. Suppose that

you keep stuffing nucleons, and in particular protons, into a nucleus. Because of the

exponential in the Yukawa potential, the nuclear force is very short range. It is

largely gone beyond distances of a couple of fm. So, a proton gets pulled into the

nucleus only by the nucleons in its immediate vicinity. But the Coulomb repulsion

between protons does not have the exponential decay. So, the same proton gets

pushed out of the nucleus by protons from all over the nucleus. If the nucleus is big

enough, the pushers simply have to win because of their much larger numbers.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01.01: Nuclear forces are of exchange nature. A nucleon emits a virtual pion
of rest mass 140 MeV. What is the range of nuclear force?

Solution: When nucleon emits a pion then loss of energy is given by-

E= m  .c 2 = 140 MeV=140x1.6x10 -13 J

By Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, E.t=h/2
t=(h/2)/E=(h/2) /m  .c 2
During the time t the pion travels a distance r o as-
r o =c.t=c.(h/2) /m  .c 2

r o = h.c/2.m  .c 2 =

r o 1.4x10 -15 m 1.4fm

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01

Que.01.01: What is nuclear force? State the properties of nuclear force.
Ans: See section 03.01.
Que.01.02: Represent graphically a nuclear force.
Ans: See Fig. 1 of section 03.02.
Que.01.03: What is meant by charge independence and charge symmetry of a nuclear
force?
Ans: See of section 03.03.
Que.01.04: Represent graphically a Yukawa potential.
Ans: See Fig. 4 of section 03.05.

MCQ 01
1. Which of the following best define nuclear forces?

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 97

 a) The attraction between protons and neut rons
b) Repulsion between protons and neutrons
c) The attraction between protons and electrons
d) The attraction between electrons and neutrons
2. The nuclear force gets affected by charge.
a) True
b) False
3. What are nucleons?
a) The subatomic particles which are present inside the nucleus
b) The sum of particles present in an atom
c) The total number of atoms in an element
d) None of these
4. Nuclear force is …...
a) Short range
b) Attractive
c) Strongest
d) All of above
5. What is the force that holds the nucleus of an atom together?
a) Electromagnetic force
b) Gravitational force
c) Strong nuclear force
d) Weak nuclear force
6. What is the range of the strong nuclear force?
a) Infinite
b) Approximately 10 -15 meters
c) Approximately 10 -18 meters
d) Approximately 10 -5 meter

7. The nature of the electrostatic force and nuclear force between a proton and a neutron inside a
nucleus are respectively……….

a) Repulsive and attractive.

b) Zero and attractive.

c) Repulsive and Repulsive.

d) Attractive and attractive.

8. Nuclear force is ………

a) Spin independent.
b) Both charge and spin independent.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 98

 c) Spin dependent but charge independent.
d) Charge dependent.
9. The true statement is ………...
a) Nuclear charge is dependent on the charge.
b) The nuclear force is weaker than the electromagnetic force.
c) The nuclear force is independent of charge.
d) The nuclear force is weaker than the gravitational force.
10. Yukawa potential is given by ………………….

a)

b)

c)

d) None of above
Ans: 1.-a); 2.-b);3.-a); 4.-d);5.-c); 6.-b);7.-b); 8.-c);9.-c); 10.-a).

SUMMARY
The nuclear force is a force that acts between the pro tons and neutrons of atoms.
The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus together.
This force can exist in nucleons, i.e., between protons and protons (p -p), neutrons and
protons (p-n) or neutrons and neutrons (n-n). Nuclear force is always attractive, short
ranged, very strong, charge symmetric, charge independent, spin dependent, tensor
nature, velocity dependence, has an exchange character and saturates. The nuclear force
can be graphically represented in the form of nu clear potential as rectangular shape.
Isospin symmetry is a subset of the flavor symmetry seen more broadly in the
interactions of baryons and mesons. Yukawa potential is attractive and exponential
form makes it negligibly small as soon as the distance r b etween the nucleons is
significantly greater than R range of nuclear force. Yukawa potential is a good
approximation of the true nuclear potential.

KEY WORDS
Nuclear Force, Nucleons, Charge independence, Charge symmetry, Isospin,
Yukawa Interaction, Exponential, Rectangular, Potential.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 99

REFERENCES
YOUTUBE VIDEOS:
1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43AyN24jZw8.
2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zYR0umFsGEY.
3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jf6MSWoZRmc.
4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-PFGOot1GCk.
WIKIPEDIA:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force.

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction .

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics .

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N. Manohara

Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
2. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
3. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
4. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
5. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
6. Nuclear Physics: Irving Kaplan, (Second Edition 2002), Narosa Publishing House.
7. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P) Ltd.
8. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.

10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. Physics Volume –II: David Halliday, Robert Resnick& Kenneth S. Krane, (Fifth
Edition 2004) ,John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd.
13.34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20P
hysics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 100

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 101
CREDIT 01 -UNIT 04: DIRECT AND COMPOUND NUCLEAR
REACTION MECHANISMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to

 Discuss the various concepts related to nuclear reactions.

 Explain direct nuclear reactions.
 Discuss the compound nucleus.
 Explain various concepts related to compound nuclear reactions
 Distinguish between direct & compound nuclear reactions.
 Derive cross sections in terms of partial wave amplitudes.
 ExplainResonance scattering.
 Explain Scattering matrix.
 Describe the Reciprocity theorem.
 Derive Breit-Wigner one level formula.

INTRODUCTION
In nuclear physics a nuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei, or a
nucleus and an external subatomic particle, collide to produce one or more
new nuclides. Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one
nuclide to another. If a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle and they then
separate without changing the nature of any nuclide, the process is simply referred to as
a type of nuclear scattering, rather than a nuclear reaction.

The term nuclear reaction may refer either to a change in a nuclide induced by
collision with another particle or to a spontaneous change of a nuclide without
collision.Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between cosmic rays and
matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at
an adjustable rate, on-demand. Nuclear chain reactions in fissionable materials produce
induced nuclear fission. Various nuclear fusion reactions of light elements power the
energy production of the Sun and stars.Nuclear reaction, change in the identity
or characteristics of an atomic nucleus, induced by bombarding it with an energ etic
particle. The bombarding particle may be an alpha particle, a gamma-ray photon,
a neutron, a proton, or a heavy ion. In any case, the bombarding particle must have
enough energy to approach the positively charged nucleus to within range of the strong
nuclear force.A typical nuclear reaction involves two reacting particles (i) a heavy
target nucleus and (ii) a light bombarding particle. The latter produces two new
particles: (i) a heavier product nucleus and (ii) a lighter ejected particle.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 102

 Thefirst nuclear reaction was observed in 1919 by Ernest Rutherford. He
bombarded nitrogen with alpha particles and identified the ejected lighter particles as
hydrogen nuclei or protons ( 1 1 H or p) and the product nuclei as a rare oxygen isotope.
In the first nuclear reaction produced by artificially accelerated particles (1932), the
English physicists J.D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton bombarded lithium with
accelerated protons and thereby produced two helium nuclei, or alpha particles. As it
has become possible to accelerate charged particles to increasingly greater energy,
many high-energy nuclear reactions have been observed that produce a variety of
subatomic particles called mesons, baryons, and resonance particles.

04-01: NUCLEAR REACTIONS MECHANISM

Nuclear reactions may be presented in a form like to chemical equations, for
which invariant mass must balance for each side of the equation, and in which
transformations of particles must follow certain conservation laws, such as conservation
of charge and total atomic mass number(baryon number). An example of this notation
follows:

Or

Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in ma ny situations a

compact notation is used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form A(b,c)D is
equivalent to A + b producing c + D. Common light particles are often abbreviated in
this shorthand, typically p for proton, n for neutron, d for deuteron, α representing
an alpha particle or helium-4, β for beta particle or electron, γ for gamma photon, etc.
The reaction above would be written as 6 Li(d,α)α.

04-01.01:DIRECT NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Interaction time is critical for defining the reaction mechanism. T he very short
interaction time allows for an interaction of a single nucleon only.

Nuclear reactions that occur in a time comparable to the time of transit of an

incident particle across the nucleus (~10 -22 s) are called direct nuclear reactions. In
direct nuclear reactions, a projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear
forces for a veryshort time allowing for an interaction of a single nucleon only. There is
always some non-direct (multiple inter-nuclear interactions) component in all reactions, but
the direct reactions have this component limited. The reaction has to occur at high energy to
limit the time available for multiple inter-nuclear interactions.

 Direct reactions have another very important property: i.e., products of a direct
reaction are not distributed isotropically in angle, but they are forward-focused.

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  This reflects that the projectiles make only one, or very few, collisions with
nucleons in the target nucleus, and its forward momentum is not transferred to
an entire compound state.

 The cross-sections for direct reactions vary smoothly and slowly with energy in
contrast to the compound nucleus reactions. These cross -sections are
comparable to the geometrical cross-sections of target nuclei.

 Types of direct reactions are:

a. Elastic scattering in which a passing particle and targets stay in their ground
states.
b. Inelastic scattering in which a passing particle changes its energy state. For
example, the (p,p’) reaction.
c. Transfer reactions in which one or more nucleons are transferred to the
other nucleus. These reactions are further classified as:
(i) Stripping reaction in which one or more nucleons are transferred to
a target nucleus from passing particles. For example, the neutron
stripping in the (d, p) reaction.
(ii) Pick-up reaction in which one or more nucleons are transferred from
a target nucleus to a passing particle. For example, the neutron pick-
up in the(p, d) reaction.
(iii) Break-up reaction in which a breakup of a projectile into two or
more fragments occurs.
(iv) Knock-out reaction in which a single nucleon or a light cluster is
removed from the projectile by a collision with the target.
 The direct reaction mechanism:
The nuclear reaction proceeds ‘directly’ from the entrance channel to the
exit channel without the formation of an intermediate state. If the internal states
of the colliding systems do not change, we have elastic scattering. If one or both
systems are excited in the exit channel, we have inelastic scattering. If one or
more nucleons are transferred from one nucleus to t he other, we have a transfer
reaction. If a nucleon or light nucleus is ejected from the target while the
projectile continues free, we have quasi -elastic scattering.

04-01.02:COMPOUND-NUCLEUS
Danish physicist Niel Bohr introduced the compound nucleus model (the idea of
compound nucleus formation) in 1936. Some nuclear reactions are not direct but a two -
stage process including the formation of a relatively long-lived intermediate nucleus
and its subsequent decay. First, a bombarding particle loses all its e nergy to the target

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 104

nucleus and becomes an integral part of a new, highly excited, unstable nucleus. This
highly excited, unstable nucleus is called a compound nucleus.
The formation of compound nucleus takes a period of time about equal to the
time interval for the bombarding particle to travel across the diameter of the target
nucleus (10 −21 s). Then, after a quite long period of time (about 10 −19 to 10 −15 s) and
independent of the properties of the reactants, the compound nucleus disintegrates,
usually into an ejected small particle and a product nucleus. For example,the compound
nucleus 28 Si is formed by bombarding 27
Al with protons. This compound nucleus ( 28 Si)
is in excited state, or in a high-energy state, and may decay into:(i) 24
Mg and 4 He (α-
particle), (ii) 27
Si and a proton (p), (iii) a more stable form of 28
Si and a gamma (γ-ray)
24
photon, or (iv) Na plus three protons (p) and one neutron (n).The compound -nucleus
model is very successful in explaining nuclear reactions induced by relatively low -
energy bombarding particles.

04-01.03: COMPOUND NUCLEAR REACTIONS

The compound nucleus is the intermediate state formed in a compound nucleus
reaction. It is normally one of the excited states of the nucleus formed by the
combination of the incident particle and target nucleus. The compound nucleus is
excited by both the kinetic energy of the projectile and by the binding nuclear
energy.To understand the nature of nuclear reactions, the classification according to the
time scale of these reactions has to be introduced. Interaction time is critical for
defining the reaction mechanism.

A projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear forces, allowing
for a large number of interactions between nucleons . These types of reactions are called
the compound nucleus reactions.The compound nucleus is the intermediate state formed
in a compound nucleus reaction. It is normally one of the excited states of the nucleus
formed by the combination of the incident particle and target nucleus. Suppose a target
nucleus X is bombarded with particles a. In that case, it is sometimes observed that the
ensuing nuclear reaction occurs with appreciable probability only if the particle’s
energy is in the neighborhood of certain definite energy values. These energy values are
referred to as resonance energies. The compound nuclei of these certain energies ar e
referred to as nuclear resonances. Resonances are usually found only at relatively low
energies of the projectile. The widths of the resonances increase in general with
increasing energies. At higher energies, the widths may reach the order of the distan ces
between resonances, and then no resonances can be observed.
Danish physicist Niels Bohr introduced the compound nucleus model (the idea
of compound nucleus formation) in 1936. This model assumes that the incident particle
and the target nucleus become indistinguishable after the collision and constitute the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 105

nucleus’s particular excited state – the compound nucleus. The projectile has to suffer
collisions with constituent nucleons of the target nucleus until it has lost its incident
energy to become indistinguishable. Many so these collisions lead to a complete
thermal equilibrium inside the compound nucleus. The compound nucleus is excited by
both the kinetic energy of the projectile and by the binding nuclear energy.
This compound system is a relatively long-lived intermediate state of the
particle-target composite system. From the definition, the compound nucleus must live
for at least several times longer than is the time of transit of an incident particle across
the nucleus (~10 -22 s). The time scale of compound nucleus reactions is 10 -18 s to 10 -
16
s, but lifetimes as long as 10 -14 s have also been observed.
A very important feature and a direct consequence of the thermal equilibrium
inside a compound nucleus is that the mode of decay of the compound nucleus (C*)
does not depend on how the compound nucleus is formed. Many collisions between
nucleons lead to the loss of information on the entrance channel from the system. The
decay mechanism that dominates the decay of C* is determined by the excitation energy
in C* and by the law of probability.

These reactions can be considered as two-stage processes.

 The first stage is the formation of a compound nucleus expressed by σ a+X ➝ C*

 The second stage is the decay of a compound nucleus expressed by P C* ➝ b+Y

 The result cross-section of certain reaction a+X➝[C*]➝b+Y is given by

σ (a,b) = σ a+X➝ C* . P C* ➝ b+Y

The compound reaction mechanism:
In compound nucleus reactions,a + A →C* → b +B* ∗

 Theprojectile is ‘captured’ by the target and the two systems coalesce to fo rm a

highly excited state (the compound nucleuses).

 Theexcitation energy is shared uniformly among the constituent nucleons.

 Anucleon or group of nucleons can be given enough energy to escape (random

process): decay of C*.

 If B* has enough energy, more emissions can occur, otherwise it will de-excite by
β- or γ-decay.

Comparison:Direct vs. Compound Nuclear Reactions

Direct Reactions:
 The direct reactions are fast and involve a single-nucleon interaction.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 106

  The interaction time must be very short (~10 -22 s).
 The direct reactions require incident particle energy larger than ∼ 5 MeV/A p .
(A p is the atomic mass number of a projectile)
 Incident particles interact on the surface of a target nucleus rather than in the
volume of a target nucleus.
 Products of the direct reactions are not distributed isotropically in angle, but
they are forward-focused.
 Direct reactions are of importance in measurements of nuclear structure.
Compound Nucleus Reactions
 A projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear forces, allowing
for a large number of interactions between nucleons in the compound nucleus
reactions.
 The compound nucleus reactions involve many nucleon-nucleon interactions.
 A large number of collisions between the nucleons lead to a thermal
equilibrium inside the compound nucleus.
 The time scale of compound nucleus reactions is 10 -18 s – 10 -16 s.
 The compound nucleus reactions are usually created if the projectile has low
energy.
 Incident particles interact in the volume of a target nucleus.
 Products of the compound nucleus reactions are distributed near
isotropicallyinangle.
 The decay mode of the compound nucleus does not depend on how the
compound nucleus is formed.
 Resonances in the cross-section are typical for the compound nucleus reaction.

04-02: CROSS SECTIONS IN TERMS OF PARTIAL WAVE

AMPLITUDES
In a nuclear reaction there is a collision between the incident particle (nuclei)
and target nuclei. The effects of the collision arise due to the kinematics and basic
quantum principles as well as due to nuclear forces. If we take u(r) as the P.E. of the
projectile 'a' at a distance ‘r' from the target 'X' such that when r∞ (very far) then u(r)
=0.TheSchrodinger’s eqn. for projectile 'a’ is given as:

. + (r) ………….… (1)

Where T is the kinetic energy of the projectile

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 107

Now we use = = ………….… (2)

And V(r) = in the equation (1) to get:

+ = V(r) ………….… (3)

This equation has many solutions depending upon the value of V(r) i.e. nuclear
interaction. If represents the total wave function (w. f.) , i.e.,

 = i +  s ………….… (4)
Where, and  s are the incident and scattered w. fs. The incident wave function
represents a beam of particles of momentumћk travelling in the Z-direction and it is
given by:

= ………….… (5)

Where, C 1 is the normalization constant. If there is a one (1) particle per unit volume
then we have:

i. i *=‫׀‬i ‫ ׀‬2 =1

2 2
Which gives, . = = 1 or C 1 = 1

The function can be expanded in a series of the wave functions

appropriate to all angular momenta. Thus, we may write as:

= = = (2l+1) . . (Cos )

= (2 + 1) ) ………….… (6)
Or

Where we have used the trigonometric relation as: =

Here p 1 (Cos ) is the Legendre polynomial (the angular momentum wave

function) and j l .(kr) is the special Bessel function. The incident particle 'l' with

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 108

momentum 'mv' and impact parameter 'b' possesses an angular momentum L=mv.b about

the target nucleus. From Q.M. we have L 2 = l (l + 1) 2

where l is an integer. Thus, for

an incident particle with quantum number ‘l’ we have the relation as:

( ) 2 = (mv) 2 . b 2 = k 2 .b 2 = l (l + 1)

Which gives,b=[l(l+1)] 1/2 /k

Theincident plane wave may be considered as a coherent superposition of the following

waves:
a) There is spherical wave converging on the Centre 'O' which i s represented as:

And (2) the diverging out wave is represented by:

In a nuclear reaction/collision the nuclear interaction potential either may

affectthe outgoing wave in phase without amplitude/intensity change which is called
elastic scattering OR it may affect the amplitude and phase which is called inelastic
scattering/reaction. Thus, we have total cross-section giving the "number of all events
per unit time per nucleus" as given by:

Where, denotes the elastic scattering cross-section and denotes the sum of the

cross-sections for all events other than the elastic scattering.

If we assume that the nuclear interaction is denoted by then the wave-

function will be represented as:

= (2l+ 1) . . ……..… (7)

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 109

 Where is a complex number the modulus of represent the change in

amplitude ) and Argument of 𝜂 = (𝜂 ) represents the change in phase.

The wave given by eqn. (7) is the superposition of the scattered wave (  s ) on

the incident wave i given by:( ) i.e. .

Where, (r, ) f ( ). ………….… (8)

Where,f() is called "Scattering Amplitude" and  is the angle between r and

OZ-axis.

Differential cross-section: If thevelocity of the incident particle is vthen,

2
(i) The incident flux = , =

2 2 2
And (ii) the scattered flux = . = . .

Or N S = f () 2 . . ………….… (9)

Thus, we define the differential cross-section into the solid angle "d’’ as given by:

d =

d = = f() 2. ………….… (10)

The value of is the solid angle i.e. d= . Hence eqn. (10) is written as:

d = f() 2 .d

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 110

 Or = f() 2 ………….… (11)

Equation (11) gives the cross section in terms of scattering amplitude. Thus,the value of
f()would give the differential cross-section.Now we have to obtain the value off().

From equations (6) and (8) we obtain w.fs. = i + s as

= (2 + 1) ) +f .

Now using identity = we get

(2l +1) . ( ) + f . ………….. (12)The

comparison of equations (12) and (7) gives the value of f ( )as:

= = ( – 1) (2 + 1) ) ……..……. (13)

Let = ……..……. (14)

Putting the value of n l from (14) into eqn. (13) we obtain:

= ( + 1) ( ) ……………… (15)

Different cases:

(a) Elastic Scattering: There is no change in the number of particles i.e. intensity in

the channel ‘l’ then only elastic scattering will take place i.e. = 2
= 1.

Then from equations (11) and (13) we obtain:

2 2
= =

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 111

 = 2
. (2 +1) 2 . [( 2
……….… (16)

On integration of eqn. (16) we obtain:

,= (2 +1) 2 . ( )] 2 . d . 2

Now put ( )] 2 d =

We get, el = . . 2

Or  el = . (2 +1). 2
……….… (17)

Now take = = . ……….… (18)

2
Or = sin

Use of (18) into (17) gives

2
=4

Or =4 ……….… (19)

Thus, for l =0 (S -wave Scattering)

 el(S) =4 2 sin 2  l =4 2 sin 2  0 (Spherical symmetry)

And for l =1 (P -wave Scattering) we have,

 el(P) = 4 2 sin 2  l =4 2 3sin 2  l (Dipole symmetry)

(b )Inelastic scattering: When then both elastic scattering and nuclear

reaction will take place. This holds for all values of l.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 112

Now we take ( l =  l + i l ), Where  l is positive ( l >1).

Thus

Or

……….… (20)

(c)Total cross-section: The total cross-section is given by:

, = .( ……….… (21)

Therefore, the differential and total cross-sections depend on the value of  l , (phase-
shift) which gives the max. value of sin 2  l =1. Hence from equations (19), (20) and (21)
we find the maximum values of elastic, inelastic and total cross -sections as under:

. (2l+1);  inel ≤  2 (2l+1)

And ……….… (22)

This eqns. (21) shows that the elastic scattering can take place without inelastic
scattering while inelastic scattering cannot occur without elastic scattering.

Further, on the basis of the value of ‘nl' we have,

 el = inel =  (2l+1)
2
(i) When = 0 then

Thus = ( 2l+1 )

(ii) When = 1, Then = 0 Therefore, there is nonuclear reaction

without elastic scattering.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 113

 (iii) When -1, then (2l + 1)

This is maximum. Hence = 0.

This means that the outgoing wave has the same intensity as the incoming

wave but it is shifted in phase by (i.e., 180 o )

(iv)For =0, the = (2l+1). This implies that there is a complete

absorption of the partial waves.

2
(v) When .Then the elastic scattering may take place without absorption

(inelastic scattering) but the converse is not true.

(vi)When = 4. ; Then the incoming and outgoing waves are coherent in

the elastic scattering and they interfere constructively

04-03:THE RECIPROCITY THEOREM

To obtain the reciprocity theorem let us discuss the condition of time r eversal
invariance.The condition of time reversal invariance is found in the physical systems in
which energy is conserved. Thus, a physical system is invariant under reversal of the
direction of time. In quantum mechanical system the equation of motion is written as:

……….… (23)

Where, H is the Hamiltonian of the system.

Now, if we changet to-t then it does not give the time-reversal invariance. Thus,
to have it some other change is necessary. The plane wave of free particles is
represented as going in + Z direction.

⦁→ Z ……….… (24)

The corresponding plane wave going in the negative Z -direction is obtained by

complex conjugate as:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 114

 = -z ←⦁……….… (25)

The complex conjugate of the Schrodinger equation (23) is as:

=- = …………. (26)

If Hamiltonian is real then H=H*. Hence equation (26) may be re -written as:

= …………. (27)

This shows that w. f. Ψ* developed in negative direction of time is same as 

developed in positive direction of time. The possibility of time reversal leads to the
reciprocity theorem as follows:
The Reciprocity-Theorem: In the entrance channelα of the nuclear reaction, the two
nuclei i.e. projectile ‘a’ and target nucleus 'X' are far apart (do not interact) then the
wave-function is written as:

= )=

. ( ) ………….. (28)

The time-reversed has incoming waves in all channels before the reaction with

- as the amplitude of the wave in channel as given below:

= (2l+1) [ ][ ]. ( ( ……….. (29)

After the reaction there will be outgoing wave only in channel 'α ' with unit amplitude.
If there are N open channels β at energy E the Ψ β form a complete set and the

time reversal function can be written as a linear superposition of Thus we

have:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 115

 = = ………….. (30)

Where,C β is the expansion coefficient. The amplitude of the ingoing wave in channel γ
on the right side is justC γ , while on the left side it is–S' αγ .

Hence C γ = –S* αγ .Thus, we write eqn. (30) as under:

= =- ………….. (31)

If in a typical channel γ the amplitude of the outgoing wave is and on the

right side each  has amplitude - for the outgoing wave in the channel γ. Hence we

obtain:

=δ αγ ………….. (32)

In matrix notation this equation can be written as:

S=1 ………….. (33)

Comparing this with conservation theorem:

S.S + = 1 ………….. (34)

Where,S + is the Hermitian conjugate of S and 1 is a unit matrix. Thus, we obtain from
(33) and (34) as:

Or =

Or = ………….. (35)

The complex conjugate of eqn. (35) gives:

= ………….. (36)

This is the reciprocity theorem.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 116

The reciprocity theorem states that “the probability for a transition proceeding one way
in time is equal to the probability for the same transition but with the sense of time
reversed.”

04-04:RESONANCE SCATTERING& BREIT-WIGNER ONE

LEVEL FORMULA
Resonance scattering is best understood as the capture of an incident particle to
form a metastable bound state, and the subsequent decay of the bound state and release
of the particle. The cross-section for resonance scattering is generally far higher than
that for non-resonance scattering.Resonances appear in the scattering situations at
positive total energy when the projectile energy in the center-of-mass system plus the
Q-value of the reaction just equals the excit ation energy of a nuclear state.

The phenomenon of resonance is observed in the nuclear reactions when the

yield of the ejected particles is measured with the variation of the energy of the
projectile as shown in resonance scattering peaks (Fig. 1). Thus, the resonance reaction
is characterized by a sharp increase in the cross -section. The full width at half-
maximum (FWHM) in the resonance peak in the cross -section curve is correlated with
the resonance width of the level from which the reaction product eme rges. The level
width and its spread have been shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 1: Resonance scattering peaks

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 117

 Fig. 2: Level width and spread of Resonance in nuclear scattering

Now we will consider S-wave (l = 0) neutrons of low energy as projectiles and

would obtain a single isolated resonance level formula for the elastic scattering and
reaction cross-sections. We had discussed the relation between the phase shift (δ ), the
scattering length (a k ) and effective range of nuclear force (r o ) for n-p scattering for
zero-energy neutrons. The scattering length is defined as:

=-

And = - ………….. (34)

Forall values of k,wedefinea(k) as:

=- ………….. (35)

If there is no reaction then a(k) is real. But for,  r 0 thea(k) is a complex number.

Put andtake,= e 2i =(e i ) 2 =( cos  + i.sin) 2

Or =
………….. (36)

This value of  is substituted in the expressions of scattering cross -section and

reaction cross-section by taking l= 0 as under:

………….. (37)

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 2
And = ) . ………….. (38)

Note that for real a, the value of σ r in eqn. (38) is zero. Thus, first we consider the case
for real a , i.e., σ r = 0.
At resonance, the phase shift ≈ π/2.

Hence = 0………….. (39)

Where,E o is the resonance energy as shown in Fig. 2.Theexpansion of about we

obtain,

=0+ + …. ………….. (40)

We define, = ………….. (41)

Where,Γ S is the level width i.e. Full width at half-Maximum (FWHM).

Now we substitute (40) and (41) into (37) to get as:

Or = ………….. (42)

Here, Γ S is the width of the level at half-Maximum from which the scattering takes
place. It has been shown in Fig. 2. This scattering cross -section formula is called Breit-
Wigner one or single level formula.

04-05: SCATTERING MATRIX

The scattering matrix is used to relate particle states before and after undergoing
ascattering process.It is used in quantum mechanics, scattering theory and
quantumfieldtheory.Whenquantumtheorygotdeveloped,theclassicaldescriptionsforscatter
ingwerenolongersufficientandothermethodsbegantodevelop.OneofthemistheS-matrix.

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 To define the S-matrix, we need time-dependence so we further specify the
notation n to

n; in and n; out………….. (43)

Since the plane waves are time-independent, we divide them in to two groups where

n; in is an initial state at an early time (t  - ) and n; out is a final state at a

much later time (t ). We now define an operator Sas:

, ………….. (44)

This involves the outer product consisting of one outgoing particle state a nd
oneincoming particle state. The orthogonality of the states then implies that

…………..(45)

This formula defines an operator, denoted by and called the scattering operator which

turns outgoing states into incoming states. The pro bability for some initial staten; inat
an early time, to be found in some final state m; outat a later time, is P nm m; outn;
in 2 . Together with the above relation (45) this can be rewritten as:

………….. (46)

Note that the occurrences of both “in” and “out” in the states only specify that both"in"
states and "out" states can be used but that we can only choose one of themat a time,
i.e. we cannot use one "in" state and one "out" state at the sam e time.
From the probability (46) we see that we can use the scattering operator and
particlestates to calculate it. Therefore, we finally define the S -matrix as:

………….. (47)

Here the matrix elements are related to the scattering probability. One important
aspect of the S-matrix is that it is unitary. This means that the probability is conserved
during a scattering process.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
14
Problem 1): The N 7 compound nucleus is formed at an excitation energy of 13.23
10
MeV by B 5 (α,p) 13 C 6 reaction. Level width of the excitation level is 130 KeV.
Find the mean life of the excitation level.

Solution: The level width is given by- Γ=ђ/τ

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 Mean life of the excitation level- τ= ђ/Γ

197
Problem 2): The neutron capture reaction in Au gives a resonance peak at 4.906 eV
with partial width of Γ n =0.124 eV and Γ=.007E 1/2 eV. The C. N. formed has spin
2. Calculate the peak cross section.

Solution: The resonance cross section is given by-

Using Γ=0.007E 1/2 =0.007 x (4.906) 1/2 =0.0155 eV

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01/(MCQ)

1. Area around the nucleus where nucleus reaction can occur is called …….
a) Bind Section
b) Nuclear Cross Section
c) Wide Cross Section
d) None of These
2. One (1) barn is equal to…….
a) 10 -20 m 2
b) 10 -50 m 2
c) 10 -40 m 2
d) None of These
3. Fleeting decay configuration occurs during the formation of ……..

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 121

 a) Energy
b) Cloud
c) Compound Nucleus
d) K. E
4. All sorts of particles can be produced in ----------- reaction.
a) High Energy
b) Low Energy
c) Moderate Energy
d) Cloud Energy
5. Q-value is exactly a ………………
a) Energy
b) Momentum
c) Mass
d) Binding velocity
6. Which phenomenon occurs due to the overlapping of incident particle and target
nucleus?
a) Vibration
b) Resonance
c) Fusion
d) None of These
7. Number of particles before collision is not equal to the number of particles after
collision is condition for ………..
a) Elastic Scattering
b) Cloud Scattering
c) Knock-Out Reaction
d) Both a) & c)
8. Which are the conservation laws of nuclear r eaction?
a) Conservation of Nucleon
b) Conservation of Charge
c) Conservation of Momentum
d) All
9. Rate of Nuclear reaction normally not affected by ……….
a) Catalyst
b) Temperature
c) Pressure
d) All of Them

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10. Nuclear reaction involves interaction of one nucleus to…………
a) Another Nucleus
b) An Atom
c) Both a) & b)
d) An electron
11. High energy neutrons have ------------ cross section.
a) No Effect at All
b) High Capture
c) Small Capture
d) Width Capture
12. A typical nuclear reaction is: a + X → Y + b.If both Y and b are in ground states
after scattering then the reactions is called ……………….
a) Elastic scattering
b) Inelastic scattering
c) Knock-out reactions
d) Nuclear scattering
13. If nucleus interacts with each other without changing the nature of any nuclide, the
process is ………..
a) Elastic scattering
b) Nuclear scattering
c) Knock-out reaction
d) Inelastic scattering
14. Mean life of a compound nucleus is ……..
a) 10 -23 S to 10 -22 S
b) 10 -22 S to 10 -20 S
c) 10 -22 S to 10 -21 S
d) 10 -24 S to 10 -25 S
15. Compound nucleus model is good for explaining nuclear reactions in ………
a) Low energy target
b) Low energy projectile
c) High energy target
d) High energy projectile
16. In Breit-Wigner formula, decreasing amplitude means that the transmitted particle
is being ………
a) Absorbed
b) Scattered

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 c) Knocked out
d) None of these
17. Interaction of nucleus with other nucleus/particle without changing the nature is
………..
a) Scattering
b) Transformation
c) Nuclear reaction
d) All of them
18. The formation stage of compound nucleus takes place in ……... seconds.
a) 10 -15
b) 10 -17
c) 10 -19
d) 10 -21
19. Level width is ……… related to the mean life time.
a) Closely
b) Directly
c) Inversely
d) No
20. Breit-Wigner formula to access the energy distribution was proposed in ……….
a) 1916
b) 1926
c) 1936
d) 1946
Ans: 1.- b); 2.- d); 3.- c); 4.- a); 5.- a); 6.- b); 7.- c); 8. -d); 9.- d); 10.- c); 11.- c);
12.- a); 13.- b); 14.- c); 15.- a); 16.- a); 17.- a); 18.- d); 19.- c); 20.- d).

SUMMARY
The first nuclear reaction was observed in 1919 by Ernest Rutherford. A typical
nuclear reaction involves two reacting particles (i) a heavy target nucleus and (ii)
a light bombarding particle; which produces two new particles: (i) a heavier product
nucleus and (ii) a lighter ejected particle. A compact notation is used to describe
nuclear reactions asA(b, c)D which is equivalent to A + b producing c + D.Nuclear
reactions that occur in a time comparable to the time of transit of an incident particle
across the nucleus (~10 -22 s) are called direct nuclear reactions. The cross-sections for
direct reactions vary smoothly and slowly with energy in contrast to the compound nucleus
reactions.Types of direct reactions are: Elastic scattering, Inelastic scattering and Transfer

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 124

reactions which are further classified as: Stripping reaction, Pick-up reaction, Break-up
reaction and Knock-out reaction.Some nuclear reactions are not direct but a two -stage
process including the formation of a relatively long-lived intermediate nucleus and its
subsequent decay. Aftera quite long period of time (about 10 −19 to 10 −15 s) and
independent of the properties of the reactants, the compound nucleus disintegrates,
usually into an ejected small particle and a product nucleus. (~10 -22 s) are
called compound nuclear reactions.

Nuclear cross sections are two types, the differential and total cross-sections
depend on the value of  l , (phase-shift) which gives the max. value of sin 2  l =1. The
possibility of time reversal leads to the reciprocity theorem. The reciprocity theorem
states that “the probability for a transit ion proceeding one way in time is equal to the
probability for the same transition but with the sense of time reversed.”

Resonance scattering is best understood as the capture of an incident particle to

form a metastable bound state, and the subsequent de cay of the bound state and release
of the particle. The cross-section for resonance scattering is generally far higher than
that for non-resonance scattering. Resonances appear in the scattering situations at
positive total energy when the projectile energy in the center-of-mass system plus the
Q-value of the reaction just equals the excitation energy of a nuclear state. The
phenomenon of resonance is observed in the nuclear reactions when the yield of the
ejected particles is measured with the variation of the energy of the projectile.
Theresonance reaction is characterized by a sharp increase in the cross -section. The full
width at half-maximum (FWHM) in the resonance peak in the cross -section curve is
correlated with the resonance width of the level from w hich the reaction product
emerges.The scattering matrix is used to relate particle states before and after
undergoing ascattering process.It is used in quantum mechanics, scattering theory and
quantumfieldtheory.The matrix elements are related to the scattering probability. One
important aspect of the S-matrix is that it is unitary.

KEY WORDS
Nuclear Reaction, Mechanisms, Direct Reaction, Compound Nucleus, Compound
Reaction, Scattering, Cross sections, PartialWave, Amplitudes, Scattering matrix,
Reciprocity, Breit-Wigner, Resonance scattering, FWHM.

REFERENCES
YOUTUBE:

1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whYX4lJBVwQ .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 125

 2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDr_WOVMXXc .

3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phP7AMwRh2o .

4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQQF0HaFzuc .

5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y40MMhnvhYQ .

6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cb5xsKvvWk .

7) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcmVTXPzTak .

8) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEmvTidO7k4 .

WIKIPEDIA :
1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear_reaction .

2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/resonances_in_scattering_from_potentials .

3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial-wave_analysis.

4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-matrix.

5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonances_in_scatt ering_from_potentials.

6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_(particle_physics) .

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First
Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N. Manohara
Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
3. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
4. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
5. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
6. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
7. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age Intern ational (P) Ltd.
8. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
( https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/ siteAdmin/dde-

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 126

 admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20P article%20Phy
sics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 127

 C REDIT 02

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 128

CREDIT 02-UNIT 01: NUCLEAR MODELS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explain the constituents of nuclei.

 Discuss the properties of nuclei.

 Describe certain combinations of N neutrons and Z protons in bound states.

 Discuss about different Nuclear Models.

 Classify the different Nuclear Models.

 Describeabout Liquid drop model

 Distinguish different Nuclear Models.

 Explain the Bohr-Wheeler theory based on the liquid drop model of the nucleus.

 Describe Nuclear Shell Model.

 Explain experimental evidence for shell effects.

INTRODUCTION
There are several theoretical descriptions of the structure and function of atomic
nuclei, like the positively charged, dense cores of atoms etc. Different models have been
introduced using different properties. Each of the models is based on a reasonable
analogy that correlates a large amount of information and enables predictions of the
properties of nuclei. The New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford proposed the
description of the structure of nuclear atoms or planetary model of the atom in 1911
called the Rutherford model. The model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively
charged core called a nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around which
the light, negative constituents, called electrons, circulate at some distance, much
like planets revolving around the Sun.
The atomic nuclei are complex and peculiar physical objects with inte resting
properties. Some of these of these properties with some questions are:

1. The nuclei have neutrons and protons. Then why do nuclei emit α and β
particles?
2. Why is the average B.E. per nucleon (ԑ) nearly constant i.e. ԑ 8 MeV ?
3. Why nuclei having 4 n nucleons more stable than other nuclei?
4. How do we explain the existence of the excited states of nuclei?

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 5. How do we can interpret the nuclear static properties such as charge distribution,
spin, magnetic moment, parity?
Thus, nuclear theory should explain the above properties with boundary between (a)
nuclear structure and (b) mechanism of nuclear reactions. There are following obstacles
to have a constant nuclear theory:
(i) The type of nuclear force acting between the nucleons in the nucl eus is not
precisely known;
(ii) The equations to describe the motion of the nucleons in the nucleus are
extremely unwieldy;
(iii) The nucleus cannot be treated like a dense macroscopic medium.

The nucleus is a quantum system of many nucleons. Infact our theoretical

knowledge about nuclear structure is incomplete and less than that of the atomic
structure. A quantitative theory of nucleonic interaction shall be developed.
Accordingly, we chose the nuclear forces of interaction by trial -and-error method to
explain the available experimental data. It is a difficult task to obtain the explicit form
of nuclear forces from the experimental data on a two -body system because there is
only one bound state of two nucleons i.e. deuteron whose properties are not well
known. On the other hand, the experimental data on nucleon -nucleon scattering are not
accurate. Further, the nuclear forces are velocity independent.
The basic difficulties in the theory of nuclear structure are as:
1. There is a poor knowledge of interaction force bet ween the nucleons;
2. There is a problem of mathematical solution of the quantum many -body
problem. In quantum theory a system of a nucleons is described with the aid
of the wave function :
 m1, m2 …..mA (r 1, r 2, ……r A )
The saidwave functionhas 3A space coordinates (r 1, r 2, ….……, r A ) and A spin
subscripts m 1 , m2 …..m A each of which assumes the values corresponding to the two
possible orientations of the nucleon`s Spin. Thus, for a nucleus of A=100 (one hundred
nucleons) there will be a system of differential equat ions for 2 100 10 30 functions of 300
variables. Obviously even for the lighter nuclei with A=10 this problem is practically
insoluble without serious simplifying assumptions. Thus, it is very difficult to find
good simplifying assumptions for the nuclear Schrodinger equation.

01-01: NUCLEAR MODELS

With reference to above discussion, we need nuclear models in which some
model physical system satisfactorily describes a definite set of nuclear properties and at

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 130

the same time allows a sufficiently simple mathematical treatment to be substituted for
the nucleus. A good nuclear model should possess the following properties:
1. It describes the properties of the ground state nuclear states i.e., spins, parities
magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments.
2. It describes the properties of the excited states i.e. the nuclear excitation
spectrum.
3. It describes the dynamic properties of the nucleus i.e., the transition probabilities
of γ-quanta emission, nuclear reaction cross-sections.
There is no nuclear model which can provide a comprehensive description of the
nucleus.
A nuclear model is on the assumption that t he degree of freedom of nucleus
making up a definite set is approximately independent of each other. The said degrees
of freedom are presumed to interact weakly with each other and with degrees of
freedom are presumed to interact weakly with each other and with degrees of freedom.

01.01.01:CLASSIFICATIONOF NUCLEAR MODELS

The nuclear models are subdivided into three types as:
a) Independent particle model(IPM) or Single-Particle Model: In single-particle
model the degrees of freedom make themselves manifest, when the mean free path
considerably exceeds the system`s dimensions so that every nucleon moves
independently in some averaged self -consistent field i.e.in stationary orbits and paired
off in such a way that the values of many nuclear parameters are deter mined solely by
single unpaired nucleons.
b) Strong Interaction model (SIM) or Collective Model : The nucleons are strongly
coupled to each other because of their strong and short -range interactions. In this, the
nucleus is considered as a continuous medium. Hence the collective effects make
themselves manifest in such substance in which the mean free path of every nucleon is
small as compared with the nuclear dimensions. Thus, in the collective model the
nucleus is regarded as a liquid or as a solid.
c) Generalized Models: The nucleus is assumed to consist of a dense spherical core and
of one or several outer nucleons. The core is described with aid of one of the collective
models and the outer nucleons, with the aid of a self -consistent field. There isa weak
interaction between the degrees of freedom of the core and the outer nucleon(s). The
nucleus is able to rotate as a whole with all the nucleons taking part (fully or partly) in
the rotation. It explains the position and characteristics of a great number of l ow-
lyingexcited levels of many nuclei. We have a great number of nuclear models which
are classified into two groups, i.e.Independent Particle Model (IPM)&Strong
Interaction Model (SIM) as following table 1.

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 Table 1:Types of Nuclear Models
S.N. I. P. M. Models S.N. S. I. M. Models
1. 1 Fermi gas model 1. Liquid drop model
2. Potential-well model 2. Compound nucleus model
3. Optical model 3. Alpha particle model
4. Shell model 4. Collective model
5. Single particle shell model 5. Nilson model
6. Unified model
7. Collective model
8. Rotational model
9. Super fluid model
10. Spheroidal core model

In this unit we shall discuss Liquid drop model in detail and nucleus behavior in
other models in short.

01.02: LIQUID DROP MODEL

The liquid drop model of the nucleus was developed in 1937 by N. Bohr,
Wheeler and Frenkel. In this model, the nucleus is considered as a spherical drop of an
incompressible superdense nuclear fluid in which the nucleons move just like molecules
in the liquid. The basic assumptions in the liq uid drop model are:
1) The nucleus consists of an incompressible matter inthe radius R given as
R = r 0 .A 1/3

Where, r 0 = (1.2 to 1.5) 10 -15 m and A is the mass number.

1/3
This law R is valid for all nuclei.

2) The mass of any nucleus will be proportional to its volume (A α R 3 ).Henceall

nuclei have the same concentration of nucleons. Thus, we have:

n= = =

3) All nuclei have same density as:

kg/m3 .

4) There is some value of the mean distance between the nu cleon as:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 132

 3 -45 m

5) The nuclear force is identical for every nucleus.

6) The nuclear forces saturate.
7) The nucleus can be represented as a crystalline aggregate of the nucleons.

01.02.01: SIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARITIES BETWEEN LIQUID

DROPAND NUCLEUS OF ATOM
Thesimilarities between liquid drop and nucleus of atom are as follows.
1. The attractive nuclear force near the nuclear surface is similar to the surface
tension force on the surface of the liquid drop.
2. The nucleons in a nucleus behave like molecules in the liquid drop.
3. The density of nuclear matter is independent of its volume i.e., R and A.
Similarly, the density of liquid is independent of the size of the drop/volume of
liquid.
4. The emission of nuclear radiations (n, p, d, β and γ) from nucleus is analogous
to the emission of the molecules from the liquid drop during evaporation.
5. The constant B.E. per nucleon, i.e. (ε ≈ 8 MeV) is analogous to the constant
latent heat of vaporization of the liquid.
6. The internal energy of the nucleus is analogous to the internal thermal vibration
energy of molecules in the liquid drop.
7. The formation of a short-lived Compound Nucleus (C.N.) by absorption of the
nuclear particle (projectile) in a nuclear reaction is analogous to the process of
condensation of vapor to the liquid phase.

Differences between Liquid drop and Nucleus:Though there are the above cited
similarities between the nuclear matter and liquid drop, there are some dissimilarities/
differencesalso as mentioned below:
1. The molecules in liquid drop attract each other at distances larger than the
dimensions of the electron shells and repel strongly when distance is smaller
than the size of the electron orbits. But, the nuclear forces are attractive within
the range of 0.4 to 2.0 fm and repulsive for the distance of 0.4 fm between the
nucleons.
2. The average K. E. of molecules in liquid is about 0.1 eV and de -Broglie wave-
length is 5×10 -11 m which is very much smaller than the inter -molecular
distances. But, the average K. E. of nucleons in the nuclei is about 10 MeV and
de-Broglie wave-length is 6 x 10 -15 m which is of the order of inter-nucleon
distances.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 133

 3. The motion of molecules in the liquid drop is of classical character whereas the
motion of nucleons in the nuclei is of quantum character.
4. Nuclei have a constant volume-charge density, whereas in conducting droplets
the net charge is situated on the surface.

01.02.02:EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATIONSPROVIDED BY THE LIQUID

DROP MODEL
Explanation: The liquid drop model has been used to explain the following things:
(i) It explains the closely spaced nuclear levels.
(ii) The formation and decay of Bohr's compound nucleus in nuclear reactions.
(iii) The various terms in the semi-empirical formula for the nuclear masses i.e.,
Bethe-Weizsacker nuclear mass formula.
(iv) The nuclear BE except the discontinuities in the BE with N or Z.
(v) The nuclear fission of the heavy nuclei.
(vi) Determination of nuclear charge radii.
(vii) It explains the alpha-decay energy.
(viii) The nuclear stability for the beta-decay.
Application:Some of the applications have discussed here in short.In 1935, Von
Weizsacker had obtained the atomic mass of nuclei using liquid drop model of
nucleus as follows calledBethe-Weizsacker’s Semi-Empirical Nuclear Mass Formula.

If M (A,Z) is the atomic mass of an isotope of an element A X Z then we write:

M(A, Z)=Zm H + Nm n – E B …………….(1)

Where, m H and m n are the masses of the hydrogen atom ( ) and the neutron

respectively; Nis the number of neutrons i.e., N=A -Z and E B is the binding energy
which can be expressed as a sum of various terms as given below:

(i) Volume binding energy (∆W v ): In the nucleus, the nucleons (n and p) are held
together by short range attractive forces which reduce the mass of nucleus lower
than that of its constituents by an amount (∆W v )which is proportional to the number
of nucleons i.e., mass number (A). Thus

∆W v  A or ∆W v = - α A ………………..(2)

Where, α is a constant and it is about 14 MeV. This term is called Exchange energy.

(ii) Surface binding energy (∆W S ): We consider the nucleus as a spherical liquid drop
of surface area of 4πR 2 = 4π (r o A 1/3 ) 2 = 4πr 0 2 A 2/3 . In nucleus there are some
nucleons nearthe surface while some are nearer to the centre. The nucleons on the

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 nuclear surface are attracted by smaller number of nucleons in comparison to the
inner nucleons. Hence, a force similar to the surface tension of a liquid acts on the
nucleons near the free surface of the nuclear sphere. There are no forces acting from
the outside. Therefore, the nucleus assumes a spherical shape. Hence, BE is reduced
by an amount proportional to the nuclear surface areai.e.

∆W S  nuclear surface area  R 2  A 2/3

Or∆W S = -β.A 2/3 …………….(3)

Where, βis a constant and it has value of about 13 MeV.

(iii) Coulomb binding energy (∆W C ):The Coulomb repulsion force between protons
reduces the BE. The Coulomb force does not exhibit the pr operty of saturation.
Hence, each proton interacts with all remaining protons (Z - 1).Thus, the Coulomb
energy should be proportional to Z.(Z-1)≃ Z 2 and inversely proportional to R(A 1/3 ).
Therefore, the Coulomb repulsion energy term is given by:

Or ………………(4)

Where, and it has a value about 0.58 MeV.

(iv) Asymmetry energy (∆W as ):The nuclei with equal number of neutrons and protons
i.e., N = Z = A/2 exhibit the maximum stability. Thus, these nuclei have maximum
binding energy. Any departure from N = Z = A/2 leads to less stability i.e., the
reduction in BE. Thus, an asymmetry energy term is given by:

Or ………………….(5)

Where, ξ is a constant and it has value about 19.3 MeV.

(v) Pairing energy (∆W p ): The p and n have spin 1/2 and obey the Pauli Exclusion
Principle. Therefore, the interaction between two different nucleons will be
different from that between two identical nucleons. The nuclei with even number
of p and n are most abundant and most stable while nuclei with odd number of p

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 135

 and n are least stable. The nuclei for which either p or n is odd are intermediate in
stability. This effect is called pairing effect due to which the masses of even-even
nuclei are high and of odd-odd nuclei are low. The pairing effect is denoted by +δ,
0 and -δ for even-even, even-odd/odd-even and odd-odd nuclei. The comparison
with known masses yields the value of pairing energy as:

∆W p = ‘A’ even (Z-even and N-even)

∆W p = ‘A’ even (Z-odd and N-odd)

∆W p =0 for‘A’ odd (Z-even and N-odd or Z-odd and N-even)…………….(6)

(v) Magicity energy (∆W m ): The nuclei with N or Z equal to the Magic numbers (2, 8,
20, 28, 50, 82, and 126) have maximum binding energy.

Thus, we write the magicity energy term as:

……….…….(7)

Where, η is called Coefficient of magicity.

Therefore, the final BE of the nucleus is given by:

∆W=∆W v - ∆W s - ∆W C -∆W as - ∆W p

Or

……………………(8)

By substitution of BE from equation (8) into equation (1) we obtain, Von Weizsacker

Semi-empirical nuclear mass formula as:

M(Z,A)= Z.m H +N.m n -

M(Z,A)= Z.m p +(A-Z)m n 2/3

+ ……….………(9)

Best fit values of the constants are:

V,

And …………….…(10)

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 136

01.03: BOHR-WHEELER THEORY OF NUCLEAR FISSION BY
LIQUID DROP MODEL
N. Bohr and J. A. Wheeler put forward the theory of nuclear fission in 1939.
Bohr and Wheeler had considered the nucleus as analogous to a charged liquid drop.
The nuclear forces were compared with the surface tension force of a liquid. The
nuclear shape represents a balance between the short-range attractive forces and the
Coulomb repulsive forces. When 235U is excited by the capture of a thermal neutron,
then the nuclear surface oscillations are set -up in the liquid drop like matter which
distorts it from its original shape. The coulomb energy further attempts to deform the
drop even more. If the excitation energy is high enough, the Coulomb energy can
overcome the surface energy and the nucleus separates into two or more intermediate
masses. If fission does not occur, the excited compound nucleus (C. N.) emits either γ -
rays or neutron and returns to a stable shape. Here, the nucleus is considered as
uniformly charged drop of constant density with well -defined and incompressible
surface. Thus, the total volume of the drop remains constant and the oscillations of the
excited nucleus deform the surface only. The drop is deformed from the spherical shape
in such a way that it retains an axis of symmetry.

The theory is based on the liquid drop model of the nuc leus. On the basis of this
theory, it is possible to calculate the activation energy and critical energy for fission of
different nuclei.

If a thermal neutron hits the nucleus, a compound nucleus is formed with certain
exciting energy due to theextra neutron. Then this energy sets up the compound liquid
drop nucleus into rapid oscillations.

Diagrammatically, above reaction can be display as shown in Fig. 1 which explains the
liquid drop fission.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 137

 Fig. 1: Nuclear fission by Liquid drop model
The vibrations set up in the compound nucleus to deform it due to which its surface
energy𝐸 S and Coulomb energy 𝐸 C are both changed.The vibrations set up in the
compound nucleus to deform it due to which its surface energy 𝐸 S and Coulomb energy
𝐸 C are both changed.
The sum of energies for a spherical (un-deformed) nucleus is:
𝐸 o = (𝐸 S + 𝐸 C ) o

= 𝑎 2 𝐴 2/3 + 𝑎 3 𝑍 2 / A 1/3

……………(11)

In the fission process, 𝐸S tend to restore the original shape, while 𝐸 C have the effect of
increasing thedeformation, because the surface energy is minimum for the sphere while
the Coulomb energy decreaseswith increased deformation.For lighter nuclei, Coulomb
energyis less than surface energy, i.e.𝐸 C <𝐸 S, then the radius of each fragment
(spherical) in deformed nucleus is𝑅ʹ = 𝑟 o (𝐴/2) 1/3 .
The sum of energies for a deformed nucleu s is: d = (𝐸 S + 𝐸 C ) d
(i) Surface energy of deformed drop: The surface energy of the liquid drop is product
of the surface area and surface tension (τ) of the liquid. The surface energy of the
deformed drop isgiven by:

E Sd = ……..……. (12)

Where, ………..……. (13)

According to Bohr and Wheeler, the surface energy of the deformed nucleus is
given by:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 138

 ………..……. (14)

Where,4 . , the first term of equation (14) gives the surface energy of un -

deformed drop.
(ii) Coulomb energy of the deformed drop: The Coulomb energy of the deformed
drop is obtained by:

Or ………..……. (15)

Where,δV is the change in electric potential and δρ is the change in charge distribution
due todeformation. Thus, we have V = V o +δV and ρ = ρ o +δρ. Here we have assumed as
under:

………..……. (16)

Thus, the deformation is such that the deformation energy (V o .δρ), i.e. changing charge
density by δρ at constant potential V 0 is equal to the deformation energy (ρ o .δV) i.e.,
changing the potential by δV at constant charge density ρ o .
The Coulomb energy given by equation (15) contain three terms. (i)First term
gives the electrostatic energy of an undistorted and uniformly charged sphere.
(ii)Second term gives the energy of a monopole re-distribution of a charge. (iii)Third
term gives the interaction between the multiple potential field and multipole charge
distribution. Solving these three terms and adding them we get,

………..……. (17)

Total deformation energy: The addition of equations (14) and (17) gives the total
deformation energy of the drop as under:
E T = E Sd +E Cd (Here R o =r o A 1/3 )

……...….

(18)
Equation (17)can be expressed as:

………..…….

(19)

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If we take only terms then the change in the energy due to deformation of the drop

will be:

………..……. (20)

Condition of Stability of Nucleus against Fission and Fissionability Parameter:

In equation (20) the surface energy appears with a positive sign and the
Coulomb energy with a negative sign. The stability of the nucleus against the
spontaneous fission depends on ∆E , i.e.,, when it is positive or negative as mentioned
below:

(i) When E is positive i.e., E CO <2Eso then the nucleus is stable.

(ii) When E is negative i.e., E C0 >2E SO then the nucleus is unstable.

(iii) When E=0 , i.e.,, 2E SO =E Co Then we have: 2

Or 8

Or 40

Or 40 (Here we have taken, )

Or

Hence we have,

We define the fissionability parameter as under:

………………… (21)

We have following cases:

(i) Whenψ f<1, the nucleus is stable against the spontaneous fission.
(ii) Whenψ f> 1, the nucleus is unstable against the spontaneous fission.
Critical Fission Energy (E f ):

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 The critical fission energy is defined as the energy necessary to deform the drop
when it is about to split into the two equal drops. It is given by:

. ………………… (22)

If we neglect the second-order change in energy due to neck joining the two
fragments and compare only the sum of the surface energy and Coulomb energy for th e
original nucleus with the corresponding energy of the two spherical nuclei of half the
size which are in contact with each other. Thus, we obtain:

………………… (23)

Now dividing equation (23) by4 and then re-arranging we get:

………………… (24)

For an uncharged droplet  f=0 and f(0)=0.260. Thus, there are no electrostatic forces to
aid the fission. The critical energy is just the work done agains t the surface tension
inseparating into two drops.

01.04: MERITS AND DEMERITS OFLIQUID DROP MODEL

In nuclear physics the liquid drop model considers the nucleus to be a drop of
incompressible nuclear fluid of very high density. The nucleus is made of nucl eons that
are held together by the nuclear force. Its shape is similar to that of a spherical liquid
drop made up of microscopic molecules. This model has the following merits and
demerits.

Merits:

1. It explains the spherical shape of most nuclei.

2. It helps to predict the nuclear binding energy and also to assess how much is
available for consumption.

3. It helps to explain the stability of nuclei.

4. The radioactive phenomenon can be explained with the help of this model.

5. This model explains the phenomenon of artif icial radioactivity.

6. Nuclear fission can be understood on the basis of this model.

Demerits:

1. It is a crude model. It does not explain all the properties of the nucleus.

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 2. It does not explain the high stability of nuclei with the magic number.

3. The concept of pairing cannot be explained with this model.

4. The discontinuities in B / E nucleon cannot be explained.

5. It is not successful in interpreting the breaking of nuclei in lighter elements.

Experimental evidence for shell effects:

It is included in unit 02.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
24
Problem 01:Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for Mg by using standard
atomic mass.

Solution:Binding energy B per nucleon is given by:

BEN =

 BEN =

It is 0.00868 amu per nucleon and 8.26 MeV per nucl eon.
233 131 101
Problem 02: Assume a U nucleon fissions into a Xe nucleus, a Ru nucleus and 3
235 131
neutrons. What are their respective energies? Given: U=40.916 MeV; Xe= -
101
88.421 MeV; Ru= -87.952 MeV. Neutron= 8.071 MeV.

Solution: The energy, E= M( 235 U) – [M( 131 Xe) + M( 101 Ru) + 3M( 1 n)]

= [ΔM( 235 U]+235)–[ΔM( 131 Xe)+131]–[ΔM(101Ru)+101]–3[ΔM(m)+1]

= ΔM(235U) - ΔM(131Xe) - ΔM(101Ru) - 3ΔM(n)

= 40.916 + 88.421 + 87.952 - 3× 8.071

E = 193.08 MeV

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01

Que 1: What are the assumptions of the liquid drop model of the nucleus?

Ans:Basic assumptions are- nuclear density is constant; we can model effect of short -
range attraction due to strong interaction by a liquid drop model; Intermol ecular
force repulsive at short distances, attractive at intermediate distances and
negligible at large distances.

Que 2:What is concept of liquid drop model?

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Ans: The concept of liquid drop model is that atomic nuclei in which the nucleons
(neutrons and protons) behave like the molecules in a drop of liquid .
Que 3:What is the failure of the liquid drop model?
Ans: The liquid drop model is not very successful in describing the low -lying excited
states of the nucleus.

Que 4:What are the advantages of liquid drop model?

Ans:In nuclear physics the liquid drop model considers the nucleus to be a drop of
incompressible nuclear fluid of very high density. The nucleus is made of
nucleons that are held together by the nuclear force. Its shape is similar to that of
a spherical liquid drop made up of microscopic molecules
Que 5:What are the merits and demerits of liquid drop model?
Ans:See section 01.05.

MCQ 01
1. Which of the following best explain the process of nuclear fission?
a) Liquid drop model
b) Proton-proton cycle
c) Independent particle model
d) Sommerfield model
2. The relation for nucleus radius is …...
a) R= R o A 1/2
b) R= R o A 1/3
c) R= R o A 1/4
d) R= R o A 1/5
3. When the nuclei of U 235 is split into approximately two equal nuclei, the amount of
energy released per nucleon is ……….
a) 0.45 MeV
b) 0.9 MeV
c) 1.35 MeV
d) 1.7 MeV
4. During fission of U 235 , the number of neutrons released per fission is……..
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
5. The liquid drop model of nucleus was proposed by …….
a) Sommerfield

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 b) Fermi C. Rutherford
c) Chadwick
d) Bohr, Wheeler
6. Liquid drop model is …….
a) Independent particle model
b) Strong interaction model
c) Generalized model
d) None of above
7. The liquid drop model explains………..:
a) The formation and decay of nucleus in nuclear reactions
b) Bethe-Weizsacker nuclear mass formula
c) Nuclear fission
d) All above
8. The nuclear force is similar to the ……..
a) Bounce force of liquid
b) Viscous force of liquid
c) Surface tension force of liquid
d) All above
9. The stability of the nucleus against the spontaneous fission depends on ∆E. Which
the following statement is correct?

b) When E is positive then the nucleus is unstable.

c) When E is zero then the nucleus is stable.

d) When E is negative then the nucleus is unstable.

e) When E is zero then the nucleus is unstable.

10. The critical fission energy is defined as the energy necessary …………
a) To deform the drop when it is about to split into the two equal drops.
b) To form the big drop.
c) Evaporate the drop.
d) None of above
Ans: 1.- a); 2.-b ); 3.- b); 4.- c);5.- d); 6.- b);7.- d); 8.- c);9.- c); 10.-a).

SUMMARY
The first nuclear model was given by Rutherford and described the atom as a tiny,
dense, positively charged core called a nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is
concentrated, around which the light, negative constituents, called electrons, circulate

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 144

at some distance, much like planets revolving around the Sun. The atomic nuclei are
complex and peculiar physical objects with interesting properties like, nuclei emit α and
β particles; the average B.E. per nucleon (ԑ) is nearly constant i.e. ԑ  8 MeV; nuclei
having 4 n nucleons are more stable than other nuclei; nuclear static properties such as
charge distribution, spin, magnetic moment, parity etc. So,the nuclear models should
describe a definite set of nuclear properties and a good nuclear model should describe
the properties like spins, parities magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments,
excited states the transition probabilities of γ -quanta emission, nuclear reaction cross-
sections. The nuclear models are divided into (i) Single -particle model, (ii) Collective
Model and (iii) Generalized Models. Single-particle model and Collective Models are
further divided into many models. Here only Liquid drop model have discussed in
detail. The liquid drop model of the nucleus was developed by N. Bohr, W heeler and
Frenkel, they considered nucleus as a spherical drop of an incompressible super dense
nuclear fluid in which the nucleons move just like molecules in the liquid. There are
similarities between liquid drop and nucleus of atom as: The nuclear force is similar to
the surface tension force, The nucleons in a nucleus behave like molecules in the liquid
drop, The density of nuclear matter is independent of its volume similarly the density
of liquid is independent of the size of the drop of liquid, Th e emission of nuclear
radiations is analogous to the emission of the molecules from the liquid drop during
evaporation, The constant B.E. is similar to the constant latent heat of vaporization of
the liquid, the internal energy of the nucleus is analogous to the internal thermal
vibration energy of molecules in the liquid drop, the formation of Compound Nucleus
in nuclear a nuclear reaction is like process of condensation of vapor to the liquid
phase. And there is some dissimilarity also. The liquid drop mo del explains: (i) The
closely spaced nuclear levels; (ii) The formation and decay of nucleus in nuclear
reactions; (iii) Bethe-Weizsacker nuclear mass formula; (iv)The nuclear BE; (v)
Nuclear fission; (vi) Nuclear charge radii; (vii) The alpha -decay energy; (viii) The
nuclear stability for the beta-decay. Liquid drop model of nucleus has an application to
deriveBethe-Weizsacker’s Semi-Empirical Nuclear Mass Formula. N. Bohr and J. A.
Wheeler put forward the theory of nuclear fission in 1939 on the basis of liquid drop
model. It explains how the surface force energy (E S ) and Coulomb force energy (E C )
changes during the fission.

KEY WORDS
Nuclear Model, Liquid Drop Model, Spin, Magnetic Moment, Single -particle
Model, Collective Model, Generalized Model, Bethe-Weizsacker, Nuclear fission,
Semi-Empirical, Critical Fission Energy.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 145

REFERENCES
MOOCS:
YOU TUBE VIDEOS
1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MdakZV0Mat8.

2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RTlThUySwUE.

3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ye9flpv5anY .

WIKIPEDIA
1. https://www.britannica.com/science/nuclear-model.

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Nuclear_model&redirect=no .

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula.

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Liquid-drop_model&redirect=no.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Pra kashan Meerut, First
Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
3. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
4. Nuclear Physics: R. C. Sharma, K. Nath & Co-Educational publishers, Meerut.
Edition: 2008,ISBN: 9788192408880.
5. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
10. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw-Hill Book Company.
11. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and %20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 146

CREDIT 02-UNIT 02: SHELL MODELS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explain the properties of nuclei.

 List and explain variousNuclear Models.
 Discuss Liquid drop model.
 Discuss various conceptsaboutNuclear Shell Models.
 Compare Liquid drop model and Nuclear Shell Models.
 Describe the experimental evidence for shell model.
 Explain the concepts of Spin, magnetic moment, magic number.
 Describe Spin- Orbit coupling.
 Explain success &failure of Nuclear Shell Models

INTRODUCTION
In order to study the complete nucleus structure, various nuclear models were
proposed by many scientists. Many models describe the way how protons and neutrons
are arranged inside a nucleus. Nuclear model is any of several theoretical descriptions of
the structure and function of atomic nuclei. Each of the models is based on a
plausible resemblance that correlates a large amount of information and enables
predictions of the properties of nuclei. We have seen in previous unit that nuclear models
can be classified into two main groups. In those of the first group, called independent-
particle models, the main assumption is that little or no interaction occurs between the
individual particles that constitute nuclei; each proton and neutron move in its own orbit
and behaves as if the other nuclear particles were passive participants. The shell nuclear
model and its variations fall into this group.In a second group, called strong-interaction,
or statistical models, the main assumption is that the protons and neutrons are mutually
coupled to each other and behave cooperatively in a way that reflects the short-
ranged strong nuclear force between them. The liquid-drop model and compound-nucleus
model are examples of this group.Other nuclear models incorporate aspects of both
groups called generalized model. Example of this group is the collective model which is a
combination of the shell model and the liquid-drop model. Here we will discuss shell
model which is one of the most successful and simple to understand.

02-01: NUCLEAR SHELL MODELS

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 147

 The nuclear shell model is a model of the atomic nucleus. In nuclear
physics, the nuclear shell model is a model of the atomic nucleus which uses
the Pauli’s exclusion principle to describe the structure of the nucleus in terms of
energy levels. The first shell model was proposed by Dmitri Ivanenko (together with
E. Gapon) in 1932. The model was developed in 1949 following independent work by
several physicists, most notably Maria Goeppert Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen, who
shared half of the Nobel Prize (1963) in Physics for their contributions.The nuclear
shell model is partly analogous to the atomic shell model, which describes the
arrangement of electrons in an atom, in that a filled shell results in better stability. It
explains the arrangement of different electrons present around the nucleus of an atom
as per energy levels.

The atomic shell model explains the structure of atoms. The negatively
charged fundamental particles which are known as electrons are considered to occupy
diffuse shells in the space that surrounds the positively charged nucleus as shown in
Fig. 1. The shell which is closest to the nucleus is the first shell. The shells are
designated as: K-First shell; L-Second shell; M-Third shell; N-Fourth shell; O-Fifth
shell; P-Sixth shelletc.The sequence in which the electrons occupy the shell is given as:
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy the energy
level in an atom is found by using the following formula:

Electron capacity n th shell = 2n2

Where, n is the principal quantum number .

Fig. 1: Shell occupation by electros around the nucleus

The periodicity of a nuclear property i.e., the plot of ∆M (mass defect) against
neutron number is shown in Fig. 2. To explain the periodicity as shown here the
Nuclear Shell Model was proposed by Mayer, Hassel, Jenson and Swiss. In the single
particle shell model, the individual nucleons are considered to move in the st ationary

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 148

orbits and are paired off in such a way that the values of many nuclear parameters are
determined solely by single unpaired nucleons. We now record the main nuclear
properties and experimental facts on which the shell model is developed.

Fig. 2: Periodicity of nuclear property (mass defect M vs. N)

02-02: MAGIC NUMBER&EXPERIMENTALEVIDENCEFORSHELL MODELS

Magic Number:The binding energies expected by the Liquid Drop Model
underestimate the actual bindingenergies of “magic nuclei” for which either the number
of neutrons N=(A−Z) or thenumber of protons Z is equal to one of the following
numbers, namely,2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126. These numbers are called as “magic
numbers”. Particularly “Doubly magic” is the case for nuclei in which both the number
of neutronsand the number of protons is equal to magic numbers.
The experimental facts in the support of the shell model are given below:
1. There are discontinuities in the nuclear masses as shown in Fig. 2 .Also, there are
discontinuities in the binding energies against the neutron and proton number i.e., N
and Z at the Magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126.
2. There are anomalies in total abundance and the relative abundance of isotopes and
isotones as a function of nucleon number i.e., N and Z. There is a h igh relative
abundance of isotopes and isotones at the magic numbers. Example: Abundance

exceeds 60% for (N=50); (N = 82) and (N=82).

3. There is an increase in the excitation energy of the first excited state of nuclei a s
oneapproaches Magic number and particularly even N -even Z nuclei.
4. The alpha-decay energies show discontinuity for N = 126.
5. The beta-decay energies are abnormally large for the nuclei having N or Z as
MagicNumber.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 149

6. There are a large number of isotopes and isotones for Magic Numbers of N and
Z.Example: 50 Sn has ten isotopes (Z=50) and 20 Ca has six isotopes (Z=20).Similarly,
there are six and seven isotones for N = 50 and N = 82 respectively.

7. There is a marked drop in the neutron capture cross -sections near the Magic
numbers.

8. There is a very small quadrupole moment of the nuclei in the neighborhood of the
magic nuclei. Example: For nuclei having Z=2,8,20,50 and 82 the quadrupole
moment is zero or very small.

9. The Nuclei having Z and N =2,8,20, 50 and 82 are st able. For example, Nuclei 4 He
(Z=2=N); 16 O(Z=8=N); 40 Ca(Z=20=N) and 208
Pb (Z=82 and N=126) arevery much
stable.

10. Thedoubly magic nuclei (Z=82 and N=126) are particularly tightly bound.Three
radioactive series i.e., Uranium, Actinium and Thorium decay to form thestable
208
nuclei Pb (Z=82 and N=128).

11. The nuclei with N=8, 50 and 82 are stable while the nuclei with N = 8+1, 50+1 and
17 87 137
82+1 are unstable.For example,the nuclei O, Kr and Xe having N=9,51 and 83
respectively arespontaneous neutron emitters.

12. The nuclei with Magic proton number (Z=50 for Sn and Z=82 for Pb) have
verysmall capture cross-section in comparison to their neighbors.

235
13. The asymmetry of nuclear fission of U is due to the magic number of Z and N.

14. The ground state parity of the nuclei changes from even parity to odd parity at A =
4, 16, 40 when the nucleon numbers are 2, 8 and 20 respectively.

Evidence for shell structure:By looking at nuclear reactions that add a nucleon or
remove a nucleon from a closed shell nucleus. The most sensitive of these are
electron knockout reactions, where an electron comes in and an electron and a proton
or neutron escapes, usually denoted as (e,e′p) (e,e′n) reactions.

02-03:SINGLE PARTICLE SHELL MODEL

The paired nucleons contribute zero spin and zero magnetic m oment. The paired
nucleons form an inert core of the nucleus. The predicted spin and magnetic moment of
even-even nuclei are zero. In the case of odd-A nuclei the properties of the nucleus are
characterized by the unpaired proton and neutron. To determine how the nucleons fill

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the various quantum states of the nucleus it is necessary to specify the mean potential
to which each nucleon is subjected. The Schrödinger equation is solved with the
potentials. Therefore, for shell model it is the solution of Schro dinger equation for a
particle moving in a spherically symmetrical central field of force i.e., in a field in
which the potential energy (V) of the particle w.r.t. the centre is a function of V(r) of
its radial distance r only. The solution of the three -dimensional Schrodinger equation is
written as:

Ψ= …………………. (1)

Where, ( ɸ) are the spherical harmonic functions. The n, l and m are the principal,

azimuthal and magnetic quantum numbers, respectively. The azimuthal quantum

number l of a single particle state determines the parity of the wave function as (-1) l .
The quantum numbers n, l are related to the number of nodes in Ψ as a function of r θ
and ɸ. There are (n-1) altogether of which I are in the angular coordinates and ( n-l-
1)=n r in the radial variation. The number n r ≥ 0 is called the radial quantum number. The
radial functions R nl (r)can be obtained only if V(r)is specified as under:
(a) Infinite Square Well Potential:
In this case we represent V(r) as-
V(r) = - V 0 forr ≤ r 0
And V(r)= α for r ≥ r 0 …………………. (2)
(b) Infinite Harmonic Oscillator Potential:
It has the form as-

V (r)= …………………. (3)

Where,ω is the classical angular frequency of the oscillator of mass 'm'. Thus, we
have,

V(r) = - V 0

= …………………. (4)

The above two potentials provide the contrasting view -points. The true nuclear
potential is expected to be between these extremes. It is called Woods-Sexon Potential
which was obtained by fitting the N-N scattering data.
(c) Woods-Saxon Potential:
It has the form as-

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 V(r)= -V 0 [1+ exp. ] ………………….

(5)

Where, R = r o A 1/3 = 1.32A 1/3 fmin which A is mass number and -1

= 0.5f Here the

value of V 0 50.6MeV

When we get:V(r) = -V 0 for r< R

And V(r) = 0 for r R……………………(6)

This potential is flat at the centre and falls off smoothly to zero at the edge of the
nucleus. For Woods-Saxon potential, an exact solution cannot be obtained. Hence
numerical methods are employed.
(d) Spin-Orbit Coupling Potential:
Several attempts had been made to modify the potential to yield the observed
magic numbers. The most successful proposal was made by Mayer and Haxel ; Jensen
and Sness in 1949. Accordingly, a non -central component was included in the force
acting on a nucleon in the nucleus. This non-central force depends on the relative
orientation of the orbital angular momentum and the spin momentum of the nucleon.
This attractive interaction potential is assumed to be proportional to a term:
V S (r)S.l
….……..……..(7)
Where, S and I are the spin and orbital vectors for the nucleon. The single particle
levels with spin-orbit coupling potential have been shown in Fig. 3.

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 Fig.3:Single particle levels in a potential with Spin -Orbit coupling

02-04:SPIN-ORBIT COUPLING
The spin-orbit coupling (also called spin-orbit effect or spin-orbit interaction) is
any interaction of a particle's spin with its motion. The first and best-known example of
this is that the spin-orbit interaction causes shifts in an electron's atomic energy
levels (detectible as a splitting of spectral lines), due to an electromagnetic interaction
between the electron's spin and the nucleus's electric field through which it moves. A
similar effect, due to a relation between angular momentum and the strong nuclear
force, occurs for the protons and neutrons moving inside the nucleus, leading to a shift
in their energy levels in the nucleus shell model. More recently, the field
of spintronics is nothing more than the exploration and exploitation of various spin -
orbit effects for electrons in semiconductors and other materials.

The magnetic fields created by spin quantum number S and orbital quantum
number L are not isolated from one another; they interact through spin-orbit coupling
(Russell-Saunders coupling). We will consider only this simple form of coupling in this
text. Its application is limited to the elements with z<40, including the first row of the
transition elements. In the case of heavier elements, we must also consider j.j coupling;
however, we will not discuss here.

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In the Russell-Saunders spin-orbit coupling scheme, the interaction between S and L is
expressed by an additional quantum number, the total angular momentum quantum
number (J). The possible values of J are values between L+S and |L−S| as:

J= L+S, L+S-1, L+S-2, L+S-3, ………|L−S|…………………. (8)

A value of Jmust be positive or zero for a multielectron system. J values can fall into
series 1/2,3/2,5/2, ….... or 0,1,2, …..... The quantum number J is added to the term
symbol as a subscript to the right of the letter describing the term. A full -term symbol
is as follows:
(2S+1)
L J …………………. (9)
The result of spin-orbit coupling is that a term for the free ion is split into states of
different energies. For example, a 3 P state of a carbon atom with a p 2 electron
configuration would be split into three different energy states (according to the three
possible J values 0, 1, and 2): 3 P 0 , 3 P 1 , 3 P 2 .

The relative energies of the states can be predicted from Hund's Third Rule.

Hund's third Rule:

 For sub-shells that are less than half-filled, the lowest energy state has the
lowest J value.

 For sub-shells that are exactly half-filled, there is only one J value, thus it is the
lowest energy.

 For sub-shells that are more than half-filled, the lowest energy state has the
largest J value.

Fig. 4: The effects of spin-orbit coupling on the free ion Energy splitting

Thus, in these cases where the p sub-shellsare less than half full, the lowest energy
state from the 3 P free ion term would be that with J=0, 3 P 0 , followed by J=1and J=2.
The splitting and relative energies are illustrated i n Fig.4. Spin-orbit coupling and the

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splitting of the free ion terms have important implications for electronic spectra
because they affect the energies of electronic transitions.

02-05:SUCCESSES & FAILURES OF NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL

The nuclear shell model has explained many properties successfully for lighter nuclei
but it fail to explain some properties for heavy nuclei.
A) Successes: The nuclear shell model can predict the following nuclear properties:

1) Spin: This model has been found very successful in predic ting g-s spins of large
number of odd A nuclei.
Example: (i) have unpaired neutron and proton respectively. These
nuclei have scheme as (1s 1/2 ) 2 (1p 3/2 ) 4 (1p 1/2 ) 1 . Hence the g-s spin is ½ which is
also their experimental value.
(ii) The nuclei have level scheme as :

(1s 1/2 ) 2 (1d 5/2 ) 1

Thus, their g-s spin is 5/2 which is also the experimental value.

2) Magnetic Moment: The nuclear shell model makes very good prediction for the
magnetic moments of the light nuclei as given in following table 1.
Table 1: Magnetic Moment:

Sr. Magnetic Magnetic

Nucleus Spin Configuration moment moment
No.
(Expt.) nm (Theo.) nm

1. (d) 1 0.86 0.88

2. (a) 0 Closed shell 0.0 0.0

3. 3/2 ( 4 He) 3.26 3.07

4. 3 ( 4 He)1 1.80 1.88

5. 0 Close shell 0.0 0.0

12
6. 1 C).1 -0.40 -0.40

½ -0.28 -0.24
7.

3) Beta-decay:The nuclear shell model has been successful to predict th e spins and
parities of many unstable nuclei which decay by β -emission.

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 Examples: (1)

19
The measured and theoretical value of spin of F is 7/2.

b)
45
The measured and predicted value of the spin of Sc is 7/2.

(B) Failures: The shell model fails to explain following some properties

1) Spin:The shell model fails to predict some g.s. spins of some nuclei.

Examples: 1) The nuclei have level scheme as:

Thus the g.s. spin should be 7/2 but the experimental value of spin is 5/2.

2) The nuclei have level scheme as:

Thus the g.s. spin should be 5/2 but the experimental value of spin is 3/2.

2) Magic Number:Some magic numbers are not predicted by shell model as 50, 82
and 126.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER
Que. 01:What are the predictions of shell model in nuclear physics?
Ans: The shell model accurately predicts certain properties of normal nuclei, such as
their angular momentum.
Que. 02: What is the shell model of the nucleus in nuclear physics?
Ans:In nuclear physics, atomic physics, and nuclear chemistry, the nuclear shell
model is a model of the atomic nucleus which uses the Pauli Exclusion Principle
to describe the structure of the nucleus in terms of energy levels
Que. 03: What are the achievements of the shell model?
Ans: It explains the ground state spin and parities of all even-even nuclei without any
exception. It explains the ground state spin and parities of most of odd A (even-
odd or odd-even) nuclei. It also explains the spin and parities of odd-odd
nuclei.

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Que. 04: What is the significance of the nuclear shell model?
Ans:With the help of the shell model, we can accurately predict the properties of
nuclei such as angular momentum. But, for nuclei which are in a highly unstable
state, the shell model needs to be modified or replaced with other models such
as the collective model, liquid-drop model, and compound nucleus model.
Que. 05: What are the merits and demerits of shell model ?
Ans:Merits:Energy level diagram successfully calculated by using simple shell -model
wave functions and effective two-body interactions. The magic number nuclei get
explained. Demerits: There exists difference between shell-model wave functions
and the real states of the nucleus.
Que. 06: What are the magic numbers?
Ans: The nuclei having numbers of neutrons N=(A−Z) or the number of protons Z is
equal to one of the numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 are found to be more stable.
These numbers are called as magic numbers.

MCQs

1. When is a nucleus most stable, according to the nuclear shell model?

a) When it has a magic number of either protons or neutrons.
b) When it has a maximum number of neutrons.
c) When it has a full shell of protons plus one more.
d) When its electrons are in a high energy state.
2. What is one way in which nucleons are configured within the nucleus?
a) They form complex, geometric patterns.
b) They spell out the name of the element in ancient Phoenician.
c) They form pyramids, which reduce their energy.
d) They match up in opposite spin pairs according to the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
3. In the nuclear shell model, a 'magic number' is a number of ………..
a) Proton or electron.
b) Proton or neutron.
c) Electron or proton.
d) Neutron or electron.
4. The limited number of electrons in ‘M’ shell is……….
a) 2
b) 8
c) 18
d) 32

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 5. The number of electrons in n th (n being the serial number of orbit) orbit is
…………..
a) 2n 2
b) 3n 2
c) 4n 2
d) 5n 2
6. The sequence in which the electrons occupy the shell is given as…………….
a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14.
b) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49.
c) 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729.
d) 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98.
7. The sequence of magic numbersis ………………….
a) 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126.
b) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49.
c) 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729.
d) 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98.
8. When nuclei will have both neutron number and proton number equal to one of the
magic numbers, they are known as……..
a) Special magic.
b) Doubly magic.
c) Magical magic.
d) Quadruple magic
9. Example of a compound having doubly magic number nucleus is ………..
a) Calcium
b) Magnesium
c) Fluorine
d) Silicon
10. Fifth shell is designated as ………..
a) P
b) O
c) K
d) L
11. With the help of the shell model, we can accurately predict the properties of nuclei
such as ……….
a) Atomic number
b) Angular momentum
c) Linear momentum
d) Angular velocity

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Ans: 1.-a); 2.-d); 3.-b);4.-c); 5.-a); 6.-d);7.-a); 8.-b); 9.-a); 10.-b); 11.-b).

SUMMARY
The nuclear shell model is one of the most successful and simple to understand.
The nuclear shell model is a model of the atomic nucleus which uses the Pauli’s
exclusion principle to describe the structure of the nucleus in terms of energy
levels. The nuclear shell model is partly analogous to the atomic shell model, which
describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom, in that a filled shell results in better
stability. It explains the arrangement of different electrons present around the nucleus
of an atom as per energy levels. The shell which is closest to the nucleus is the first
shell. The shells are designated as: K-First shell; L-Second shell; M-Third shell; N-
Fourth shell; O-Fifth shell; P-Sixth shell etc.The sequence in which the electrons
occupy the shell is given as: 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98. The maximum number of electrons
that can occupy the energy level in an atom is found by formula 2n 2 . The nuclei having
numbers of neutrons N=(A−Z) or the number of protons Z is equal to one of the
numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 are found to be more stable. These numbers are called
as magic numbers. The experimental facts in the support of the shell model found
related to the magic numbers. The paired nucleons contribute zero spin and zero
magnetic moment. The properties of the nucleus are characterized by the unpaired
proton and neutron. The spin-orbit coupling is any interaction of a particle's spin with
its motion. The first and best-known example of this is that the spin-orbit interaction
causes shifts in an electron's atomic energy levels. The magnetic fields created by spin
quantum number S and orbital quantum number L are not isolated from one another;
they interact through spin-orbit coupling. The nuclear shell model has explained many
properties successfully for lighter nuclei but it fail to explain some properties for heavy
nuclei.

KEY WORDS
Nuclear Shell Model, K, L, M, N, O, P shell numbers, Spin quantum number,
Orbital quantum number, Spin - Orbit Coupling, Magic numbers.

REFERENCES
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rd0CJje59bE .

2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vMwzkOi0v4 .

3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cjkYfu6kyhQ .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 159

 4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Tb5DSFPwkU .

WIKIPEDIA
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear_shell_model .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_structure#Introduction_to_the_shell
_concept .

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3ANuclear_shell_model .

BOOKs

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.

2. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr . V. Komalamba, Prof. N.

Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.

3. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.

4. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.

5. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (196 6), Addison Wesley

Publishing Company.

6. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.

7. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.

8. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley Ind ia Pvt. Ltd.

9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.

10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.

11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.

12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,

(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).

13. NUCS 342 Introduction to Nuclear Science, Simon Fraser University,Spring

2011.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 160

CREDIT 02-UNIT 03: NUCLEAR ENERGY LEVEL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explainnuclear shell model.

 Compare liquid drop model and nuclear shell model.
 DiscussaboutNuclear Energy.
 DefineNuclear Energy Level.
 Explain the concepts of ground state energy, excited state energy and
transitionstate energy.
 DiscussNuclear Energy Level.
 ExplainNuclear Energy Level
 Describe Qualitative discussion on transition.
 Estimatetransition rates.
 Describe discrete energy levels.
 Distinguish between atomic and nuclear Energy Level.
 Determine angular momenta and parity in nuclear ground state
 Define transition rate.
 Obtain expression for transition width and transition energy.

INTRODUCTION
Nuclear Energy is the energy in the core of an atom,where an atom is a tiny
particle that constitutes every matter in the universe. Normally, the mass of an atom is
concentrated at the centre of the nucleus. Neutrons and Protons are the two subatomic
particles that figure out the nucleus. There is an exact massive amount of energy in
bonds that bind atoms together.Nuclear Energy is discharged by nuclear reactions
either by fission or fusion. In nuclear fusion, atoms combine to form a larger atom. In
nuclear fission, the division of atoms takes place to form smaller atoms by releasing
energy. Nuclear power plants produce energy using nuclear fission. The Sun produces
energy using the mechanism of nuclear fusion.

The nucleus, like the atom, has discrete energy levels whose location and
properties are governed by the rules of quantum mechanics. The locations of the
excited states differ for each nucleus. The excitation energy depends on the internal
structure of each nucleus.The basic features of the collective and shell models of
nuclear structure are reviewed. A detailed comparison between the experimentally

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 161

observed energy levels and those obtained by theoretical calculations is presented for
a large number of nuclei. The effect of nuclear correlations within the framework of
the shell model is investigated. Two correlation effects are studied in particular
detail.Thepredictions of the particle-hole random phase approximation of the
commonly observed coherent vibrational states and the pairing correlations of the
superfluid nuclear model. The extension of the shell model to include representations
of basis states corresponding to configurations which possess equilibrium
deformations is discussed. The work concludes with a brief account of some recent
studies of the self-consistent structure of nuclei in an attempt to lay a sounder
foundation for the nuclear shell model.

03-01: NUCLEAR ENERGY LEVEL

The nucleus, like the atom, has discrete energy levels. The locations of the
excited states differ for each nucleus. The excitation energy depends on the internal
structure of each nucleus. Eachnucleon moves in a shell depending on its energy and
angularmomentum in a manner analogous to atomic orbital. Unlike an atomic shell,
here the stationary states having lowered 1 quantum number have higher energy.
Quantum number l =0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. are represented by alphabets s, p, d, f ,g, h
respectively, also the quantum number m l can take (2l +1) values. The energy levels that
come from such calculation do not agree with the observed sequence of magic numbers.
Something essential is missing from the picture.The problem is solved by incorporating
spin orbit coupling whose magnitude is such that theconsequent splitting of energy
levels into sub levels is many times longer than analogoussplitting of atomic energy
levels.The spin orbit coupling can be either LS coupling or j-jcoupling. LS coupling
hold for verylighter nuclei only. It is the j-j coupling which holds for great majority of
nuclei. In j-j coupling s i andl i of each particle are first coupled to form j i for the particle

of magnitude ħwhere, . The various j i , then couple

together to form the total angular momentum J. When appropriate strength is assumed
for the spin orbit interaction, the energy levels of either class of nucleon fall into the
sequence as shown in Fig. 1.The levels are designated by a prefix equal to total
quantum number n, a letter that indicates lfor each particle in that level according to the
usual pattern ( s, p, d, f , g corresponding tol=0, 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively) and a subscript
equal to j. The spin orbit interaction splits each state of a given j into (2 j +1) sub states
which can accommodate (2 j+1) nucleons. Large energy gaps appear in the spacing of
the levels at intervals that are consistent with thenotion of separate shells. The number

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 162

of available nuclear states in each nuclear shell is in theascending order of energy 2, 6,
12, 8, 22, 32 and 44. Hence shell is filled when there are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
neutrons or protons in a nucleus giving as a result stable nucleus which are relatively
more abundant in nature. These numbers of protons or neutrons is called a magic
number.

Fig.1:Spin-orbit coupling and the nucleon levels

03-01.01: GROUND STATE NUCLEAR ENERGY LEVEL

Analyzing the interactions among many nucleons and calculate the energy levels
with their properties is a complicated mathematical task. So, nuclear scientists
havedeveloped several nuclear models that simplified the description of the nucleus and
themathematical calculations. These simpler models still preserve the main featu res
ofnuclear structure.One of such models is the Shell Model, which accounts for many
features of thenuclear energy levels. According to this model, the motion of each
nucleon is governedby the average attractive force of all the other nucleons. The
resulting orbits formshells, just like as the orbits of electrons in atoms. As nucleons are
added to the nucleus,they drop into the lowest -energy shells permitted by the Pauli

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 163

Principle, which requiresthat each nucleon have a unique set of quantum numbers to
describe its motion.
When a shell is full (that is, when the nucleons have used up all of the possible
sets of quantum number assignments), a nucleus of unusual stability forms. This
concept is similar to that found in an atom where a filled set of electron quantum
numbers results in an atom with unusual stabilityan inert gas. When all the protons or
neutrons in anucleus are in filled shells, the number of protons or neutrons is called a
magic number.Some of the magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 12 6.Somenuclei,
40 208
for example Ca and Pb, have magic numbers of both protons and neutrons;these
nuclei have exceptional stability and are called doubly magic.
Filled shells have a total angular momentum, J, equal to zero. The next
addednucleon (a valence nucleon) determines the J of the new ground state. When
nucleons(singly or in pairs) are excited out of the ground state they change the angular
momentumof the nucleus as well as its parity and isospin projection quantum numbers.
The shellmodel describes how much energy is required to move nucleons from one orbit
to anotherand how the quantum numbers change. Fig. 2shows an energy diagram of the
12
twofilled shells of the ground state of C. Promotion of a nucleon or a pair of nucleons
to anunfilled shell puts the nucleus into one of the excited states shown in Fig.3.

12
Fig. 2:Shell model energy diagram of the orbitals of protons and neutrons in C
ground state. The arrows on individual nucleons denote its spin state.

03-01.02: EXCITED NUCLEAR ENERGY STATE

Promotion of a nucleon or a pair of nucleons to anunfilled shell puts the nucleus into
one of the excited states shown in Fig. 3. Excited nuclear states decay to more stable
states, i.e., more stable nucleonorbital. Measuring transition rates between nuclear
energy levels requires specializedalpha, beta, and gamma detectors and associated

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 164

electronic circuitry to preciselydetermine the energy and half -life of the decay.
Quantum mechanics and shell-modeltheory permit nuclear scientists to compute the
transition probability (rate of decay)between nuclear states. For nuclei whose structure
can be described by a small number ofvalence nucleons outside filled shells, the Shell
Model calculations agree very well withmeasured values of spin and parity assignments
and transition probabilities.
The locations of the excited states differ for each nucleus. The excitation
energy, Ex, depends on the internal structure of each nucleus. Each excited state is
characterized by quantum numbers that describe its angular momentum, parity, and
12
isospin. Fig. 3 shows a few of the excited states of the C nucleus. P and n respectively
at the top of the Fig. 3 indicate the separation energies for a proton and a neutron.The
angular momentum quantum number, J, is the integer or half-integer that is the measure
of the total angular momentum of the energy state in units of ħ.
Angular momentum = Jħ.

12
Fig. 3: Quantum numbers for excited states of the C nucleus
The parity, P, of a nuclear energy level is a statement about what the nuclearst ructure
of the state would look like if the spatial coordinates of all the nucleons werereversed.
P = + means the reversed state would look the same as the originaland P= -means the
reversed state differs from the original. The isospin (projection) quantum number, T, is
an integer or half-integer that measures a property that results if neutronand proton
coordinates were interchanged. Fig. 3shows these quantum numbers foreach excited
state in the notation J P, T. These quantum numbers are results of the basic symmetries of
the underlying force law that governs the binding of nucleons in a nucleus.They

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determine how an excited state will decay into another state in the same nucleus(gamma
decay) or into a specific state in a different nucleus (beta or alpha decay ).
An example of transitions between a nucleus’s energy levels is shown in Fig.
12 12
4.The ground states of B (5 protons, 7 neutrons) and N (7 protons, 5 neutrons)
12
arerelated to each other and to the 15.11 MeV state in C. Each has a nucleon in the
thirdenergy level shown in Fig. 2, each has the quantum number 1 + , 1, and each
decaystothe ground state of carbon. The boron and nitrogen beta decay emit an e - and
e + respectively. The15.11MeV state in carbon decays by gamma emission. The shell
modelcalculations of these transition probabilities agree quite well with the measured
rates eventhough different decay mechanisms are at work in each case. Nuclear
theorists keeprefining the shell model to understand the details of nuclear structure and
to make thatknowledge available for applications in nuclear technology.

Fig. 4:Transitions between discrete energy levels in A=12 nuclei. The energy is in MeV.

03-02: ANGULAR MOMENTA AND PARITIES OF NUCLEAR STATES

The ground state angular momentum is determined by the re maining unpaired
nucleon(s). For even-, even- (even-even) nuclei, all nucleons will be paired, the total
angular momentum will be zero, and the parity will be positive. When a shell is
completely filled the net angular momentum is zero and the nucleus has even parity
(1P=+). If there is any unpaired nucleon, then this will determine the angular
momentum and parity of whole nucleus. Parity(π) = even or 1+.

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Angular Momentum:The vector sum of orbital angular momentum and spin angular
momentum gives the total angular momentum.
i) Orbital Angular Momentum:Central field problems are common in physics
and are based on a potentialthan only depends on the distance from a fixed origin,
usually the centre of massof the system. The associated force is directed towards the
same point. Animportant example of a classical central field problem is gravitational
planetarymotion. The force on an orbiting planet is the gravitational attraction to
thecentre of mass of the system i.e. along the radius vector r. Therefore, the torque on
the object N = r xF has to be zero and so the orbital angular momentumcannot change,
unless there is some influence from something external to thesystem.
The same is true in quantum mechanics; for a central field problem,
orbitalangular momentum is a conserved quantity and therefore has a good
quantumnumberl. [In nuclei, a single nucleon is subjected to an approximately
centralforce, so orbital angular momentum is an approximately conserved quantity and
lis approximately a good quantum number]. It is simplest to use spherical polar
coordinates, and because thepotential only depends on r, the three -dimensional
Schrodinger equation separatesinto a radial equation that is peculiar to the potential
(i.e. whether it is Coulombas in the atom, or the squarewell potential for a nucleon in
the nucleus).The angular equation is always the same for a central field problem:

…….……………(1)

Where, is the operator for orbital angular momentum and are a set ofstandard

functions called spherical harmonics.

The quantum number l specifies the length of the orbital angular

momentumvector, which is equal to . It can only take values that are

positiveintegers. It is usually denoted by a letter accordi ng to a series s, p, d, f, g, h,i, j,

k …..., for l= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8……., respectively.
The quantum number m l again can only be integer and runs from -l to +l.It is related to

the z component of the orbital angular momentum vector, whichis equal to .

Remember from elementary quantum mechanics, the knowledgeof the length and one
component of an angular momentum vector is all you canhave.
The radial equation from the separation ends up containing l, so the energiesof levels
depend on the length of the orbital angular momentum vector. However,unless there is
some special circumstance normally involving external magneticfields, the level energy

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 167

does not depend on m l . So, a level with a particular lisusually composed of 2l+1
degenerate m l substrates.
ii) Spin Angular Momentum:Electrons, protons and neutrons all have an intrinsic
angular momentum associatedwith them that is similar to the classical concept of spin.
By analogy withorbital angular momentum, one can define a set of spin operators for

the lengthand the z component of spin, respectively. These are associated

witha set of spin eigenvectors , where s and m s are the quantum numbers.Intrinsic

spin is not as easy to describe as orbital angular momentum andrequires diff erent
handling. This result in the s quantum number being ableto takes both positive half
integer and positive integer values corresponding tofermion and boson particles. The

quantum number ms runs from - s to+s.

iii) Total Angular Momentum: For particles with both orbital and intrinsic spin,
the two angular momentacan be added vectorially to produce a total angular momentum
vector. Again,this has quantum numbers j and m j to describe the length of the total

angularmomentum and its z component .

If a particle has quantum numbers l and s, the total angular momentumquantum

number can be from in integer steps. For example, ifl = 2 and s = 1/2

then j= 3/2 or 5/2.

Parity:Parity is a quantum number that tells about how the wave func tionbehaves if
you invert the coordinate system, i.e. for Cartesian coordinates x → - x, y → - y and z

→ - z; for spherical polars you just need θ→ - θ and  →  + . If is an operator that

does this, and you applied the operatortwice, you should end up with the same thing.

Trying that:  = p  ……………(2)

Where, p is the "quantum number" for parity.

And again:  = p = p 2 ……………(3)

So, if this is to get us back where we started, then p 2 = 1. So, wave functionscan
be classified as positive and negative parity in this way.The parity operator i s all about
changing the geometric coordinates around.For spherical polar coordinates this just
involves θ and , so parity must bedetermined by the angular equation only i.e. it is a

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property of the sphericalharmonics. It turns out that those functions have positive parity
if l is even, andnegative parity is l is odd.
If you are combining particles with each with specific parities, it turns out
thatthe quantum number is multiplicative, i.e. the overall parity is a multiplicationof the
individual parities of the composite bits.

03-03: ANGULAR MOMENTA AND PARITIESINNUCLEAR GROUND STATE

Each level is characterized by a principal quantum number n, l value andaj-
value. Thelowest stationary states are occupied first with the maximum number of
nucleons given by(2 j +1). When a shell is completely filled (characterized by the
magic number) the net angularmomentum is zero and the nucleus has even parity (P
=+1). If there is any unpaired nucleon,then this will determine the angular momentum
and parity of whole nucleus.
(i) Even-Even Nuclei: In even-even nuclei, all the protons and neutrons should pair off
to cancel out one another’s spinand orbital angular momenta. Thus even -even nuclei
ought to have zero nuclear angularmomenta, as observed.
Total ground state angular momentum =0
And Parity () = even or +1.
(ii) Even-Odd or Odd-Even Nuclei: In even-odd and odd-even nuclei, the half integral
spin of a single “extra” nucleon should becombined with the integral angular
momentum of the rest of the nucleus for a half integral
totalangularmomentum.Thus,Total angular momentum will be equal to the half -
integral angular momentum j of the unpairedparticle.
1
And Parity, () = (- 1)
Where,lcorresponds to the last unpaired particle.
(iii) Odd-Odd Nucleus: Odd-odd nuclei each have an extra neutron and an extra
proton whose half-integral spins shouldyield integral total angular momenta.
To find Parity j N ,l N andj P,l Pof unpaired nucleons.

If j N + l N +j P+l P =even, then

And if j N + l N +j P +l P =odd , then

Parity,

03-04: TRANSITION RATES- QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION AND

ESTIMATION

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 The nucleons have specific energy levels in the nucleus. Nuclear transitions
occur when the nucleons change from one energy level to another .The transition rate is
simply a measure of how much of the sample undergoes transition per unit time.An
approximation of transition rate is based on the single-particle shell model. This
approach assumes that the radiation results from the transition of a single proton from
an initial orbital state of the shell model to a final state of zero angular momentum. In
this model the general formulareduced transition probability is given by -

(i) For electric radiation, ……………(4)

(ii) And for magnetic radiation

……………(5)

Where, R is the nuclear radius and m p is the mass of theproton. From the nuclear sizes,
we can substitute R=R 0 A 1/3 , with R 0 = 1:21 fm, to give the final results as:

……………(6)

And

……………(7)

Transition rates using single-particle shell model formulas of Weisskopf as afunction of

photon energy for a nucleus of mass number A = 60is shown in Fig.5. Figure 5 shows
an example of the transition rates T E,M calculated using the approximations of equations
(6 & 7). Although these areonly approximate predictions, they do confirm what is
observed experimentally: fora given transition there is a ve ry substantial decrease in
decay rates with increasingL, and electric transitions have decay rates about two orders
of magnitude higherthan the corresponding magnetic transitions.
Finally, it is often useful to have simple formulas for radiative widths  γ .
Thesefollow from above equations and for the lowest multipoletransitions may be
written as:

; ……….……(8)

Where,  γ is measured in eV, the transition energy E γ is measured in MeVand A is

themass number of the nucleus. These formulae are based on the single-

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particleapproximation and in practice collective effects often give values that are
muchgreater than those predicted by equations (8).

Fig. 5: Transition rates as afunction of photon energy

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
27 33 41
Problem 01:Find the ground state spins and parities of Al 13 ; S 16 and Ar 18 nuclei
with single particle shell model.

Solution:The shell model predicts term as:

27
i) Nuclei Al 13 = (1s 1/2 ) 2 (1p 3/2 ) 4 (1p 1/2 ) 2 (1d 5/2 ) 5

J=5/2 ,i.e.,l=5/2-1/2=2

Parity P= (-1) l =(-1) 2 = +1 (Even)

33
ii) Nuclei S 16 = (1s 1/2 ) 2 (1p 3/2 ) 4 (1p 1/2 ) 2 (1d 5/2 ) 6 (2s 1/2 ) 2 (1d 3/2 ) 1

J=3/2 ,i.e.,l=3/2+1/2=2

Parity P= (-1) l =(-1) 2 = +1 (Even)

41
iii) Nuclei Ar 18 = (1s 1/2 ) 2 (1p 3/2 ) 4 (1p 1/2 ) 2 (1d 5/2 ) 6 (2s 1/2 ) 2 (1d 3/2 ) 4 (1f 7/2 ) 3

J=7/2 ,i.e.,l=7/2-1/2=3

Parity P= (-1) l =(-1) 3 = -1 (Odd)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01

Que. 01: What is the difference between atomic and nuclear energy levels?

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Ans: Atomic energy includes the sum of the energy included in an atom. Nuclear
energy includes the energy released when changes are done to the n ucleus of an
atom.
Que. 02:How do you find angular momentum and parity?
Ans:If a particle has quantum numbers l and s, the total angular momentum quantum
number can be from |l − s| to l + s in integer steps.
Que. 03:What do you mean by the angular momentum and parities ground states?
Ans: The ground state angular momentum is determined by the remaining unpaired
nucleon(s). For even-even nuclei, all nucleons will be paired, the total angular
momentum will be zero, and the parity will be positive.
Que. 04:Why angular momentum is zero in ground state?
Ans: The angular momentum for an atom in its ground state is zero because the electron
is in a stable orbit around the nucleus.
Que. 05:What are the different types of angular momentum?
Ans:Thereare two types of angular momentum: the spin angular momentum is the
angular momentum about the object's centre of mass, while the orbital angular
momentum is the angular momentum about a chosen center of rotation .

MCQS

1. The ground state angular momentum is determined by………

a) The remaining unpaired nucleon

b) The remaining unpaired electrons

c) The remaining paired nucleon

d) None of above

2. Nuclei with even protons and even neutrons have ………

a) Odd parity

b) Zero angular momentum and even parity.

c) Negative angular momentum and even parity.

d) Zero parity

3. The location and properties of discrete energy l evels of nucleus…….

a) Are governed by the rules of classical mechanics.

b) Are governed by the rules of dynamics & mechanics.

c) Are governed by the rules of quantum mechanics.

d) Are governed by the rules of auto mechanics.

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4. Nuclear energy, also called as ……………..

a) Electronic energy

b) Sound energy

c) Classical energy

d) Atomic energy

5. The nucleons change from one energy level to another is called as ……….

a) Nuclear transitions

b) Electron Transition

c) Nuclear decay

d) Nuclear fission

6. The excitation energy depends on the ……….

a) Outer structure of each nucleus.

b) Internal structure of each nucleus.

c) Internal structure of each electron.

d) All above

7. Which among the following shell is at the highest energy level?

a) K

b) L

c) N

d) M

8. Parity is also known as………….

a) Additive Quantum Number.

b) Subtractive Quantum Number.

c) Multiplicative Quantum Number.

d) Integrative Quantum Number.

9. If a particle has quantum numbers l and s, the total angular momentum quantum
number can be from……….

a) |l − s| to l + s in fraction steps.

b) |l + s| to l x s in integer steps.

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 c) |l x s| to l + s in integer steps.

d) |l − s| to l + s in integer steps.

10. In even-odd and odd-even nuclei, parity (𝜋) corresponding to the last unpaired
particle having quantum number l is given by……….

a)

b)

c)

d)

Ans: 1.-a); 2.-b); 3.-c); 4.-d); 5.-a); 6.-b); 7.-c); 8.-c); 9.-d); 10.-a).

SUMMARY
The nucleus, like the atom, has discrete energy levels whose location and
properties are governed by the rules of quantum mechanics. The locations of the excited
states differ for each nucleus. The excitation energy depends on the internal structure of
each nucleus. The excitation energy depends on the internal structure of each nucleus.
Each nucleon moves in a shell depending on its energy and angular momentum in a
manner analogous to atomic orbital. Unlike an atomic shell, here the stationary states
having lowered 1 quantum number have higher energy. Quantum number l =0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 etc. are represented by alphabets s, p, d, f ,g, h respectively, also the quantum
number m l can take (2l +1) values.Large energy gaps appear in the spacing of the levels
at intervals that are consistent with the notion of separate shells. The number of
available nuclear states in each nuclear shell is in the ascending order of energy 2, 6,
12, 8, 22, 32 and 44. Hence shell is filled when there are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
neutrons or protons in a nucleus giving as a result stable nucleus which are relatively
more abundant in nature. These numbers of protons or neutrons is called a magic
number.Filled shells have a total angular momentum, J, equal to zero. The next added
nucleon (a valence nucleon) determines the J of the new ground state. When nucleons
(singly or in pairs) are excited out of the ground state they change the angular
momentum of the nucleus as well as its parity and isospin projection quantum numbers.
The shell model describes how much energy is required to move nucleons from one
orbit to another and how the quantum numbers change.Promotion of a nucleon or a pair
of nucleons to an unfilled shell puts the nucleus into one of the excited states . Excited
nuclear states decay to more stable states, i.e., more stable nucleon orbital. Measuring
transition rates between nuclear energy levels requires specialized alpha, beta, and

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gamma detectors and associated electronic circuitry to precisely determine the energy
and half-life of the decay.The locations of the excited states differ for each nucleus.
The excitation energy, Ex, depends on the internal structure of each nucleus. Each
excited state is characterized by quantum numbers that describe its angular momentum,
parity, and isospin.The parity, P, of a nuclear energy level is a statement about what the
nuclear structure of the state would look like if the spatial coordinates of all the
nucleons were reversed. P = + means the reversed state would look the same as the
original and P = - means the reversed state differs from the original. The isospin
(projection) quantum number, T, is an integer or half-integer that measures a property
that results if neutron and proton coordinates were interchanged.
The ground state angular momentum is determined by the remaining unpaired
nucleon(s). For even-, even- (even-even) nuclei, all nucleons will be paired, the total
angular momentum will be zero, and the parity will be positive. The vector sum of
orbital angular momentum and spin angular momentum gives the total angular
momentum.If a particle has quantum numbers l and s, the total angular momentum

quantum number can be from in integer steps.Parity is a quantum number

that tells about how the wave function behaves if you invert the coordinate system, i.e.
for Cartesian coordinates x →- x, y → - y andz → - z; for spherical polars you just need

θ→ - θ and  →  +  . If is an operator that does this, and you applied the operator

twice, you should end up with the same thing. The overall parity is a multiplication of
the individual parities of the composite bits.When a shell is completely filled the net
angular momentum is zero and the nucleus has even parity ( P =+1). If there is any
unpaired nucleon, then this will determine the angular momentum and parity of whole
nucleus.The nucleons have specific energy levels in the nucleus. Nuclear transitions
occur when the nucleons change from one energy level to another .The transition rate is
simply a measure of how much of the sample undergoes transition per unit time.
KEY WORDS
Nuclear, Discrete,Energy Level, Orbital, Spin, Angular Momenta, Parities,
Ground states,ExcitedState,Nuclear transitions, Transition rates.
REFERENCES
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qyAFeILFS8.

2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1O708l1kR8c.

3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGBd1Ind814.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 175

 4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UUxKkZZNRM.

5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPYPhyioDfs.

OER
WIKIPEDIA
1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_level.

2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_structure .

3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics .

BOOKs

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. The Nuclear Shell Model: B. H. Flowers, Prog. Nucl. Phys. 2(1952) 235.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, P rof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
10. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
11. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
12. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
13. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).
14. Nuclear and Particle Physics: B. R. Martin; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (2006)
ISBN: 0-470-01999-9.
15. Introduction to Nuclear andParticlePhysics:A. Das and T. Ferbel; World
Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224, ISBN
981-238-744-7.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 176

CREDIT 02-UNIT 04: COLLECTIVE MODEL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explaintheconceptsof Liquid drop model and shell model.

 Compare the Liquid drop model and shell model.
 Describethe advantages and disadvantages of these models.
 Explain reasons for the drawbacks of the shell model.
 Explainneed of new and bettermodel.
 DiscussCollective model of Bohr and Mottelson.
 Explainthe concept Collective model.
 Define and discuss about Monopole, Dipole, Quadrupole and Octupole
resonance.
 Describe different resonance in nuclear model.
 Explain applicability of the generalized nuclear mo del.
 Understand Magnetic moments and Schmidt lines.
 Explaincertain magnetic and electric properties.
 Discussproperties of nuclei and details of popular nuclear models.

INTRODUCTION
For heavy nuclei, many predictions of the single -particle shell model do
notagree quantitatively with experiment. The discrepancies are particularlysevere for
magnetic dipole moments. Also, the shell model predicts vanishinglysmall quadrupole
moments for closed shells, and quadrupole momentsof opposite sign for neighboring
nuclei with atomic numbers Z ± 1.Although this agrees qualitatively with experiment,
the measured values ofquadrupole moments are very different from the predictions. In
fact, someheavy nuclei appear to have large permanent electric quadrupole
moments,suggesting a non-sphericity in the shape of these nuclei. This is certainlynot
consistent with the assumptions of the shell model, where rotationalsymmetry plays a
crucial role.
In a revival of the liquid drop model, Aage Bohr noted that many propertiesof
heavy nuclei could be attributed to a surface motion of the nuclearliquid drop.
Furthermore, James Rainwater showed that excellent agreementbetween the expected
and measured values of magnetic dipole andelectric quadrupole moments could be
obtained under the assumption thatthe liquid drop had a spherical shape. These
successes presented somewhatof a dilemma because the liquid drop model and the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 177

single-particleshell model had fundamentally opposite viewpoints about the nature
ofnuclear structure. Individual particle characteristics, such as intrinsic spinand orbital
angular momentum, play no role in a liquid drop picture, wherecollective motion that
involves the entire nucleus has prime importance. Onthe other hand, individual nucleon
properties, especially of the valence nucleons,are crucial to the success of the
independent-particle shell model.

The liquid drop model explains fairly the nuclear mass and binding energies; the
energy of alpha and beta-decay, the distribution, spin and parity of several first levels
in even-even nuclei and nuclear fission. Shell model explains ground state spin and
magnetic moment of many nuclei and magic numbers.Butthese models have some
drawbacks as given below:

04-01: DRAWBACKS OF LIQUID DROP MODEL AND SHELL MODEL

a) Drawbacks of liquid drop model:
1) Three-term mass formula based on the analogy between nuclear matter and
liquid drop does not accurately describe the dependence of the nuclear mass on
charge' 2’ and massnumber 'A'. For correct explanation we have to introduce
fourth term for symmetry and fifth term (δ-term) for even-odd nucleons in the
nucleus. It is a disappearance from the liquid drop model.
2) The liquid drop model is unable to give quantitative data on the excited states of
the nucleus.
3) The liquid drop model is unable to explain the asymmetry of the nuclear fission.
4) It does not explain the spin, magnetic moment and parity of the excited states.
b) Drawbacks of the Shell model:
1) There is a discrepancy between the predicted spina by shell model and
experimental spin, i.e., theoretical and experimental spin do not match.
2) Several even-even nuclei have a pronounced structure of rotational levels which
is in contradiction to the model based on the self -consistent potential (Shell
model) because according to quantum mechanics, a sphe rically symmetric
nucleus does not have arotational degrees of freedom.
3) The shell model gives drastically reduced values of the quadrupole electric
moment of nuclei. As per shell model Q is eR 2 where more R is the radius of the
nucleus. But the experimental values of Q lie between 10 and 20 times than this
value.
4) The model predicts much lower probabilities of E2 -gamma transitions in
comparison to the experimentally observed values.

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 The reasons for the above drawbacks of the shell model are due to the
assumptions: (i) The spherical symmetry of the potential; (ii) The of interaction
between the nucleons and (iii) The validity of the Pauli exclusion principle for
nucleons.
04-02: COLLECTIVE MODEL OF BOHR AND MOTTELSON
To overcome the drawbacks of the liquid drop model and shell model a
generalize nuclear model or collective nuclear model was proposed by Aage Bohr, Ben
Mottelsonand James Rainwaterin 1953 by combining the single particle and collective
nucleon motions. In this model, the coupling between the col lective motion of the
nucleons in the core and the motion of the loose nucleon outside the core is weak. For
strong coupling, the nuclear surface is distorted and the potential felt by the loose
nucleons is not spherically symmetric. These nucleons, moving in non-spherically
symmetric shell model potential, maintain the deformed nuclear shape. This is like a
linear molecule. Then the total energy of the nucleus is the sum of the rotational,
vibrational and nucleonic energy as under:

………………… (1)

The collective motion of the nuclear core gives rise to the rotational and
vibrational terms while the nucleonic energy term is due to the motion of the loose
nucleons. The motion in which many nucleons move coherently with well -defined
phases is called Collective motion. There are four basic and important types of the
nuclear collective motion as discussed below:
a) Surface vibrations: The surface vibrations of the nuclear surface are due to the
movement of nucleons from one region of the nuclear sphere into another region as
shown in Fig.1. The arrows indicate the collective ordered motion of nucleons.
Sometimes, the nuclear radius periodically oscillates about an equilibrium value 'R 0 '
as shown in Fig. 2(a).

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 Fig.1: Surface vibration
In this case the density of the nuclear sphere increases and decreases periodically.
These are called compression and expansion respectively where the radial
oscillations of the surface lead to the density changes/vibrations.
b) Rotations: A short of a tidal wave of nucleons moves around a nuclear core. Hence,
the rotations of deformed nuclei are coherent in phase motion of nuclear matter as
shown in Fig. 2(b). There is a super-fluid layer between the core and tidal wave.
The tidal wave movesaround the nuclear core which may also rotate with a smaller
angular velocity i.e., W T >> W C . Hence, the interior spherical core (dotted area) may
be considered at rest during the rotations and only the bumps of nuclear matter
outside the core may be considered to move. This is because th e potential field of
the core will not change during the rotation and therefore the nucleons of the core
do not experience any resistance or contribute to the energy of the motion in
contrast to the situation for the tidal wave.

Fig.2: (a)Compression and expansion nodes (b)Oscillation of deformed nucleus

A comparison of the motion of nucleons in a spherical and deformed potential well
has been shown in Fig. 3. Therefore, only the rotation of the deformed well leads to
a change of the nucleon potential and orbit.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 180

 Fig. 3: Collective motion of nucleons
c) Nuclear fission: The process of nuclear fission can be understood as a collective of
the nucleons. After the various possible stages for the separation of the heavy
nucleus into two pieces are formed.Soon, the nucleons move apart from each other
in order to separate into two pieces. The various stages of this process from one
sphere to two spherical nuclei are observed.
d) Giant Dipole Resonances (GDR): A collective behavior involving the nuclear
interior is established in the photo-nuclear giant resonance motion where the
electric field E of the photon acts on the protons only and as the centre of mass has
to be at rest, the neutrons in an opposite direction to that of the protons. The nuclear
surface is fixed during this process while protons and neutrons move coherently in
opposite directions as shown in Fig. 4. The Giant resonances of different
multipolarities can be treated as different types ofoscillations of the nucleons in the
nucleus. These are the most clearly expressed characteristics of the collective
excitation of the nucleus.

Fig. 4: Opposite direction of p & n

The main features of the Giant Resonance are as follows:

(i) The Giant resonances are observed for many nuclei. They exhibit general
properties ofthe nuclear matter.

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 (ii) The position of a giant resonance on the scale of nuclear excitation energy
variessmoothly with the mass number 'A' i.e., as A -1/3 for all open giant
resonances.

(iii) The width Γ of giant pulses is large (≈ MeV) and varies smoothly with mass
number A.

(iv) These resonances cover a considerable part of the energy -weighted same rule
(EWSR) for the corresponding multiple transitions.

(v) According to the liquid drop model, the giant resonances of different multi-
polarities are the different types of collective motions of all the nucleons in a
nucleus.

(vi) According to shell model, the giant resonances are strongly correlated coherent
particle-hole excitations accompanied by a jump of many nucleons from a filled
shell to higher vacant shells.

There are many types of giant resonances as: (i) Monopole resonances, (ii) Dipole
resonances, (iii) Quadrupole resonances and (4) Octupole resonances.

The type of resonance and its nature (Electric or Magnetic) is determined by the change
in a regular momentum ‘L’ and parity ‘P’ of the nucleus as under:

(a) Electric resonance: ………………… (2)

And (b) Magnetic resonance: ………………… (3)

Let us discuss the above resonances.

1) Monopole Resonance: EO (O + )
The existence of isoscalar monopole resonance (E 0, T=0)at an excitation energy
of:
W=80 A -1/3 (MeV) ………………… (4)
40 90
It was revealed in 1975 in inelastic scattering spectrum of E d =80 MeV by Ca, Zr and
208
Pb and a comparison of inelastic spectrum of E  = 96 MeV. The confirmation of this
resonance was done in 1977 by inelastic scattering  from 206
Pb. The contribution of
this resonance depends on the scattering angle. Fig.5shows the graphic scheme of
isoscalar and isovector monopole resonances. The transverse nature of electromagnetic
(e.m.) γ-quanta cannot excite a giant monopole resonance.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 182

 Fig.5: Monopole resonance.
2) Dipole Resonances: El (I - )

It was discovered in 1947. For some nuclei a broad maxima

ofΓ= 3-10MeVbroad maxima of Γ= 3-10 MeV were observed in the cross-section for
E r =20-25 MeV for light nuclei, 17-19 MeV for medium nuclei and 13-15MeV for heavy
nuclei. This is due to the displacement of all protons relative to neutrons due to the
action of Electric vector E of the e.m. field of γ-quanta as shown in Fig. 6. It is called
isovector giant resonance because neutrons and protons are in antiphase and the isospin
of a nucleon changes by unity, i.e.T= 1 but the spin of nucleon does not change S= 0
because the nucleons with upward and downward spins move in phase. The position of
an isovector giant dipole resonance is given by:

For heavy nuclei: W=78A -1/3 (MeV) …………….. (5)

The general formula for wide range of nuclei is:

W= (31.2A -1/3 +20.6A -1/6 ) …………….. (6)

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 Fig 6: Dipole resonance

3) Quadrupole Resonance: E2(2 + )

It was discovered in 1971. It is schematically shown in Fig. 7. The ‘isoscalar’
means that n and p oscillate in phase and the isospin does not change ( T=0). It was
observed in inelastic scattering of protons. The systematic investigation of giant
quadrupole resonance was made in the inelastic scattering of E = 96MeV from nuclei
with A14208. For all the investigated nuclei a broad maximum was observed at the
excitation energy of:

W(MeV) = 63A -1/3 …………….. (7)

Fig. 7: Quadrupole resonance

From the angular distribution of the scattered -particles it was found that the maxima
occur for L=2. The width of the maxima decreases from 6 MeV at A=40 to 3 MeV at

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 184

A=208. Further isovector giant quadrupole resonance was also observed with T=1. In
this case protons and neutrons move in opposite phases as shown in Fig. 8. This
isovectorquadrupole resonance is observed at the excitation energy as:

W (MeV) = 130A -1/3 …………….. (8)

-
4) OctupoleResonance:E3(3 )

For some nuclei 66≤A≤200 the low energy isoscalaroctupole giant resonance for
L=3 having width Γ≃1.3 MeV had been observed as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8: Octupole Resonance

Theexcitation energy for this resonance is given by:

W (MeV) = 30A -1/3 …………….. (9)

The existence of another isoscalar octupole resonance was also observed having width
≈6-7 MeV at the excitation energy of:

W (MeV) = 110A -1/3 …………….. (10)

But this resonance has not been confirmed authentically.

04-02.01: SUCCESS OF THE NUCLEAR COLLECTIVE MODEL

The simplest type of collective motion which has been identified experimentally
is connected with rotations of deformed nuclei. If the rotational collective motion is
sufficiently slow, it will not affect the internal structure of the nucl eus. According to
classical physics, the rotational energy is proportional to the square of the angular
velocity ω, so that,

E rot = ½ Iω 2 ……………………. (11)

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 The parameter I denote an-effective moment of inertia of the nucleus which can
be calculated if a specific model is assumed for the internal structure. Rotational energy
levels are obtained when the angular momentum is quantized and the result is, for even -
even nuclei as-

E rot = J(J+1) ……………………. (12 )

Where, J is the total angular momentum quantum number of the nucleus.

The theory also predicts correctly the properties of the low -lying levels of
nearly spherical nuclei close to closed shells. Another successful application is to the
problem of the cross section for Coulomb excitation and for the probability of E2
transitions. Finally, the theory has been applied successfully to problem of magnetic
moments, quadrupole moments, and isomeric transitions.

04-02.02: EXPERIMENTAL FACTS IN SUPPORT OF THE NUCLEAR

COLLECTIVE MODEL
The following observations support the nuclear collective model:

1. The large quadrupole moments had been observed in the nuclei far away from
the magic numbers.
2. There are large transition probabilities between the collective levels.
3. The observation of the rotational and vibrational spectra of some nuclei.
4. The observation of the GDR and GQR at high excitations.
In fact, the pure collective motion and pure single particle motion of nucleons in
the nuclei are an idealization of the true pi cture of nuclei. In reality, a nucleus never
has only collective model or only the single -particle modes. Therefore, both types of
motions are mixed and therefore it may sometimes be very difficult to identify the true
nature of a nuclear state.

04-03: MAGNETIC MOMENTAND SCHMIDT LINES

Magnetic moment: Most of the odd nuclei possess angular momentum and magnetic
moment in their ground state. The total angular momentum is the vector sum of the
orbital angular momentum and spin angular momentum. Magnetic momen t can be
established in the presence of an excited magnetic field. The total magnetic moment,

= ……………………. (13)

Where, and are the vectors which have no components in the field direction, but

they have components in the field direction. The component of the magnetic moment
along the direction of J-vector is,

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 186

 ………………

(14)

Applying the law of cosines and rearranging,

Similarly,

Magnetic moment along with J-vector is,

……………………. (15)

Maximum value along the direction of the J -vector,

…………….(16)

Where, g l and g s are the Lande’s splitting factors.

I) Stretch case:

Let, Then,

Substituting for l in equ (1) we get,

……………….. (17)

For proton g l = 1 and g s =5.586

For neutron g l = 0 and g s = -3.826
II) Jack knife case:

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When Then

Substitutingforl in equ.(16) we get,

……………... (18)

Equations (17) and (18) show that the magnetic moment is a function of J

Schmidt lines: The plot of with J are the lines known as Schmidt lines. Schmidt lines

with and J calculated from collective model is shown in the F ig.9. The agreement

between the experimental and theoretical values may be due to the error in the
measurement of magnetic moment or due to the assumption that the nucleons move in a
spherical symmetric potential which is not true.

Fig.9: Schmidt lines

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 1: Find the magnetic moment for nuclei i) 2 H 1 , ii) 4 He 2 ;

Solution:i) Here l= 0

So, we would expect value of μ to be 𝜇 = 𝜇 𝑁 + 𝜇 𝑃

∴𝜇 = −1.91 𝜇 𝑁 + 2.79 𝜇 𝑁

∴𝜇 = 0.88

(However the actual value is 0.86𝜇𝑁)

ii) Here l= 0and spin is also s=0

So, we would expect value of μ to be 𝜇 = 𝜇 𝑁 + 𝜇 𝑃

∴𝜇 = 0 + 0 = 0

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 188

(The actual value is also 0)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01

Que. 01: What is the collective model of the nuclear model?
Ans: Collective model, also called unified model, explain atomic nuclei on both the
shell nuclear model and the liquid-drop model. It alsoexplains certain magnetic
and electric properties that neither of the two separately can explain.
Que. 02:Who gave the collective model of nucleus?
Ans:Bohr, Mottelson and Rainwater gave the collective model of nucleus. Mottelson,
gives the collective properties of nuclei to the motion of their constituent
nucleons. James Rainwater also worked on this topic with Bohr and the three;
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975.

Que. 03:What is the collective rotational motion of the nucleus?

Ans:Collective motion in the nucleus is defined as change of the density distribution of

nuclear matter in time. On the basis of this definition the Hamiltonian of nuclear
rotation is obtained with moments of inertia corresponding satisfactorily to
experimental data.
Que. 04:What is the difference betweenshell model and the collective model?
Ans:The two most important developments in nuclear physics were the shell model and
the collective model. The former gives the formal framework for a description of
nuclei in terms of interacting neutrons and protons. The latter provides a very
physical but phenomenological framework for interpreting the observed properties
of nuclei.

Que. 05:What is the main feature ofthe Bohr-Mottelson collective model?

Ans:The Bohr-Mottelson collective model is central to the study of nuclear structure

physics. The model treats nuclei as ellipsoids and focuses on their vibrational and
rotational degrees of freedom.

Que. 06: What is the magnetic moment of a nucleus?

Ans: The magnetic moment of a nucleus is the vector sum of the spin magnetic moment
and orbital magnetic moment.

Que. 07: What are the values of magnetic moment of i) an even -even nucleus, ii) odd-
A nuclei, iii) odd-odd nuclei?

Ans: The magnetic moment of-

i) An even-even nucleus is 0 as the resultant spin of ground state I= 0 + .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 189

 ii) Odd- A nuclei magnetic moment is only due to the last odd nucleon (proton or
neutron).

iii) For odd-odd nuclei it the last unpaired odd nucleon which determines the
magnetic moment. For such a nucleus the magnetic moment is the vector sum
of magnetic moments due to odd proton & odd -neutron (, i.e., n= p + N )

MCQs

1. Nuclear collective model is also called as …………..

a) Rutherford model

b) Unified model

c) Liquid drop model

d) Shell Model

2. Collective model explains the vibrations of …………

a) Dipole

b) Quadrupole

c) Octupole

d) All above

3. Collective model was contributed by …………

a) Rainwater

b) Bohr

c) Mottelson

d) All of them

4. Collective model combines both………

a) Liquid drop model and Rutherford model

b) Shell model and single particle model

c) Liquid drop model and Shell model

d) Optical Model Shell model

5. Deformation represents collective motion of nucleons in the core and ………

a) Are related to Liquid drop model

b) Are related to Rutherford model

c) Are related to Shell model

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 190

 d) Are related to Optical Model & Shell model both

6. Collective model was proposed in ……………

a) 1953

b) 1853

c) 1847

d) 1947

7. As per collective model the total energy of the nucleus is the……….

a) Sum of the rotational, vibrational energy.

b) Sum of the rotational and nucleonic energy.

c) Sum of the rotational, vibrational and nucleonic energy.

d) Only rotational energy.

8. The nucleonic energy term is due to the motion of the ………….

a) Loose electron.

b) Loose neutrons only

c) Loose protons only

d) Loose nucleons.

9. The type of resonance and its nature is determined by …………

a) The change in angular momentum L only.

b) The change in Parity P only.

c) The change in angular momentum L and parity P of the nucleus.

d) None of above.

10. The plot of with J are the lines known as …………….

a) Spectral lines.

b) Schmidt lines.

c) Aage Bohr.

d) Ben Mottelson.

Ans: 1.-b); 2.-d); 3.-d); 4.-c); 5.-a); 6.-a); 7.-c); 8.-d); 9.-c); 10.-b).

SUMMARY

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 191

 The liquid drop model explains fairly the nuclear mass and binding
energies; the energy of alpha and beta-decay, the distribution, spin and parity of several
first levels in even-even nuclei and nuclear fission. Shell model explains ground state
spin and magnetic moment of many nuclei and magic numbers. But these models have
some drawbacks. To overcome the drawbacks of the liquid drop model and shell model
a generalize nuclear model or collective nuclear model was proposed by Aage Bohr,
Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater in 1953 by combining the single particle and
collective nucleon motions. As per this model the total energy of the nucleus is the sum
of the rotational, vibrational and nucleonic energy. The collective motion of the nuclear
core gives rise to the rotational and vibrational terms while the nucleonic energy term is
due to the motion of the loose nucleons. The motion in which many nucleons move
coherently with well-defined phases is called Collective motion. There are four basic
and important types of the nuclear collective motion and are (i) Surface vibrations, (ii)
Rotations, (iii) Nuclear fission (iv)Giant dipole resonance. There are many types of
giant resonances as: (i) Monopole resonances, (ii) Dipole resonances, (iii) Quadrupole
resonances and (iv) Octupole resonances.

The type of resonance and its nature (Electric or Magnetic) is determined by the
change in angular momentum ‘L’ and parity ‘P’ of the nucleus. The si mplest type of
collective motion which has been identified experimentally is connected with rotations
of deformed nuclei. The theory also predicts correctly the properties of the low -lying
levels of nearly spherical nuclei close to closed shells. Another s uccessful application
is to the problem of the cross section for Coulomb excitation and for the probability of
E2 transitions. Finally, the theory has been applied successfully to problem of magnetic
moments, quadrupole moments, and isomeric transitions. T he pure collective motion
and pure single particle motion of nucleons in the nuclei are an idealization of the true
picture of nuclei. In reality, a nucleus never has only collective model or only the
single-particle modes. Most of the odd nuclei possess a ngular momentum and magnetic
moment in their ground state. The total angular momentum is the vector sum of the

orbital angular momentum and spin angular momentum. The plot of with J are the

lines known as Schmidt lines.

KEY WORDS
Collective, Rotational, Vibrational, Nucleonic, Collective motion, Surface
Vibrations, Fission, Giant dipole, Resonance, Monopole, Quadrupole, Octupole,
Parity, Magnetic moment, Schmidt lines.

REFERENCES

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 192

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6aSlCMBUIU.

2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYe_vWk0GN0.

3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q279l40Uo5g.

4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIH3frqzXFE.

5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLSK7gGCuzc.

WIKIPEDIA
1) https://www.britannica.com/science/collective -model.

2) https://cds.cern.ch/record/212241/files/cern -55-07.pdf.

3) https://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/06/2.html .

OER
BOOKs

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
3. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
4. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
5. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
6. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
7. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
8. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (200 8), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 193

 C REDIT 03

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 194

CREDIT 03 -UNIT 01: NUCLEAR DECAY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Describethe process of radioactivity.

 Discussnuclear transformation laws.
 DescribeNuclear Decay &Beta decay.
 Give the examples of beta decay.
 Explain Shape of the beta spectrum.
 DiscusEnergy release in beta decay.
 Verify the law of conservation of law of energy and momentum in β -decay.
 Distinguish Beta minus decay and Beta plus decay.
 Explain Total decay rate.
 Describe Fermi theory of beta decay.
 Explain various experimental facts on β-decay.
 Identify Negatron emission, Positron emission, Electron capture.
 Explaintheapplications of β-decay.

INTRODUCTION
Nuclear decayor nuclear disintegration (also known as Radioactive
decay, radioactivityorradioactivedisintegration) is the process by which an
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation and a heavy nucleus is fragmented
in to light and medium nuclei. A material containing unstable nuclei is
considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha, beta,
and gamma decay, all of which involve emitting particles. The weak force is
the mechanism that is responsible for beta decay, while the other two are governed by
the electromagnetism and nuclear force.Radioactive decay is the random process in
which a nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation. Emitting radiation isusually in the
form of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. The nucleus energy reduces,
making it more stable. In all decay processes mass, charge and lepton number are
conserved.The decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide (or parent
radioisotope), and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for
gamma decay or internal conversion from a nuclear excited state, the decay is
a nuclear transmutation resulting in a daughter containing a different number
of protons or neutrons (or both).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 195

 According to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom
will decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed.However, for a significant
number of identical atoms, the overall decay rate can be e xpressed as decay constant or
as half-life. The half-life T 1/2 , of a sample is the time taken to decay the half of the
radioactive nuclei. The half-lives of radioactive atoms have a huge range; from nearly
instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe.Thenumber of decays per
second(rate of disintegration dN/dt) is called the activity A and is given by:

A=λN= -dN/dt

Where, λ is the decay constant and N is the number of undecayed (remaining nuclei) at
any instant. The number of remaining nuclei at any instant is given by:

N= N o .e -λt

Where, N 0 is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t=0. The half-life T 1/2 , of a sample
is given by:

T1/2 = (ln 2 )/λ = (Loge 2) /λ =0.6932/λ

Out of three of the most common types of decay, here we will study beta decay.

01-01: NUCLEAR DECAY

The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by electromagnetic
radiation and a heavy nucleus is fragmented in to light and a medium nucleus is called
as nuclear decay. There are two types of nuclear decay: (i) Natural nuclear decay and
(ii) Nuclear reaction transformation (artificial radioactivity). We have seen the nuclear
reaction in previous chapter. Here we will discuss natural nuclear decay or natural
radioactive decay.

There are some unstable nuclei found naturally which undergo spontaneous
transformation leading to a change in the composition and internal energy of the
nucleus. The well-known radioactive process is alpha decay, beta decay, gamma rays’
emission, nuclear fission and emission of delayed proton and neutron. The radiations
from the radioactive nuclei were analyzed by their deflection in the electric and
magnetic field as well as their absorption in the material. From these experiments it is
observed that the natural radioactive nuclei emit three types of radiations:

(1) Positively charged particle which moves with velocity ≈ 10 7 m/s and are absorbed
by aluminum foil of few microns thickness. These particles are equivalent to helium
( 4 He 2 ) nuclei are called as alpha particle and process is called as alpha decay.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 196

(2) The light negatively charged particle which moves with velocity ≈ 10 8 m/s and are
absorbed by aluminum foil of 1 mm thickness. These particles are electrons and are
called as beta particle and process is called as beta decay.

(3) The highly penetrating radiation which moves with velocity of light ( 3x 10 7 m/s)
and are not deflected by electric and magnetic field. These radiations are called as
gamma radiation and process is called as gamma decay.

The basic parameters of nuclear decay / radioactivity are:

a) Decay or disintegration constant (λ);

b) Activity or rate of disintegration (A or dN/dt);

c) Half life (T 1/2 );

d) Average life time (τ) given by τ= 1/λ = 1.44 T 1/2 ;

e) Laws of radioactivity transformation;

f) Radioactivity dating.

01-02: BETA-DECAY
The beta decay is a radioactive decay in which a proton in a nucleus i s
converted into a neutron (or vice-versa). In the process the nucleus emits a beta particle
(either an electron or a positron) and quasi -massless particle, the neutrino. When
studying the binding energy from the semi -empirical mass formula (SEMF) we saw that
at fixed A there was a minimum in the nuclear mass for a particular value of Z. In order
to reach that minimum, unstable nuclides undergo beta decay to transform excess
protons in neutrons (and vice-versa).
The beta decay is a process of spontaneous tr ansformation of an unstable
nucleus into an isobar nucleus with a charge difference of Z=  1by the emission of an
electron/ positron or the capture of electron. There are three types of beta decay as
follows.
a) Negatron emission (β - decay):
A
X Z → A Y Z+1 + o e -1 + (anti-neutrino)……………… (1)

Ex. (i) 3 H 1 3
He 2 (ii) 210
Bi 83 → 210
Po 84 + o e -1 +

Thus, proton transfer to neutron and vice versa: 1 n 0 → 1 p 1 + o e -1 +

b) Positron emission (β + decay):

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 197

A
X Z → A Y Z -1 + o e +1 + (neutrino)……………… (2)

Ex. (i) 11
C6 11
B 5 (ii) 64
Cu 29 → 64
Ni 28 + o e -1 +

In this process: 1 p 1 → 1 n 0 + o e +1 +

c) Electron capture (ε): Electron from the K-shell of the atom is captured by the
nucleus which transform a proton into the neutron as -

A
X Z + o e -1 → A Y Z -1 + (neutrino)……………… (3)

Ex. (i) 7 Be 4 7
Li 3 + (ii) 80
Br 35 + e -1 → 80
Se 34

In this process: 1 p 1 + o e -1 → 1 n 0 +

These three forms of beta decay are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Three forms (types) of beta decay

01-02.01: ENERGY & CONSERVATION LAWS OF BETA-DECAY

As the neutrino is hard to detect, initially the beta decay seemed to violate
energy conservation. Introducing an extraparticleintheprocess allowsonetorespect
conservationofenergy.Besidesenergy,thereareother conserved quantities also.
Energy:TheQ valueofaβ - beta-decay isgivenby theusual energy formula as:

……………… (4)

Here M n denotes nuclear mass and M is atomic mass. Using the atomic masses
and neglecting the electron’s binding energies as usual we have,

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 198

 ……………… (5)

Similarly, theQvalueofa β + beta-decay isgivenby:

……………… (6)

In case of electron capture, theQvalueisgivenby:

……………… (7)

Where, B e is the binding energy of k-electron in the atom. Equation (5) shows is >

0, then β - -decay is possible if the mass of the parent atom is greater than the mass of

daughter atom. Equation (6) shows is > 0, then β + -decay is possible if the mass of

the parent atom is greater than the sum of masses of daughter atoms and double the
electronic mass. Equation (7) shows Q e > 0, then e-capture is possible if the mass of the
parent atom is greater than the mass of daughter atom by at least the electron BE.
Thekineticenergy(equaltotheQ) issharedby theneutrinoandthe
electron(weneglectany recoilofthe massive nucleus).Then,the emerging
electron(remember,theonlyparticlethatwe canreallyobserve)doesnothaveafixed energy,
as it was for example for the gamma photon. But it will exhibit a spectrum of energy
(which is the number of electronsatagivenenergy) aswellasadistributionof momenta.
Momentum: The momentum is also shared between the electron and the neutrino.
Thus, the observed electron momentum ranges from zero to a maximum possible
momentum transfer.
Angular momentum: Boththe electron and the neutrino have spin ½.
Parity: Itturnsoutthatparityisnot conservedinthisdecay.Thishinttothe
factthattheinteraction is responsible to violates parity conservation (so it cannot be the
same interactions we already studies, electromagnetic and strong interactions).
Charge:The creation of a proton is for example always accompanied by the creation of
an electron.
Lepton number:We do not conserve the total number of particles (we create beta and
neutrinos). However, the number of massive, heavy particles (or baryons, composed of
3 quarks) is conserved. Also, the lepton number is conserved. Leptons are fundamental
particles (including the electron, muon and tau, as well as the three types of
neutrinosassociated withthese3).Thelepton numberis+1fortheseparticles and-

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1fortheiranti-particles.Then an electron is always accompanied by the creation of an
antineutrino, e.g. to conserve the lepton number (initially zero).

01-02.02: USES/ APPLICATIONOFBETA-DECAY

Beta decay and beta particles have several important applications in various
fields:
1. Radiation Therapy: Beta-emitting radioactive isotopes are used in medical radiation
therapy to treat cancer. Beta particles have a relatively short range in tissue, making
them suitable for targeting cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding
healthy tissue.
2. Radiometric Dating: The use of beta-emitting isotopes, such as carbon-14 (C-14), is
crucial in radiocarbon dating. By measuring the ratio of C-14 to stable carbon-12 (C-
12) in organic materials, scientists can estimate the age of archaeological artifacts and
fossils.
3. Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Positron-emitting isotopes, such as fluorine-
18 (F-18), are used in PET scans for medical imaging. When the positron emitted in
beta-plus decay encounters an electron, they annihilate each other, producing two
gamma-ray photons that can be detected to create detailed images of the body’s
internal structures.
4. Neutrino Research: The detection of neutrinos produced in beta decay is essential for
neutrino research. Neutrinos are elusive particles that carry valuable information
about astrophysical processes, nuclear reactions, and particle physics.
5. Nuclear Physics Research: Beta decay is fundamental to the study of nuclear
structure and the behavior of atomic nuclei. It provides insights into the weak nuclear
force and the interactions between quarks and leptons.
6. Energy Production: Beta decay is involved in certain types of nuclear reactions used
in experimental fusion reactors and may have future applications in controlled nuclear
fusion for energy production.

01-03: FERMI THEORY OF BETA-DECAY

In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli postulated the existence of the neutrino to explain the
continuous distribution of energy of the electrons emitted in beta decay. Only with the
emission of a third particle could momentum and energy be conserved. By 1934, Enrico
Fermi had developed a theory of beta decay to include the neutrino, presumed to be
mass-less as well as charge-less.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 200

01-03.01: FERMI THEORY ’S ASSUMPTION
Fermi’s theory of beta decayis based on the following assumption.

1) Earlier it is assumed that electron cannot stay inside the nucleus. Hence β -particle
and neutrino also are not present within nucleus. These particles are created at the
time of β-decay only.

2) β-particle and neutrino are created due to nucleons transformation.

3) In β-decay process the energy and momentum are conserved due to the sharing
between the three particles, i.e. nucleon, beta and neutrino.

4) There is no parity change in β-decay.

5) The β-particle and neutrino field are very weak in comparison to the strong and
short-range nuclear force.

6) The nucleon within the nucleus moves with smaller velocities.

7) The β-particle and neutrino have very weak interaction with the nuclei. Hence their
wave functions can be represented by the free particle wave functions.

8) The basic result of Dirac’s time independent perturbation theory derived for
transition between atomic states and electromagnetic radiation may be used for the
β-decay process.

01-03.02: FERMI THEORY

Treating the beta decay as a transition that depended upon the strength of
coupling between the initial and final states, Fermi developed a relationship which is
now referred to as Fermi's Golden Rule:

…………….. ( 8)

The matrix element V fi is the integral of the interaction V between the initial
andfinal quasi-stationary states of the system:

…………….. (9)

The factor ρ(E f) is the density of final states, which can also be writtenas dn/dE f, the
number dnof final states in the energy interval dE f.Agiventransition is more likely to
occur if there is a large number of an accessible final state.
Fermi did not know the mathematical form of V for βdecay that would
havepermitted calculations using Equations (8) and (9). Instead, he considered
allpossible forms consistent with special relativity, and he showed that
Vcouldbereplaced with one of five mathematical operato rs O X , where the subscript

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 201

Xgivesthe form of the operator O(that is, its transformation properties): X= V (vector),
A (axial vector), S (scalar), P (pseudoscalar), or T (tensor). Which ofthese is correct for
βdecay can be revealed only through experiments that studythe symmetries and the
spatial properties of the decay products, and it took 20years (and several mistaken
conclusions) for the correct V-A form to be deduced?
The final state wave function must include not only the nucleus but also
theelectron and neutrino. For electron capture or neutrino capture, the forms wouldbe
similar, but the appropriate wave function would appear in the initial state.Forβ decay,
the interaction matrix element then has the form

…………….. (10)

Where,functionψ frefers only to the final nuclear wave function and the function ψ e and
ψ 𝜈 , givethe wave functions of the electron and neutrino. The quantity in square
bracketsrepresents the entire final system after the decay. The value of the constant
gdetermines the strength of the interaction; the electronic charge e plays a similarrole in
the interaction between an atom and the electromagnetic field.
The density of states factor determines (to lowest order) the shape of the
betaenergy spectrum. To find the density of states, we need to know the number offinal
states accessible to the decay products. Let us suppose in the decay that wehave an
electron (or positron) emitted with momentum p and a neutrino (orantineutrino) with
momentumq. We are interested at this point only in the shapeof the energy spectrum,
and thus the directions of p and q are of no interest.
Ifwe imagine a coordinate system whose axes are labeled p x , p y , andp z , then
thelocus of the points representing a specific value of | P |= ( P x 2 + P y 2 + P z 2 ) 1/2 is
asphere of radius p = | P |. More specifically, the locus of points representingmomenta
in the range dpat p is a spherical shell of radius p and thickness dp,thus having volume
4 p 2 dp. If the electron is confined to a box of volume V, then the numberof final
electron states dn e , corresponding to momenta in the range pto p + dp,is:

…………….. (11)

Where, the factor h 3 is included to make the result a dimensionless pure number.
Similarly, the number of neutrino states is:

…………….. (12)

and the number of final states which have simultaneously an electron and aneutrino
with the proper momenta is:

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 ………………. (13)

The electron and neutrino wave functions have the usual free -particle
formnormalized within the volume V:

and ………………. (14)

For an electron with 1 MeV kinetic energy, p = 1.4 MeV/c and p/ħ= 0.007fm -l . Thus,
over the nuclear volume, pr << 1 and we can expand the exponentials, keeping only the
first term:

………………. (15)

This approximation is known as the allowedapproximation.

In this approximation, the only factors that depend on the electron or
neutrinoenergy come from the density of states. Let’s assume we are trying to
calculatethe momentum and energy distributions of the emitted electrons. The
partialdecay rate for electrons and neutrinos with the proper momenta is:

………………. (16)

Where, is the nuclear matrix element.

The final energy E f isjustEe+ E 𝜈 = Ee+ qc,and so dq/dEf= l / cat fixed Ee. As far
as theshape of theelectron spectrum is concerned, all of the factors in Equation (16) that
do notinvolve the momentum (including M fi ,which for the present we assume to
beindependent of p ) can be combined into a constant C, and the resultingdistribution
gives the number of electrons with momentum between p and p + dp:

N(p) dp= Cp 2 q 2 dp………………. (17)

If Q is the decay energy, then ignoring the negligible nuclear recoil energy,

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 ……………. (18)

and the spectrum shape is given by:

……………. (19)

……………. (20)

This function vanishes at p = 0 and also at the endpoint whereT e = Q; its shapeis shown
in Fig. 2. Figure shows expected electron energy and momentum distributions, fr om
equations (20) and (21). These distributions are drawn for Q = 2.5 MeV.

Fig. 2: Expected electron (a) energy and (b)momentum distributions

More frequently we are interested in the energy spectrum, for electrons withkinetic
energy between and T e + dT e . With c 2 pd p = (T e + m e c 2 ) dT e ,we have:

……………. (21)

This distribution, which also vanishes at Te = 0 and at Te= Q, is shown in Fig.2.

As we can see, the general shape of Fig. 2isevident, but there are systematic
differences between theory and experiment.These differences originate with the
Coulomb interaction between the βparticleand the daughter nucleus. From the more
correct standpoint of quantummechanics, we should refer to the change in the electron
plane wave,equation (15), brought about by the Coulomb potential inside the nucleus.
Thequantum mechanical calculation of the effect of the nuclear Coulomb field on
theelectron wave function is beyond the level of this text. It modifies the spectrumby
introducing an additional factor, the Fermi functionF( Z′, p ) or F( Z′, Te),where Z′is the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 204

atomic number of the daughter nucleus. Finally, we must consider the effect of the
nuclear matrix element, M fi , which we have up to nowassumed not to influence the
shape of the spectrum. This approximation (also called the allowed approximation) is
often found to be a very good one, but thereare some cases in which it is very bad -in
fact, there are cases in which M fi vanishes in the allowed approximation, giving no
spectrum at all! In such cases,we must take the n ext terms of the plane wave expansion,
equations (15), whichintroduce yet momentum dependence. Such cases are called,
somewhatincorrectly, forbiddendecays; these decays are not absolutely forbidden, but
aswe will learn subsequently, they are less likely to occur than allowed decays
andtherefore tend to have longer half -lives. The degree to which a transition
isforbidden depends on how far we must take the expansion of the plane wave tofind a
non-vanishing nuclear matrix element. Thus the first term beyond t he 1gives first-
forbidden decays, the next term gives second -forbidden, and so on.
The complete βspectrum then includes three factors:
1) The statistical factor p 2 (Q - T e ) 2 ,derived from the number of final statesaccessible
to the emitted particles.
2) The Fermi function F(Z′, p ) , which accounts for the influence of the
nuclearCoulomb field.
3) The nuclear matrix element | M fi | 2 , which accounts for the effects of
particularinitial and final nuclear states and which may include an
additionalelectron and neutrino momentum dependence S(p , q) from forbidden
terms:

……………. (22)

01-03.03: THE SHAPE OF THE BETA SPECTRUM (KURIE PLOT)

Semi-classically, we can interpret the shapes of the β-spectrum in terms of momentum
distributions as shown in Fig. 3 as a Coulomb repulsion of β + by the nucleus, giving
-
fewer low-energy positrons, and a Coulomb attraction of β ,giving more low-energy
electrons.

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 Fig. 3: Momentum and kinetic energy spectra of electrons and positrons emitted
in the decay of 64 Cu

In Fig. 3, the β + and β - decays of 64

Cu are compared with the predictions of the
theory. As seen, the general shape of Fig. 2 is evident, but t here are systematic
differences between theory and experiment. The differences arise from the Coulomb
interactions with the daughter nucleus.
In the allowed approximation, we can rewrite equation ( 22)asequation (23).

……………. (23)

Plotting, against T e should give a straight line whichintercepts theX-

axis at the decay energy Q. Such a plot is called a Kurie plot(sometimes a Fermi plot or
a Fermi-Kurie plot). An example of a Kurie plot isshown in Fig. 4.The linear nature of
this plot gives us confidence in thetheory as it has been developed, and also gives us a
convenient way to determinethe decay endpoint energy (and therefore the Q value).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 206

 Fig. 4: Fermi-Kurie plot of allowed O + →O + decay of 66 Ga.
The horizontalscale is the relativistic total energy (T e + m e c 2 ) in units of m e c 2 .

In the case of forbidden decays, the standard Kurie plot does not give astraight
line, the deviation from the straight line at lowenergy arises from the scattering of low-
energy electronswithin the radioactive source.But we can restore the linearity of the

plot if we plot graph against T e , where Sis the momentum

dependencethat results from the higher -order term in the expansion of the plane wave.
Thefunction S is known as the Shape factor; for certain first-forbidden decays,
forexample, it is simply p 2 + q 2 .Thus, the Fermi theory quantitatively explains the shape
of beta spectra.
01-03.04:THE TOTAL DECAY RATE
To find the total decay rate, we must integrate Equation (16) over all values
ofthe electron momentum p, keeping the neutrino momentum at the value determinedby
Equation (18),which of course also depends on p.
Thus, for alloweddecays,

……………. (24)

The integral will ultimately depend only on Z′and on the maximum electrontotal
energy E o and we therefore represent it as:

……………. (25)

Where, the constants have been included to make f dimensionless. The functionf
(Z′,E o )is known as the Fermi integraland has been tabulated for values of Z′ and E o .

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 Fig. 5: The Fermi integral, defined by Equation 25. The atomic number Z'
refers to the daughter nucleus; the curves for positive Z' are for p- decay, while
negative Z' is for p' decay.

With λ= 0.693/T 1/2 we have,

…………. (26)

The quantity on the left side of Equation (26) is called the comparative half-
lifeorft value. It gives us a way to compare the β-decay probabilities in differentnuclei.
Equation (24)shows that the decay rate depends on Z′ and on Eo, andthis dependence is
incorporated into f ,so that differences in ft values must be duetodifferences in the
nuclear matrix element and thus to differences in the nuclearwave function.
As in the case of α-decay, there is an enormous range of half-lives in β-decay
and ft values range from about 10 3 to 10 20 sec. The decays with the shortestcomparative
half-lives (log ft = 3-4) are known as super-allowed decays. Some of the super-allowed
decays have O + initial and final states, in which case the nuclearmatrix element can be

calculated quite easily: M fi = . The log ftvalues for0 + 0 + decays should all be

identical. Table 1 shows the log ftvalues of allknown 0 + 0 + super-allowed transitions,

and within experimental error thevalues appear to be quite constant. Moreover, with

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M fi = we can useEquation (26) to find a value of the β -decay strength constantg as: g

= 0.88 x 10 -4 MeV. fm 3 .
Table 1: ft values for 0 +  0 + super-alloweddecays

To make this constant more comparable to other fundamental constants,

weshould express it in a dimensionless form. We can then compare it
withdimensionless constants of other interactions (the fine structure constant
whichcharacterizes the electromagnetic interaction, for instance). Thedimensionsof g
are [M 1 L 5 T -2 ]and no combinations of the fundamental constants ħ (dimension M 1 L 2 T -
1
)and c (dimension L 1 T -1 )can be used to convert g into adimensionless constant.
The β-decayinteraction is one of a general class of phenomena known
collectively as weakinteractions, all of which are characterized by the strength
parameter g. TheFermi theory is remarkably successful in describing these phenomena,
to theextent that they are frequently discussed as examples of the universal Fermi
interaction. Nevertheless, the Fermi theory fails in several respects to account forsome
details of the weak interaction.
01-03.05:THE OUTCOMES OF FERMI THEORY
Fermi’s theory remains a crucial historical milestone in the development of particle
physics, and it laid the groundwork for subsequent advances in our understanding of the
fundamental forces of nature.
 Fermi’s theory specifically addresses beta-minus (β - ) decay, where a neutron is
transformed into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino.
 Fermi proposed a four-point interaction term in the Lagrangian of the system to
describe beta decay. This interaction is now known as the “Four-Fermi interaction”

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 and is one of the fundamental interactions in particle physics, associated with the
weak nuclear force.
 Fermi’s theory provided amplitude (probability) for the beta decay process by
considering the interaction between a neutron and a proton through the exchange of
a virtual W-boson (now known as the W-boson in the Standard Model of particle
physics). This amplitude described the probability of a neutron turning into a proton
while emitting an electron and an antineutrino.
 The theory introduced the Fermi constant (G_F), which quantifies the strength of
the weak interaction. It is a fundamental constant in particle physics and has a value
of approximately 1.166 x 10 -5 GeV -2

 Fermi’s theory provided a matrix element that describes the transition from initial to
final nuclear states during beta decay. This matrix element incorporates information
about the quantum states of the particles involved.
 Fermi’s theory also allowed for the calculation of the rat e at which beta decay
events occur. This rate is essential for understanding the half -life of a radioactive
substance undergoing beta decay.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 1):A nucleus 23Ne10undergoes β-decay and becomes 23Na11. Calculate the
maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons assuming that the daughter
23
nucleus and antineutrino carry negligible kinetic energy. Mass of Ne10 =
22.994466 u; Mass of 23Na11 = 22.989770 u; Lu = 931 MeV/c²
Solution: The equation that represents β-decay of 23Ne10 is:
23
Ne10 2311Na+β-+𝜈+Q
23
Where Q is considered as the kinetic energy shared by Ne10 and 23Na11
ignoring the other part of the mass of antineutrino (v) and electron.
Mass defect Δm=m(23Ne10)-m(23Na11)-m(β-) = (22.994466-
22.989770)=0.004696 u
Therefore Q = 0.004696*931 MeV = 4.372 MeV
Hence K.E. of β- = 4.372 MeV when (v) carries the energy and is 0.

Problem 2):Tritium emits β-particle and Magnesium-23 emits positron. Find the end
point energy of the emitted particle. Given: Mass of tritium=3.01695U, mass of
He3=3.01693U, mass of Magnesium-23= 23.0002U, mass of sodium-
23=22.99618U and mass ofelectron=0.00055U.

Solution:(i) The beta decay of tritium is given by:

1H
3
 2 He 3 + β - + 𝜈

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 For the end point energy of the beta particle, the energy of neutrino is 0,
thus end point energy is:

E endpoint = E ep = [m( 1 H 3 )-m( 2 H 3 )] x 931.5 MeV

= [3.01695-3.01693- 0.00055] x 931.5 MeV

= 0.02 MeV
23
(ii) Similarly, for 12 Mg decay we have:

12 Mg
23
 11 Na 23 + β + + 𝜈

E ep = [m(Mg 23 )-m(Na 23 )] x 931.5 MeV

= [23.0003-22.99618 - 0.00055] x 931.5 MeV

= 2.82 MeV

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01

Que.1: What do you mean by beta decay?
Ans.: Beta decay can be said as decay of a nucleus by emitting an electron or a
positron. Beta particles emitted in the process are fast moving electrons of
nuclear origin.
Que. 2: Give an example of beta plus decay.
Ans.: An example can be given of Beta-plus decay of Magnesium-23 into sodium -
23:
23
Mg12 → 23Na11 + e+ + ve
Beta decay results in reduction of atomic number and nuclear transmutation.
Que. 3: What is the usage of beta decay?
Ans.:Beta decay is very much beneficial in medical science to cure various health
problems: (i) To treat eye & bone cancer; (ii) Used in form of tracers; (iii)
dating to determine age of rocks, minerals, earth.
Que. 5: What do you mean by Beta particles in Beta decay?
Ans.: Beta particles are the emitted charged particles which flow from the nucleus of
a certain radioactive element during the beta decay process. These particles
carry a single negative (electron) or a single positive (positron) charge.
Que. 6: Write the basic process involved in nuclei responsible for: β-
and β+ decay. Why is it found experimentally difficult to detect neutrinos?

Ans.: a) β - decay = 1 n 0 → 1 p 1 + o e -1 +

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 c) Β + decay = 1 p 1 → 1 n 0 + o e +1 +

It is difficult to detect neutrinos in nuclear β-decay because they are

considered charge-less containing very little mass particles that rarely interact
with matter.
Que. 7: A nucleus undergoes β--decay. How does its (i) mass number (ii) atomic
number change?
Ans.: When a nucleus undergoes β--decay:
(i) There is no change in the mass number.
(ii) There is an increase in the atomic number by one unit.

MCQ
1. A beta β- particle is also known as………
a) An electron.
b) A positron.
c) A helium nucleus.
d) A photon.
2. The existence of the neutrino was postulated in order to explain……..
a) Alpha decay.
b) Gamma emission.
c) Beta decay.
d) Fission.
3. Nuclear decay is the process by which ………
a) An unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.
b) Heavy nucleus is fragmented in to light and medium nuclei.
c) Light nucleus is converted in to heavy nuclei.
d) Both a) and b)
4. The weak force is the mechanism that is responsible for ……….
a) Alpha decay.
b) Beta decay.
c) Gamma decay.
d) All above.
5. The basic parameters of nuclear decay are………
a) Decay constant.
b) Activity.
c) Rate of disintegration

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 d) All above.
6. Negatron emission, Positron emission, Electron ca pture are the types of …...
a) Alpha decay.
b) Beta decay.
c) Gamma decay.
d) All above.
7. In 1930 ………… postulated the existence of the neutrino.
d) Wolfgang Pauli
e) Enrico Fermi
f) Pauli
g) Dirac
8. The two types of beta decay are known as……..
a) Beta multiplication and beta plus.
b) Beta plus and beta division.
c) Beta minus and beta plus.
d) Electron minus and Positron plus.
9. Beta decay conserves a quantum number known as the………
a) Lepton number .
b) Magic number.
c) Boson number.
d) Electron number.
10. The beta spectrum of energy values for the beta particles is ……..
a) Continuous.
b) Discontinuous.
c) Random.
d) None of above.
Ans: 1.- a); 2.- c); 3.- d); 4.- b); 5.- d); 6.- b); 7.- a); 8.- c); 9.- a); 10.- a).

SUMMARY
Nuclear decay or nuclear disintegration is the process by which an
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation and a heavy nucleus is fragmented in
to light and medium nuclei. A material containing unstable nuclei is
considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha, beta,
and gamma decay, all of which involve emitting particles. The weak force is
the mechanism that is responsible for beta decay. The process by which an
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by electromagnetic radiation and a heavy nucleus
is fragmented in to light and a medium nucleus is called as nuclear decay. There are

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 213

two types of nuclear decay: (i) Natural nuclear decay and (ii) Nuclear reaction
transformation.

The basic parameters of nuclear decay are: (i) Decay or disintegration constant;
(ii) Activity or rate of disintegration; (iii) Half -life; (iv) Average life time (v) laws of
radioactivity transformation; (vi) Radioactivity dating. The beta decay is a radioactive
decay in which a proton in a nucleus is converted into a neutron (or vice -versa). In the
process the nucleus emits a beta particle (either an electron or a positron) and quasi -
massless particle, the neutrino.There are three types of beta decay:Negatron emission
(β - decay), Positron emission, Electron capture.Beta decay and beta particles have
several important applications in various fields:Radiation Therapy, RadiometricDating,
Positron Emission Tomography, Neutrino Research, Nuclear Physics Research, Energy
Production.In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli postulated the existence of the neutrino to explain
the continuous distribution of energy of the electrons emitted in beta decay. Only with
the emission of a third particle could momentum and energy be conserved. By 1934,
Enrico Fermi had developed a theory of beta decay to include the neutrino, presumed to
be mass-less as well as charge-less called Fermi’s theory of beta decay which is based
on the following assumption. (i) Earlier it is assumed that electron cannot stay inside
the nucleus. (ii) In β-decay process the energy and momentum are conserved due to the
sharing between the three particles , i.e., nucleon, beta and neutrino. (iii) There is no
parity change in β-decay. (iv) The β-particle and neutrino field is very weak in
comparison to the strong and short -range nuclear force. (v) The nucleon within the
nucleus moves with smaller velocities. (vi)The β-particle and neutrino have very weak
interaction with the nuclei. Hence their wave functions can be represented by the free
particle wave functions. (vii) The basic result of Dirac’s time independent perturbation
theory derived for transition between atomic states and electromagnetic radiati on may
be used for the β-decay process.The linear nature of this plot gives us confidence in the
theory as it has been developed, and also gives us a convenient way to determine the
decay endpoint energyand therefore the Q value.Fermi’s theory specifically addresses
beta-minus (β - ) decay, where a neutron is transformed into a proton, an electron, and an
antineutrino.Fermi proposed a four-point interaction term in the Lagrangian of the
system to describe beta decay. Fermi’s theory provided amplitude (probabi lity) for the
beta decay process by considering the interaction between a neutron and a proton
through the exchange of a virtual W-boson. This amplitude described the probability of
a neutron turning into a proton while emitting an electron and an antineut rino.The
theory introduced the Fermi constant (G_F), which quantifies the strength of the weak
interaction. Fermi’s theory provided a matrix element that describes the transition from
initial to final nuclear states during beta decay. This matrix element i ncorporates

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 214

information about the quantum states of the particles involved.Fermi’s theory also
allowed for the calculation of the rate at which beta decay events occur. This rate is
essential for understanding the half-life of a radioactive substance undergoing beta
decay.

KEY WORDS
Nuclear decay, Beta decay, Unstable Nuclei, Radioactive, Decay constant, Activity,
Half-life, Average life, Radioactivity transformation, Radioactivity dating,
Negatron, Positron, Electron capture,Radiation Therapy, Energy and momentum.

REFERENCES
MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uqaa_d9mi_i .

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avKic7oiwvA .

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GImej8WpwjU .

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJ_maZHVkx8 .

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lgl7Ws3DefU.

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wOpcNkHvSQ .

WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_particle

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_beta_decay

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay_transition

BOOKS:

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory nuclear physics: Kenneth S. Krane, Oregon state university;John
Willey &sons, ISBN 0-471-80553-X.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 215

 6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
10. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
11. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
12. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
13. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 216

CREDIT 03 -UNIT 02: ANGULAR MOMENTUM
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explainbeta decay and Fermi theory of beta decay.

 DescribeAngular momentum in beta decay.
 Explain parity selection rule.
 Describe comparative half-life.
 Explain the allowed and forbidden transitions in beta decay.
 Compare the allowed and forbidden transitions.
 Explain double beta decay.
 Distinguish comparative half-life and forbidden decay

INTRODUCTION
We have seen the process of nuclear decay in the previous unit and understood
that there are three most common types of nuclear decay,alpha decay, beta decay
and gamma decay. There are two types of nuclear decay: (i) Natural nuclear decay and
(ii) Nuclear reaction transformation. In allnuclear decay involve emitting particles. The
basic parameters of nuclear decay are decay constant; activity; half -life; average life
time; laws of radioactivity transformation; radioactivity dating etc. The beta decay is a
radioactive decay in which a proton in a nucleus is converted into a neutron or vice -
versa. In the process the nucleus emits a beta particle (either an electron or a positron)
and quasi-massless particle, the neutrino. We became familiar with three types of beta
decay:Negatron emission, Positron emissionandElectron capture. We also understood
Fermi theory of beta decay, shape of the beta spectrumandtotal decay rate.Learn the
assumption on which Fermi’s theory of beta decayis based. The application of beta
decay had been also discussed. Here we will discuss Angular momentum, Comparative
half – lives, Allowed and forbidden transitions in beta decay in following section.

02-01: ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Angular momentum is defined as the property of any rotating object given by
moment of inertia times angular velocity i.e. L=I.ⱷ . The conservation of angular
momentum in the β-decay requires that J p = J d +L + S with J p and J d being the spin of
the parent and the daughter and L = Le + Lν being the orbital angular momentum of the
leptons and S = Se + Sν being the spin angular momentum of the leptons.The selection
rules for allowed β decay are total angular momentum change Δ I = 0, ±1 and no parity

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 217

change between the initial (decaying) and final (populated) states . In contrast, first-
forbidden transitions have Δ I = 0, ±1, ±2 and a change in parity.
02-01.01: ALLOWED TRANSITION (DECAY)
In the allowed approximation, we replaced the electron and neutrino wave
functions with their values at the origin; that is, we regard the elec tron andneutrino to
have been created at r = 0. In this case they cannot carry any orbitalangular momentum,
and the only change in the angular momentum of thenucleus must result from the spins
of the electron and neutrino, each of whichhas the value s = ½. These two spins can be
parallel (total S = 1) or anti-parallel(total S = 0).
If the spins are anti-parallel (which is known as a Fermi decay)then in the
allowed approximation (l= 0) there can be no change in the nuclearspin: ∆I = |I i - I f |= 0.
If the electron and neutrino spins are parallel (which iscalled a Gamow-Teller decay) in
the allowed approximation, they carry a totalangular momentum of 1 unit and thus I i and
I f must be coupled through avector of length l:I i = I f + 1. This is possible only if ∆I = 0
or 1 (except forI i = 0 and I f = 0, in which case only the Fermi transition can
contribute).If the electron and neutrino carry no orbital angular momentum, then
theparities of the initial and final states must be identical since the parity
associatedwith orbital angular momentum lis (- 1) l .
We therefore have the following selection rules for allowed β-decay:
∆I = 0,l and ∆𝜋(parity change) = nochange.
Some examples of allowed β decay are:
1) 14
O→ 14 N* :This O + → O + decay to an excited state of 14
N must be pure Fermitype
(because 0 →0 decays cannot be accomplished through a Gamow -Teller decay,
+ +

which must carry one unit of angular momentum).

2) 34
Cl → 34 Sand 10
C → 10 B * :Both of which are 0 + →0 + .
3) 6
He + 6 Li:This decay is 0 + → 1 + , which must be a pure Gamow-Teller transition.
4) Other allowed pure Gamow-Teller decays include: 13 B → l3 C [(3/2) ─ → (1/2) ─ ],
230
Pa → 230 Th* (2 ─ →3 ─ ) and 111
Sn → 111
In [(7/2) + →(9/2) + ].
5) n → p :In this case ∆I= 0 (1/2 + → 1/2 + ), and so both the Fermi (F) and Gamow-
Teller (G-T) selection rules are satisfied. This is an example of a mixed(F + G -T)
transition, in which the exact proportions of F and G -T are determinedby the
initial and final nuclear wave functions.
It is convenient todefine the ratio y of the Fermi and Gamow-Teller amplitudes
(that is, matrixelements):

………………… (1)

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 218

Where,M FandM GT are the actual Fermi and Gamow-Teller nuclear matrixelements. We
allow for the possibility that the Fermi and Gamow -Tellerstrength constants may differ
by defining g F and g GT , as the constantsanalogous to the single constant g that appears
in Equation (24) in previous unit. In the decayrate, we should replace g 2 |M fi | 2 with
(g F 2 |M F | 2 +g GT 2 |M GT | 2 ). We assume g F to be identical to the value g deduced from the
super-allowed (0 + →0 + ) Fermidecays.
For neutron decay, the Fermi matrix element can be simply calculated:| M F | = 1.
Since the decay rate is proportional to g F 2 M F 2 (1+ y -2 ) the, neutrondecay rate permits a
calculation of the ratio y, which yields the value0.467 ± 0.003. That is, the decay is
82% Gamow-Teller and 18% Fermi.
In general, the initial and final nuclear wave functions make calculating
M FandM GT complicated and difficult process, but in one special group of decaysthe
calculation is simplified. That group is the mirror decays.

In decays such as: , where the 21 st proton becomes the 21 st

neutronandno change of wave function is involved. Exceptfor minor differences due to

the Coulomb interaction, the initial and final wavefunctions are identical, and the
calculation of M Fand M GT is easily done. Forthese nuclei, g F andM F have the same values
as they do for the decay of thefree neutron.
This result may seem somewhat surprising because in a nucleus, a nucleon
doesnot behave at all like a free nucleon, primarily becau se of the cloud of mesonsthat
surrounds a nucleon as it participates in exchange interactions with itsneighbors. The
hypothesis that Fermi interactions of nucleons in nuclei areunchanged by the
surrounding mesons is called the conserved vector current(CVC) hypothesis. (The term
vector refers to the transformation properties ofthe operator that causes the Fermi part
of the decay; the Gamow-Teller partarises from an axial vector type of interaction.) The
CVC hypothesis can beunderstood by analogy with the ele ctromagnetic interaction. The
electric chargeis not changed by the transformation p ↔ n + 𝜋 + which is part of the
exchangeinteraction in which a proton may participate. Electric charge is conserved in
thisprocess and the Coulomb interaction is unchanged. (The electrons bound to
thenucleus by Coulomb forces are unaware of the transformat ion.) On the otherhand,
magnetic interactions are substantially changed by p ↔ n + 𝜋 + , as wediscussed when
we considered shell-model magnetic moments. In βdecay, g F (like electric charge) is
unaffected by the surrounding mesons, whileg GT (like magnetic moments) may be
affected by the meson cloud. In somenuclei, the change amounts to 20 -30%. The matrix
element M GT also varies withthe particular shell model state of the nucleon that makes
the transition.
Table 1: Ratio of Fermi to Gamow-Teller Matrix Elements

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 219

 Table-1shows a summary of values of the ratio y of the Fermi and Gamow-
Teller amplitudes for some mirror nuclei, assuming the CVC hypothesis ( g F is
unchanged from its value for neutron decay) and taking | M F | = 1. These values are
derived from decay rates.
For decays in which the initial and final wave functions are very different, the
Fermi matrix element vanishes, and so measuring the ratio y for these decays is a way
to test the purity of the wave functions. Table -1 includes some representative values of
y for transitions in other than mirror nuclei. These values come from measuring the
angular distribution of the βparticles relative to a particular direction. You can see that
the values are in general quite small, showing that the Fermi transitions are inhibited
and thus that the wave functions are relatively pure.

02-01.02: FORBIDDEN TRANSITION (DECAY)

The designation of decays as forbidden is really somewhat of a misnomer
(inaccurate).These decays are usually less probable than allowed decays (and have
generallylonger half-lives, as we discuss in the next section), but if the allowed
matrixelements happen to vanish, then the forbidden decays are the only ones that
canoccur.The most frequent occurrence of a forbidden decay is when the initial and
finalstates have opposite parities, and thus the selection rule for allowed decay
isviolated. To accomplish the change in parity, the electron and neutrino must
beemitted with an odd value of the orbital angular momentum relative to thenucleus.
Let us consider, for example, a 1-MeV decay process. If the electron isgiven all
the decay energy, its momentum is 1.4 MeV/c and the maximumangular momentum it
can carry relative to the nucleus is pR= 8.4 MeV.fm/ctakingR = 6 fm as a typical
nuclear radius. In units of ℏ ,this is equivalent topR/ℏ= 0.04.Thus, while it is less likely
to have l=1 decays relative to l = 0,decays with l=3,5,7,. . . are extremely unlikely, and
we can for the momentconsider only those forbidden decays with l=1. These are called

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First-forbidden decays, and like the allowed decays they have Fermi types, with the
electron and neutrino spins opposite (S = 0), and Gamow-Teller types, with the spins
parallel (S = 1). The coupling of S = 0 withl= 1 for the Fermi decays gives total angular
momentum of one unit carried by the beta decay, so that I = 0 or 1 (but not 0  0).
Coupling S = 1 with l=1 for the Gamow-Teller decays gives 0, 1, or 2 units of total
angular momentum, so that I= 0, 1, or 2. Thus the selection rules for first-forbidden
decays are:
I= 0,1,2 and= yes.
In contrast to the relative simplicity of allowed decays, there are six different
matrix elements for first-forbidden decays, and the analysis of decay rates or angular
distributions becomes very complicated. We will merely cite some o f the many
examples of first-forbidden decays:

(i) 17
N  17 O Decay is

(ii) 76 Br  76 Se Decay is (1 - 0 + )
(iii) 122
Sb  122 Sn*Decay is(2 -  2 + )
Transitions with  I ≥2, but with no change in parity, are permitted byneither the
allowed nor the first-forbidden selection rules. For these transitionswe must look to the
l=2,βemission, and consequently these are known as Second-forbiddendecays. When we
couple S = 0 or 1 to l= 2, we can in principlechange the nuclear spin by any amount
from  I = 0 to  I = 3 (with certainexceptions, such as 00 and ½½). The  I = 0 and
1 cases fall within theselection rules for allowed decays, and we expect that the
contribution of thesecond-forbidden terms to those decays will be negligible (perhaps to
10 -3 to 10 -4 in angular distributions, and 10 -6 to 10 -8 in the spectrum shape).
Exceptingthese cases, the selection rules for the second-forbidden decays are:
I= 2, 3and= No.
Examples of second-forbidden decays are:
(i) 22
Na  22 Ne Decay is (3 + 0 + )

(ii) 137 Cs  137 Ba Decay is

Continuing this process, we would find Third-forbidden decays (l= 3), in which the
selection rules not also satisfied by first -forbidden processes are:
I= 3 or4and= Yes.
Examples of Third-forbidden decays are:

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 87
(i) Rb 87 SrDecay is

(ii) 40
K  40 CaDecay is (4 - 0 + )
In very unusual circumstances, even Fourth-forbidden decays (l= 4) may
occur,withselection rules:
I = 4 or 5 and = No.
We will learn in the next section that the higher the order of forbiddenness, themore
unlikely is the decay. Given the chance, a nucleus prefers to decay byallowed or first -
forbidden decays, and higher orders are generally too weak toobserve. Only when no
other decay mode is possible can we observe theseextremely rare third- and fourth or
higher-forbidden decays.

Fig. 1: Systematics of experimental log ft values for different types of decay.

02-02: COMPARATIVE HALF-LIVES (AND FORBIDDEN DECAY)

Beta-decay half-lives include an enormous range, from the order of
l6
millisecondsto about 10 years. Part of this variation must be due to the poor match -
upof the initial and final nuclear wave functions, but it is hard to imagine thatnuclear
wave functions are so purely one configuration or another t hat this effectcan account
for any but a relatively small part of this variation over 26 orders ofmagnitude.The true
source of the variation in half-lives is the relative difficulty of creatingaβparticle and a
neutrino in an angular momentum state with l >0. As wefound in the previous section, a
typical (classical) angular momentum for a1 -MeV p particle has a maximum value of

the order of l≈ . That is, theprobability is very small for the electron and

neutrino to be emitted in a statewith quantum number l >0.

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 We can make this qualitative estimate more quantitative by considering thewave
functions of the electron and neutrino, which are taken to be of the form ofplane waves,

. Expanding the exponential gives 1+( ip.r)/h+1/2 [(ip.r )/h] 2 + ….. . The first

term (after sandwiching between the initial andfinal nuclear wave functions and
including the appropriate spin terms) is responsiblefor allowed decays. In the event that
the nuclear wave functions cause thisterm to vanish (they may be of opposite parity, for
instance) then we must go tothe next term, in which the nuclear part (excepting the

spin) is . Suchterms are responsible for the First-forbidden decays. The

average value of ,integrated over the nuclear volume, is of order 0.01, as we

found above. Thetransition probability is proportional to the square of the integral, and
so theprobability for first-forbidden decays is only about 10 -4 that for allowed decays.

The integral also vanishes unless the initial and final states have
oppositeparities, which can be shown, for example, by writing r in terms of Y 1 (θ, ϕ).
Thisgives again the selection rule ∆𝜋= yes for first-forbidden decays, as discussed inthe
previous section.Each succeeding term in the expansion of the exponential form of the
planewave gives a higher order of forbiddenness, and each gives a transition

probabilitysmaller than that of the previous term by a factor of the order of ( )2

or about 10 -4 .

To compare the half-lives of different β transitions, we must first correct for the
variation in the βdecay probability that results from differences in the daughter atomic
number Z′ or in the endpoint energy E 0 .This is done through the Fermi integral func tion
f(Z′, E 0 ), which was defined in previous unit. If we know the partial half -life for a
certain decay process, we can find f (Z′, E 0 ) from curves such as those of Fig. 5
(previous unit). The product ft 1/2 , is the comparative half-life or ft value, which is
usually given as log 10 ft, where t 1/2 is always in seconds.

As an example, we consider theβ - decay of 203

Hg. The half-life is 46.8 days, so
203
log 10 t l/2 = 6.6. The Q value for the decay to Tl is 0.491 MeV. However, essentially
100% of the decay goes to the 279-keV excited state of 203
Tl, and so the βendpoint
energy will be 0.491 - 0.279 = 0.212 MeV. From Fig.5(previous section) we estimate
log 10 f = -0.1, and thus we have,

Log 10 ft = Log 10 f + Log 10 t 1/2 = -0.1 + 6.6 = 6.5

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 For a second example, we take the β + decay of 22
Na to the ground state of 22
Ne
(Z′= 10). The half-life is 2.60 yearsbut the branching ratio to the groundstate is only
0.06%. Thus, the partial half-life is 2.60 years/6 x10 -4 , so that log 10 t 1/2 = 11.1. The Q
value for β + decay is 1.8 MeV, so from Fig. 5 (previous unit) we estimate log 10 f = 1.6,
and log 10 ft = 11.1 + 1.6 = 12.7.

In compilations of nuclear decay information, the log ft values are given

directly. We can determine the type of decay (allowed, n th -forbidden) based on the
angular momentum and parity selection rules, and we can then try to relate the
experimental log ft values with the order of forbiddenness. Fig. 1 summarizes the
experimental values of log ft for different types of decays, and you c an see that there is
indeed an effect of the order we estimated -each additional degree of forbiddenness
increases the log ft value by about 3.5, representing a reduction in the transition
probability by 3 x10 -4 .(There is also a great deal of scatter within each type of decay, a
large part of which is probably due to the effects of the particular initial and final
nuclear wave functions.) Most allowed decays have log ft values in the range 3.5 to 7.5,
and first-forbidden decays generally fall in the range 6.0 to 9.0. There are relatively
fewer known second-forbidden decays, which have log ft values from about 10 to 13,
and the third-forbidden decays (four cases) range from about 14 to 20. There are two
known fourth-forbidden decays, with log ft about 23. The value of summaries of this
kind of information is in their predictive ability; for example, if we are studying a
previously unknown decay scheme for which we measure log ft = 5.0, the decay is most
probably of the allowed type, which permits us to assign t he initial and final states the
same parity and to conclude that their spins differ by at most one unit.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01
Que. 01: Is angular momentum conserved in beta decay?

Ans: During negative beta decay anti-neutrino is emitted in negative beta decay so as to
conserve linear momentum, angular momentum as well as total energy.

Que. 02: What is allowed transition in decay?

Ans: Allowed transitions are those that have high probability of occurring, as in the
case of short-lived radioactive decay of atomic nuclei.

Que. 03: What are the forbidden nuclear transitions?

Ans: In spectroscopy, forbidden transition or forbidden line is a spectral line associated

with absorption or emission of photons by atomic nuclei , atoms, or molecules

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 which undergo a transition that is not allowed by a particular selection rule but is
allowed if the approximation associated with it.

Que. 04: What are the two types of beta decay?

Ans: Two types of beta decay are (i) Positive beta de cay (ii) Negative beta decay.

Que. 05: What are the angular momentum and parity selection rules in beta decay?
Ans:The selection rules for allowed β decay are total angular momentum changeΔI =0,
±1 and no parity change between the initial (decaying) and final (populated)
states. In contrast, first-forbidden transitions have ΔI=0, ±1, ±2 and a change in
parity .

Que. 06: What are the parity selection rules in beta decay?
Ans:The selection rules for allowed β decay there is no parity change between the
initial (decaying) and final (populated) states . In contrast, there is change in parity
in first-forbidden transitions.

Que. 07: What is the conservation of angular momentum and parity?

Ans: The angular momentum and parity of the initial atomic state must be the same as
the combined angular momentum and parity of the final atomic state and photon is
called the conservation of angular momentum and parity.

Que. 08: What is the Gamow and Teller selection rule for beta decay?

Ans:The Gamow–Teller transition is a pseudovector transition, that is, the selection

rules for beta decay caused by such a transition involve no parity change of the
nuclear state. The spin of the parent nucleus can either remain unchanged or
change by ±1.

Que. 09: What is half-life for beta decay?

Ans: Half-lives for beta decay range upward from one-hundredth of a second.

Que. 10: Why is angular momentum a Pseudovector?

Ans: Angular momentum is obviously a pseudovector because just changing the

coordinate system can make changes to it that isn’t simple component
transformations.

MCQ

1. Beta decay conserves a quantum number known as the……….

a) Neutron number

b) Lepton number

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 c) Proton number

d) Electron number

2. A Fermi transition is beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron and
neutrinocouple to……….
a) Total spin S=0 and change in angular momentum change I=0.
b) Total spin S=1 and change in angular momentum change I=1.
c) Total spin S=1/2 and change in angular momentum change I=2.
d) Total spin S=0 and change in angular momentum change I=1.
3. A Gamow–Tellertransition is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted
electron and neutrino couple to……….
a) Total spin S=1 and change in angular momentum change I=0.
b) Total spin S=1 and change in angular momentum change I=0, 1.
c) Total spin S=1/2 and change in angular momentum change I=2.
d) Total spin S=0 and change in angular momentum change I=1.

4. When beta decay particles carry no angular momentum the decay is referred
………
a) First-forbidden transition.
b) Second-forbidden transition.
c) Third-forbidden transition.
d) Allowed transition.
5. The selection rulesfor first-forbidden decays are ……….
a) I= 1, 2 and= No.
b) I= 2 and= yes.
c) I= 0, 1, 2 and= yes.
d) I= 0, 1, 2 and= No.
6. For Third-forbidden decays, the selection rules are……….
a) I= 1 or 2and= Yes.
b) I= 1 or 2and= No.
c) I= 0and= Yes.
d) I= 3 or 4 and= Yes.

7. The selection rules for the n th forbidden transitions are………

a) I= n+1, n+2, n+3 and =(-1) n
b) I= n-1, n, n+1 and =(-1) n
c) I= n-1, n, n+1 and =(1) n
d) I= n-1, n, n+1 and =(-1) n+1

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 226

 8. The decay is referred to as forbidden ……..

a) When L > 0.

b) When L = 0.

c) When L < 0.

d) When L = -1.

9. The special case of a transition where the structure of the final state is very
similar to the structure of the initial state, is referred as ……….

a) Allowed.

b) Super-allowed

c) Forbidden

d) Super forbidden

10. The correct equation related to comparative half -lives is ………..

a) Log 10 ft = Log 10 f + Log 10 t
b) Log 10 ft = Log 10 f x Log 10 t
c) Log 10 ft = Log 10 f + Log 10 t 1/2
d) Log 10 ft = Log 10 f - Log 10 t 1/2
Ans: 1.-b); 2.-a);3.-b); 4.-d);5.-c); 6.-d);7.-b); 8.-a);9.-b); 10.-c).

SUMMARY
The conservation of angular momentum in the β-decay requires that J p = J d + L
+ S with J p and J d being the spin of the parent and the daughter and L = Le + Lν being
the orbital angular momentum of the leptons and S = Se + Sν being the spin angular
momentum of the leptons. The selection rules for allowed β decay are total angular
momentum change Δ I = 0, ±1 and no parity change between the initial (decaying) and
final (populated) states. In contrast, first-forbidden transitions have Δ I = 0, ±1, ±2 and
a change in parity.
In the allowed approximation, we replaced the electron and neutrino wave
functions with their values at the origin; that is, we regard the electron and neutrino to
have been created at r = 0. In this case they cannot carry any orbital angular
momentum, and the only change in the angular momentum of the nucleus must result
from the spins of the electron and neutrino, each of which has the value s = ½. These
two spins can be parallel (total S = 1) or anti-parallel (total S = 0). If the spins are anti-
parallel decay is known as a Fermi decay and the allowed approximation (l = 0) there

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 227

can be no change in the nuclear spin. If the electron and neutrino spins are parallel
decay is called Gamow-Teller decay. The selection rules for allowed β-decay is ∆I = 0,
l and ∆(parity change) = no change.It is convenient to define the ratio y of the Fermi
and Gamow-Teller amplitudes (that is, matrix elements). In β decay, g F (like electric
charge) is unaffected by the surrounding mesons, while g GT (like magnetic moments)
may be affected by the meson cloud. In some nuclei, the change amounts to 20 -30%.
The matrix element M GT also varies with the particular shell model state of the nucleon
that makes the transition.
Forbidden decays are usually less probable than allowed decays (and have
generally longer half-lives, as we discuss in the next section), but if the allowed matrix
elements happen to vanish, then the forbidden decays are the only ones that can
occur.The most frequent occurrence of a forbidden decay is when the initial and final
states have opposite parities, and thus the selection rule for allowed decay is violated.
To accomplish the change in parity, the electron and neutrino must be emitted with an
odd value of the orbital angular momentum relative to the nucleus. The selection rules
for first-forbidden decays are, I= 0, 1, 2 and = yes. Theselection rules for the
second-forbidden decays are, I= 2, 3 and = No.Theselection rules for the Third-
forbidden decays are, I= 3 or 4 and = Yes.
Beta-decay half-lives include an enormous range, from the order of milliseconds
to about 10 l6 years. Part of this variation must be due to the poor match -up of the initial
and final nuclear wave functions, but it is hard to imagine that nuclear wave functions
are so purely one configuration or another that this effect can account for any but a
relatively small part of this variation over 26 orders of magnitude. The true source of
the variation in half-lives is the relative difficulty of creating a βparticle and a neutrino
in an angular momentum state with l >0.

KEY WORDS
Beta decay, Fermi, Gamow-Teller, Orbital, Spin, Angular momentum, Parity,
Selection rule, Comparative half–lives, allowed transitions, Forbidden transitions.

REFERENCES
MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jHGGqvlbMs .

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Vh-eCCEHzM .

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aox8LwwoSww .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 228

 4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RP81zhtCHCU .

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qp7vbeVsbJI .

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ku9sBjywur8 .

WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay_transition .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino .

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay_transition .

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3ABeta_decay .

5. https://iopscience.iop.org/book/mono/978-0-7503-1428-2/chapter/bk978-
0-7503-1428-2ch1 .

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-life .

7. https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-
nuclear-physics/radioactive-decay/beta-decay-beta-
radioactivity/conservation-laws-in-beta-decay .

OER

BOOKS:

1. Introductory nuclear physics: Kenneth S. Krane, Oregon state university;John

Willey &sons, ISBN 0-471-80553-X.
2. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First
Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P) Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
( https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in /siteAdmin/dde-

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 229

 admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20P
hysics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 230

CREDIT 03 -UNIT 03: PARITY SELECTIONRULES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 ExplainBeta decay.
 DiscussFermi theory of beta decay, Shape of the beta spectrum.
 ExplainParity selection rules.
 Explaindifferent Selection rules.
 Describe Two-component theory of neutrino decay.
 Explain properties of neutrino.
 Discussproperties of neutrino.
 Describethe different detection methods of neutrino.
 Distinguish different detection methods.
 ExplainWater Cerenkov technique of neutrino detection.
 Explain the Radiochemical Technique.

INTRODUCTION
In physics, a selection rule, or transition rule, formally constrains the possible
transitions of a system from one quantum state to another. Selection rules have been
derived for electromagnetic transitions in molecules, in atoms, in atomic nuclei, and so
on. The selection rules may differ according to the technique used to observe the
transition. Neutrinos are everywhere. They are generated in the sun, in extensive
cosmic ray airshowers, insupernovae. We make them in nuclear reactors and in particle
accelerators. There are even neutrinosstill left over from the Big Bang around us. This
section looks at some of the source of neutrinos andmethods we use to detect them.

03-01: PARITY
In physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign
of one spatial coordinate. In three dimensions, it can also refer to the simultaneous
flip in the sign of all three spatial coordinates (a point reflection):

…………. (1)

It can also be thought as a physical phenomenon in which a parity inversion

transforms a phenomenon into its mirror image.All fundamental interactions
of elementary particles, with the exception of the weak interaction, are symmetric under
parity. As established by the Chien-Shiung Wu experiment the weak interaction is

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 231

chiral (asymmetric) and thus provides a means for probing chirality (handedness) in
physics. In her experiment, Wu took advantage of the controlling ro le of weak
interactions in radioactive decay of atomic isotopes to establish the chirality of the
weak force.By contrast, in interactions that are symmetric under parity, such as
electromagnetism in atomic and molecular physics; parity serves as a powerful
controlling principle underlying quantum transition.

A matrix representation of P (in any number of dimensions)

has determinant equal to −1, and hence is distinct from a rotation, which has a
determinant equal to 1. In a two-dimensional plane, a simultaneous flip of all
coordinates in sign is not a parity transformation; it is the same as a 180° rotation.

In quantum mechanics, wave functions that are unchanged by a parity

transformation are described as even functions, while those that change sign under a
parity transformation are odd functions.

Under rotations, classical geometrical objects can be classified

into scalars, vectors and tensors of higher rank. In classical physics, physical
configurations need to transform under representations of every symmetry
group.InQuantum theory do not need to transform under representations of
the group of rotations, but only need to transform under projective representations.
The word projective refers to the fact that if one projects out the phase of each state,
where we recall that the overall phase of a quantum state is not observable, and then a
projective representation reduces to an ordinary representation. All representations
are also projective representations, but the converse is not true, therefore the
projective representation condition on quantum states is weaker than the
representation condition on classical states.

Parity can beclassifiedas per following concept of:

 Scalars (P = +1) and Pseudo-scalars (P = −1) which are rotationally invariant.
 Vectors (P = −1) and Axial vectors or Pseudo-vectors(P =+1) which both transform
as vectors under rotation.

One can define reflections such as

…………. (2)

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which also have negative determinant and form a valid parity transformation. Then,
combining them with rotations (or successively performing x-, y-,and z-reflections) one
can recover the particular parity transformation defined earlier. The first parity
transformation given does not work in an even number of dimensions, though, because
it results in a positive determinant. In even dimensions only the latter example of a
parity transformation (or any reflection of an odd number of coordinates) can be used.

The wave functions of a particle moving into an external potential, which

is centro-symmetric (potential energy invariant with respect to a space inversion,
symmetric to the origin), either remain invariable or change signs: these two possible
states are called the even state or odd state of the wave functions.The law of
conservation of parity of particles states that, if an isolated ensemble of particles has a
definite parity, then the parity remains invariable in the process of ensemble
evolution. However this is not true for the beta decay of nuclei because the weak
nuclear interaction violates parity. The parity of the states of a particle moving in a
spherically symmetric external field is determined by the angular momentum, and the
particle state is defined by three quantum numbers: total energy, angular momentum
and the projection of angular momentum.

03-02: SELECTION RULES

A selection rule (or transition rule) formally constrains the possible transitions
of a system from one quantum state toanother. Selection rules have been derived
for electromagnetic transitions in molecules, in atoms, in atomic nuclei, and so on.
The selection rules may differ according to the technique used to observe the
transition. The selection rule also plays a role in chemical reactions, where some are
formally spin-forbidden reactions, that is, reactions where the spin state changes at
least once from reactants to products.Mainlyatomic and molecular transitions are
considered.

In quantum mechanics the basis for a spectroscopic selection rule is the value
of the transition moment integralas:

………………. (3)

Where, Ψ1and Ψ2 are the wave functions of the two states, state 1 and state 2,
involved in the transition, and μ is the transition moment operator. This integral
represents the propagator (and thus the probability) of the transition between states 1
and 2. Ifthe value of this integral is zero then the transition is forbidden.In practice, to

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determine a selection rule the integral itself does not need to be calculated: It is
sufficient to determine the symmetry of the transition moment function . If

the transition moment function is symmetric over all of the totally symmetric
representation of the point group to which the atom or molecule belongs, then the
integral's value is (in general) not zero and the transition is allowed. Otherwise, the
transition is forbidden.

The transition moment integral is zero if the transition moment

function, is anti-symmetric or odd, i.e. y(x)=-y(-x) holds. The

symmetry of the transition moment function is the direct product of the parities of its
three components. The symmetry characteristics of each component can be obtained
from standard charactertables.

The Laporte rule is a selection rule formally stated as follows: In a centro-

symmetric environment, transitions between like atomicorbital such as s-s, p-p, d-d,
or f-f, transitions are forbidden. The Laporte rule (law) applies
to electricdipoletransitions, so the operator has u symmetry (meaning ungeradeor odd
(not divisible by two)).p orbitals also have u symmetry, so the symmetry of the
transition moment function is given by the triple product u×u×u, which
has u symmetry. The transitions are therefore forbidden. Likewise, d orbitals
have g symmetry (meaning gerade is even), so the triple product g×u×g also
has u symmetry and the transition is forbidden.

The wave function of a single electron is the product of a space-dependent

wave function and a spin wave function. Spin is directional and can be said to have
odd parity. It follows that transitions in which the spin direction changes are
forbidden. In formal terms, only states with the same total spin quantum number are
spin-allowed. In crystal field theory, d-d transitions that are spin-forbidden are much
weaker than spin-allowed transitions. Both can be observed, in spite of the Laporte
rule, because the actual transitions are coupled to vibrations that are anti -symmetric
and have the same symmetry as the dipole moment operator.

03-03: NEUTRINO
Neutrino is a subatomic particle with no electrical charge and a very small
mass. They are difficult to detect because they have minimal interaction with matter.
To detect neutrinos, very large and sensitive detectors are required. Neutrino is a

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fermion because it is an elementary particle with a spin of ½ that interacts only via
gravity and weak interaction. The symbol for Neutrino is ν. A neutrino, therefore, can
be defined as a neutral fundamental particle with a mass close to zero and half -
integral spin that rarely reacts with the matter.Neutrinos are produced by
different radioactive decays, such as:

 Beta decay of atomic nuclei.

 When accelerated particle beams knock atoms.
 Artificial nuclear reactions in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.
Neutrino Discovery:Wolfgang Pauli first hypothesized the existence of the neutrino in
1930. At that time, a problem emerged in beta decay when both energy and angular
momentum were not conserved. But, Pauli suggested that if a non -interacting, neutral
particle (called a neutrino) were emitted, one could recover the conservationlaws.
However, the first detection of neutrinos did not happen until 1955, when Frederick
Reines and Clyde Cowan documented anti-neutrinos emitted by a nuclear
reactor.Neutrinos are leptons because they have only been observed to interact through
the weak force. These weak interactions produce neutrinos in three leptonic flavors
(types):
(i) Electron neutrino (ν e )
(ii) Muon neutrino (ν μ )
(iii) Tau neutrino (ν τ )
Each neutrino is associated with the corresponding charged leptons, the electron, the
muon and tau, respectively.
03-03.01:DETECTION OF NEUTRINO
A neutrino detector is a physics apparatus which is designed to
study neutrinos. Because neutrinos only weaklyinteract with other particles of matter,
neutrino detectors must be very large to detect a significant number of neutrinos.
Neutrino detectors are often built underground, to isolate the detector from cosmic
rays and other background radiation. The field of neutrino astronomy is still very
much in its infancy – the only confirmed extraterrestrial sources as of 2018 are
the Sun and the supernova 1987A in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud. Another
likely source (three standard deviations) is the blazar TXS 0506+056 about 3.7 billion
light years away. Neutrino observatories will give astronomers fresh eyes with which
to study the universe.

Various detection methods have been used. Super Kamiokande is a large

volume of water surrounded by phototubes that watch for the Cherenkov

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radiation emitted when an incoming neutrino creates an electron or muon in the water.
The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is similar, but uses heavy water as the detecting
medium. Other detectors have consisted of large volumes
of chlorine or gallium which are periodically checked for excesses
of argon or germanium, respectively, which are created by neutrinos interacting with
the original substance. MINOS used a solid plastic scintillator watched by
phototubes; Borexino uses a liquid pseudocumene scintillator also watched by
phototubes; and the NOνA detector uses a liquid scintillator watched by avalanche
photodiodes.

Various different detector technologies have been used in neutrino experiments

over the years, depending on the requirements of the particular study. Desirable
features of a neutrino experiment will typically include several of the following:
 Low energy threshold, so that low-energy neutrinos can be detected and studied
(especially for solar neutrinos).
 Good angular resolution, so that the direction of the detected particle can be
accurately reconstructed (especially for astrophysical neutrinos).
 Good particle identification, so that electrons and muons can be well separated
(essential for oscillation experiments).
 Good energy measurement, so that the energy of the neutrino can be
reconstructed (useful for oscillation measurements and astrophysics).
 Good time resolution, so that the time evolution of transient signals can be
studied (essential for supernova neutrinos, and important for other astrophysical
sources).
 Charge identification, so that leptons and antileptons can be separated (will be
essential for neutrino factory experiments).
It is not possible to have all of these things in one experiment – for example,
experiments with very low energy threshold tend not to have good angular or energy
resolution. Neutrino physicists will select the most appropriate technology for the aims
of their particular experiment. The following experimental techniques are used to de tect
the neutrino. Among these some are given in detail.
1) Radiochemical methods
2) Water Cerenkov detectors
3) Heavy water detectors
4) Scintillation techniques
5) Long string, large Water Cerenkov Detectors
6) Time projection chambers
7) Nuclear emulsions

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1) The Radiochemical Technique:
The radiochemical technique was the first method used to study low energy
solar neutrinos. Theprinciple is the inverse beta decay reaction

…………. (4)

Where, the daughter nucleus is unstable and decays with a reasonably

short half-life. Theseexperiments usually detect that an electron neutrino has interacted
by looking for the radioactivedecay of the daughter nucleus. The technique is one of
extremely low rates; for example, given anincident neutrino flux of about 10 10 cm−2 s −1 ,
and a cross-section on the order of 10 −45 cm2 , about 10 30 atoms are needed to produce a
rate of one event per day. Such low event rates require a new unit,called the SNU and 1
SNU = 10 −36 interactions per target atom per second. These experiments tend tobe large
and cheap. They work by letting the number of daughter nuclides accumulate over a
timethat is small compared to the daughter decay time. Periodically the entire detector
is flushed and the number of daughter nuclides counted, usually using comp licated
chemical processes. The onlyinformation this technique can give you is the number of
electron neutrino interactions in a giventime; all other information, neutrino energy,
interaction time, neutrino direction and data concerning muon and tau neutrinos is lost.

2) Water Cerenkov Technique:

When a charged particle travels through a medium faster than the speed of light
in that medium, itradiates a cone of Cerenkov light. This cone is aligned to the
direction of motion of the particle andhas an opening ang le that is a function of the
velocity of the particle and the refractive index of themedium

………………. (5)

If one surrounds the target with light sensors, the cone will be detected as a circle of
light as shownin Fig.1. From the pattern of hits o ne can reconstruct the direction and
energy of the particle thatformed the ring. Particle identification is much harder and in
most cases (for example, distinguishinga muon from a pion) is all but impossible.
However, it is possible to distinguish electromagneticparticles from muon-like particles
by the shape of the ring outline as shown in Fig. 2.Electromagnetic particles tend to
scatter in the target medium, leading to fuzzy rings, rather thanthesharp -edged rings
seen with muon-like particles. Since the whole detection method relies on light
travelling throughthe target medium, the medium must be highly transparent. There
must also be a lot of it, to provideenough target mass, so it must be relatively cheap
too. The best target material for these types ofd etectors is generally water.

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 Fig.1: Detection principle of Water Cerenkov detectors

Fig. 2: Distinguishing a photon from a muon in a water Cerenkov detector

The disadvantage with this type of detector is that is cannot detectneutral
particles, or charged particles below the Cerenkov threshold. Further, one generally has
toreconstruct the ring pattern. This is easy for one ring events, and even two ring
events, but as thenumber of particles increase the number of rings increases as well and
the reconstruction complexitymakes the task much more difficult, in general only low -
multiplicity interactions with 2 or 3 particles can be reliable reconstructed.

03-03.02:PROPETIES OF NEUTRINO
The properties of neutrinos can be summarized as follows:
 Neutrinos belong to the family of leptons, and this family interacts through the
weak force.
 There are three types or leptonic flavors of Neutrino: Electron neutrino,Muon
neutrino and Tau neutrino.

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  A neutrino likewise has an antimatter component that is known as an
antineutrino.
 The electromagnetic forces do not affect neutrinos and hence, do not induce the
ionization of matter.
 Neutrinos interact with matter only through weak interactive forces.
 A neutrino can pass through a massive number of atoms without provoking any
reaction, and hence these are the most penetrating subatomic particles.
 The Neutrinos can also change one nucleus into another, and this process is used
in a radiochemical neutrino detector.
 An antineutrino, which is an antimatter component of a neutrino, is also present.
 These are the most invasive subatomic particles since they can also travel
through a large number of atoms without igniting anything.
 A radiochemical neutrino detector uses this ability of the neutrinos to transform
one nucleus into another.

03-03.03:APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRINOS

1) Properties of the Sun: The visible light is emitted from the surface of the sun
and neutrinos, which travel close to the speed of light, are produced in the core
of the sun. Studying these neutrinos can help us understand what goes on in the
interior of the sun.

2) Constituents of the Universe: Light coming from distant stars can be studied by
astronomers, for example, to detect new planets. Likewise, if the properties of
neutrinos are understood better, they can be used in astronomy to discover what
the universe is made up of.

3) Probing Early Universe: Neutrinos interact very little with the matter around
them, so they travel long distances uninterrupted. The extragalactic (originating
outside the Milky Way galaxy) neutrinos we observe may be coming from the
distant past. These undamaged messengers can give us a clue about the origin of
the universe and the early stages of the infant universe, soon after the Big Bang.

4) Medical Imaging: Apart from direct future uses of neutrinos, there are
technological applications of the detectors that will be used to study them. For
instance, X-ray machines, MRI scans, etc., all came out of research into particle
detectors.Hence the INO detectors may have applications in medical imaging.

5) Nuclear Weapons:This technology can be used to identify the presence of

nuclear weapons because neutrinos are produced from radiation.
6) It is used to verify dark matter's existence.

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 7) It can facilitate the discovery of mineral resources using the neutrino spin as a
basis.
8) In a neutrino, binary coding can be used to encrypt communication.

03-04: TWO-COMPONENT THEORY OF NEUTRINO DECAY

Double beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which two protons are
simultaneously transformed into two neutrons, or vice versa , inside an atomic nucleus.
Unstable nuclei may undergo 2νββ if single β -decay is energetically forbidden or highly
suppressed by conservation of angular momentum. In principle, 2νββ decay occurs in
any nucleus for which it is kinematically allowed, incompetition with all other dec ay
modes. However, in practice, because it is an extremelyrare process, it is only
observable when competing decay modes are forbidden or highlysuppressed. Because of
the pairing force between like nucleons, the situation can arise ineven -even nuclei that
single βdecay is energetically forbidden, leaving the ββdecay asthe first allowed decay
mode as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3:ββ decay (the first allowed decay mode)

To understand the double-β(ββ) decay, consider the decay of 48
Ca (Fig. 4).The Q value
for β-decay to 48
Sc is0.281 MeV, but the only 48
Sc states accessible to the decay would
+ + +
be the 4 , 5 ,and 6 states, which would require either fourth- or sixth-forbidden
decays. If wetake our previous empirical estimate of log ft≈23 for fourth-forbidden
decays,then we estimate log t ≈25 or t 1/2 ≈ 10 25 s(10 l8 y). It is thus not surprising that we
48
should regard Ca as a stablenucleus.

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 Fig. 4:The decay of 48 Ca. The superallowedββ-decay
to 48
Ti is an alternative to the fourth-forbidden single β-decay to 48
Sc.

An alternative possible decay is the double-β(ββ)decay, i.e.,

-
48
Ca → 48 Ti + 2 e +2ʋ………………. (6)
48
This is a direct process, which does not require the Sc intermediate state. (Infact, as
we shall discuss in most of the possible ββdecays, the intermediate stateis of greater
energy then the initial state and is energetically impossible to reach.)The advantage of
this process over the single β decay (in this case) is the 0 + → 0 + nature of the transition,
which would place it in the super-allowed,rather than the fourth- forbidden, category.
We can make a rough estimate of the probability for such decay by
rewritingEq n . 26 of unit-Ifor single-β decay as:

………………. (7)

The first term has a value approximately, 0.8 x10 21 s -l and can be consideredthe
dimensional scaling factor. The remaining term is dimensionless and containsall of the
information on the β decay and nuclear transition probabilities. It has avalue of 1.5 x 10 -

25
f (using ).

The decay rate for ββ decay then ought to be approximately given by:

………………. (8)

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which gives a half-life of the order of 10 17 years, comparable with the value forsingle β
decay (although this simple calculation should not be taken too seriously. Double -beta
decay can also occur in cases in which the intermediate statecannot be reached by the
single decay mode.
Consider the case of 128
Te, shown in Fig.5. The decay 128
Te → 128 Ihas a negative
Q value of -1.26 MeV, and istherefore not possible. However, the double ββdecay 128
Te
→ 128 Xe is energetically possiblewith Q=0.87 MeV. In fact, such situations provide the
most likely candidates for observing ββdecays because we do not want to study the case
of twosuccessive decays through an energetically accessible intermediate state.

Fig. 5:Single β-decay of 128 Teis energetically forbidden,

Butββ-decay to 128 Xe is possible.
There are two basic approaches to the observation of ββdecay. The first is
themass spectroscopic method, in which we search for the stable daughter nuclei
128
inminerals of known geological age. If we were to find an excessabundance of Xe
(relative to its abundance in atmospheric Xe)like ina tellurium-bearing
rock,wecouldfigure out an estimate for the ββ-decay half-lifeof 128
Te to 128
Xe. Making
the reasonable assumption that the ββ-decayhalf-life is long compared with the age Tof
the rock, the number of Xe resultingfrom the ββ-decay is:

………………. (9)

And therefore ………………. (10)

The number of Te and Xe nuclei can be determined using mass

spectroscopictechniques, and thus the ββ-decay half-life may be found. Using this
method some typical valueobtained are:

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 (i) 128
Te → 128 Xe, t 1/2 =(3.5 ±1.0) x10 24 Yrs
(ii) 130 Te → 130 Xe, t 1/2 =(2.2±0.6) x10 21 Yrs
(iii) 82
Se → 82 Kr, t 1/2 =(1.7±0.3) x10 20 Yrs
The direct detection of ββ-decay is obviously frustrated by the long half-lives-from one
mole of sample, we would expect of the order of one decay per yearin the worst case
above and one per day in the best case. Experiments with suchlow count rates always
suffer from spurious background counts, such as thosefrom natura l radioactivity or
cosmic rays, and shielding against these unwantedcounts severely taxes the skill of the
experimenter.
Although the direct method is exceedingly difficult and subject to many possible
systematic uncertainties, it is extremely important t o pursue these studiesbecause they

are sensitive to the critical question of Lepton conservation. If v and are not really

distinct particles(they are coupled together or are linear combinations otherfundamental

particles), then neutrinolessββ-decay would be possible:

………………. (11)

Wecan think of this process as follows: the first β-decay proceedsthrough the virtual

and energetically inaccessible intermediate state .The emitted turns into a

vand is reabsorbed by the virtual intermediate stategiving

. The net process therefore results in theemission of

two β’s and no v ’s.

An experiment designed to search for neutrinolessββ-decay has been done inthe
76
case of Ge. Here a Ge detector is used both as the source of the decayingnuclei and as
the detector of the decays. The total available decay energy is 2.04MeV, and if the two
electrons stop within the detector, it should record a singleevent with energy of 2.04
MeV. The difficulty here is to reduce the background(from natural radioactivity, man -
made radioactive contaminants, and cosmicrays) to a low enough level so that the
2.04MeV region can be searched for apeak. The Mont Blanc experiment mentioned
above was of this type andobtained a lower limit o n the half-life of 5 x 10 21 yrs.
Theundergroundexperiment, reported recently by Avignone et al., Phys. Rev. C 34, 666
(1986),extraordinary measures were taken to surround the detector only with
materialthat would not contribute substantially to the backgro und (stainless steel
60
screws,which showed contamination from Co, were replaced with brass, and rubberO-
rings were replaced with indium). After 9 months of counting, there was novisible peak
at 2.04 MeV, and the half-life was deduced to be greater than 10 23 yrs.These

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 243

experiments are continuing, in the hope that continued improvements insensitivity will
enable both the two-neutrino and the neutrinolessββ-decays to beobserved
directly.Although the theoretical interpretations are difficult, it may be that the
searchfor evidence of neutrinolessββ-decay will be an important source of
informationon the fundamental character of the neutrinos. The emission -reabsorption
processdescribed above, for instance, is impossible for massless neutrinos withdefinite
helicities (l), and so the observation of the neutrinolessββ-decaywould immediately
suggest that the classical properties of the neutrino are notcorrect.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01
Que.1: What is a Neutrino?
Ans: A neutrino is a neutral fundamental particle with a mass close to zero and a half -
integral spin that rarely reacts with the matter.
Que.2: Where is a Neutrino found?
Ans: Neutrinos can be found everywhere. They permeate the space all around us. They
can be located throughout our galaxy.
Que.3: Where are Neutrino observatories placed?
Ans: Neutrino observatories are usually constructed underground to isolate the detector
from background radiation and cosmic rays.
Que.4: How are Neutrinos formed?
Ans: Neutrinos are produced by different radioactive decays such as beta decay of
atomic nuclei.
Que.5: What is an antineutrino?
Ans: The antimatter component of neutrino is known as an antineutrino.
Que.6: What is a neutrino detector?
Ans: A neutrino detector is referred to as an apparatus used in physics in order to detect
neutrinos and their interactions. A neutrino detector has been invented to study
the weak interactions of the particles that only weakly interact with other matter
particles. They are often constructed underground to shield the detector from
background radiation and cosmic rays. Neutrinos have been detected using a
variety of techniques. Heavy water is used as a detecting medium, and some
detectives are made of gallium and huge amounts of chlorine.
Que.7: What is neutrino and anti-neutrino?
Ans: A neutrino, whose name translates as Little neutral one, is an elementary particle
that often moves at speeds similar to those of light, is electrically neutral, and
has the ability to almost completely pass through co nventional matter. Because of
this, neutrinos are very challenging to find. The mass of neutrinos is extremely

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 244

 small but not zero. Neutrinos, which are created during nuclear beta decay, have
an antiparticle called an antineutrino. These are produced when a neutron
transforms into a proton, which results in beta particle emissions.
Que.8: What is double beta decay process?
Ans: Double beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which two protons are
simultaneously transformed into two neutrons, or vice ver sa, inside an atomic
nucleus. Unstable nuclei may undergo 2νββ if single β-decay is energetically
forbidden or highly suppressed by conservation of angular momentum.
Que.9: Who discovered double beta decay?
Ans:The very earliest calculation of the rate for two -neutrino double-beta decay (2νββ)
is credited to Maria Goeppert-Mayer who predicted the half-life of the decay
130
of Te in 1935.

Que.10:Why is double beta decay important?

Ans: The discovery of the neutrinoless double beta decay could shed light on the
absolute neutrino masses and on their mass hierarchy (Neutrino mass). It would
mean the first ever signal of the violation of total lepton number conservation.

MCQ
1. Neutrinos have electric charge of ………..
a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
2. In a nuclear process, the quantity conserved is ………
a) Mass-energy
b) Momentum
c) Energy only
d) Mass only
3. In β decay, the nucleon number is ………..
a) Stable
b) Not conserved
c) Conserved
d) Unstable
4. Double beta decay is characterized as a nuclear process changing the ……..
a) Z by two units while keeping A unchanged.
b) Z by one unit while keeping A unchanged.
c) Keeping Z unchanged while A changed by two units.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 245

 d) None of above.
5. In order for (double) beta decay to be possible………
a) Thefinal nucleus must have BE equal to that of the original nucleus.
b) The final nucleus must have BE smaller than that of the original nucleus.
c) The final nucleus must have BE larger than that of the original nucleus.
d) No condition is required.
6. There are …… naturally occurring isotopes capable of double beta decay.
a) 55
b) 50
c) 40
d) 35
7. Neutrinoless double beta decay occurswhen ……….
a) The antineutrino and the neutrino are different particles.
b) The antineutrino and the neutrino are actually the same particle, and at
least one type of neutrino has non -zero mass.
c) The antineutrino and the neutrino have zero mass.
d) No any condition is required.
8. The neutrino is so named because it is ………
a) Electrically Positive.
b) Electrically Negative.
c) Electrically neutral.
d) Magnetically strong.
9. There are three types or leptonic flavors of Neutrino as ……..
a) Electron neutrino, positron neutrino and Tau neutrino.
b) Electron neutrino, Muon neutrino and Tau neutrino.
c) Positron neutrino, Muon neutrino and Tau neutrino.
d) Muon neutrino, lepton neutrino and Tau neutrino.
10. A selection rule formally constrains the possible transitions …….
a) Of a system from one classical state to another.
b) Of a system from one orbital state to another.
c) Of a system from one quantum state to another.
d) Of a system from one linear state to another.
Ans: 1.-a); 2.-a); 3.-c); 4.-a); 5.-c); 6.-d); 7.-b); 8.-c); 9.-b); 10.-c).

SUMMARY
A parity transformation is the flip in the sign of one spatial coordinate. It can
also be thought as a physical phenomenon in which a parity inversion transforms a

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 246

phenomenon into its mirror image. All fundamental interactions of elementary
particles, with the exception of the weak interaction, are symmetric under parity. A
matrix representationof P has determinant equal to −1, and hence is distinct from
a rotation, which has a determinant equal to 1. In quantum mechanics, wave functions
that are unchanged by a parity transformation are described as even functions, while
those that change sign under a parity transformation are odd functions. Parity can be
classified as: Scalars (P = +1) and Pseudo-scalars (P =−1)which are rotationally
invariant. Vectors (P =−1) and Axial vectors or Pseudo-vectors (P =+1) which both
transform as vectors under rotation. The parity of the states of a particle moving in a
spherically symmetric external field is determined by the angular momentum, and the
particle state is defined by three quantum numbers: total energy, angular momentum
and the projection of angular momentum.

A selection rule formally constrains the possible transitions of a system from

one quantum state to another. In quantum mechanics the basis for a spectroscopic
selection rule is the value of the transition moment integral. If the value of this
integral is zero then the transition is forbidden. If the integral's value is not zero then
the transition is allowed. As per Laporte rule is a selection rule formally stated as: In
a centro-symmetric environment, transitions between like atomicorbital such as s-s, p-
p, d-d, or f-f, transitions are forbidden.

Neutrino is a subatomic particle with no electrical charge and a very small

mass. They are difficult to detect because they have minimal interaction with matter.
To detect neutrinos, very large and sensitive detectors are required. Neutrinos are
produced by different radioactive decays, such as:Beta decay of atomic nuclei,
artificial nuclear reactions. Wolfgang Pauli first hypothesized the existence of the
neutrino in 1930. Neutrinos are leptons because they have only been observed to interact
through the weak force. These weak interactions produce neutrinos in three leptonic
flavors:Electron neutrino (νe), Muon neutrino (νμ), Tau neutrino (ντ). A neutrino
detector is a physics apparatus which is designed to study neutrinos. Various different
detector technologies have been used in neutrino experiments over the years such as:
Radiochemical methods, Water Cerenkov detectors, Heavy water detectors,
Scintillation techniques, long string, large Water Cerenkov Detectors, Time projection
chambers, nuclear emulsions. The properties of neutrinos can be summarized as:
Neutrinos belong to the family of leptons. Three types of Neutrino are Electron
neutrino; Muon neutrino and Tau neutrino. A neutrino likewise has an antimatter

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 247

component that is known as an antineutrino. The electromagnetic forces do not affect
neutrinos.Neutrinos interact with matter only through weak interactive forces. A
neutrino can pass through a massive number of atoms without provoking any reaction.
These are the most penetrating subatomic particles. The Neutrinos can also change
one nucleus into another. An antineutrinois also present. These are the most persistent
subatomic particles.Applications of neutrino arein:Properties of the Sun, Constituents
of the Universe, Probing Early Universe, Medical Imaging, nuclear weapons,
verification of dark matter's existence, discovery of mineral resources etc.

Double beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which two protons are
simultaneously transformed into two neutrons, or vice versa, inside an atomic nucleus .
Unstable nuclei may undergo 2νββ if single β-decay is energetically forbidden or highly
suppressed by conservation of angular momentum. In principle, 2νββ decay occurs in
any nucleus for which it is kinematically allowed, in competition with all other decay
modes.

KEY WORDS
Parity, Mirror image, Elementary particles, Pseudo-scalars, Axial vectors,Pseudo-
vectors, Selection rule, Neutrino, Leptons, Antineutrino, Double beta decay.

REFERENCES
MOOCS
YOUTUBE :
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIRxLje92ak.

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18_LtYOneR4 .

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_H7TtPw0sRc .

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ukop9e8dAuI .

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxY2Zpxhp7M .

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_v0WI0cHVS8 .

WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_rule .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(physics) .

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_beta_decay .

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 248

 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino .

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_detector .

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Neutrinos .

OER

BOOKS:

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
130
3. A measurement of the 2-neutrino double beta decay rate of Te; Laura
Katherine Kogler; Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Physics, University of
California, Berkeley.
4. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
5. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
6. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
7. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
8. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Ta ta McGraw-Hill.
9. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
10. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
11. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
12. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
13. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
( https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in /siteAdmin/dde-
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Pa rticle%20
Physics.pdf).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 249

CREDIT 03 -UNIT 04: GAMMA DECAY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explain nuclear decay process and beta decay.

 Discussabout the Gamma decay.
 Explain the energetic of gamma decay.
 Describethe process of the Gamma decay.
 Compare the beta decay and gamma decay.
 Describe the multipole transitions in nuclei.
 Distinguish beta decay and gamma decay.
 Explain the angular momentum and party selection rules.
 Express an internal conversion.
 Understandnuclear isomerism.

I NTRODUCTION
Nuclear decay (Radioactive or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which
an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable
nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay
are alpha, beta, and gamma decay. The weak force is the mechanism that is
responsible for beta decay, while the other two are governed by
the electromagnetism and nuclear force.Radioactive decay is a random process at the
level of single atoms. According to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a
particular atom will decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed. The decaying
nucleus is called the parent radionuclide, and the process produces at least
one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from a
nuclear excited state, the decay is a nuclear transmutation resulting in a daughter
containing a different number of protons or neutrons (or both). When the number of
protons changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created.Early researchers
found that an electric or magnetic field could split radioactive emissions into three
types of beams. The rays were given the names alpha, beta, and gamma, in increasing
order of their ability to penetrate matter. Alpha decay is observed only in heavier
elements of atomic number 52 (Te) and greater. The other two types of decay are

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observed in all the elements. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements
of atomic number 83 (Bi) or greater.

04-01: G AMMA D ECAY

Gamma decay is the emission of electromagnetic radiation of an extremely high
frequency i.e. very high energy, giving out excess energy in order to stabilize the
unstable nucleus. You must be quite familiar with the various energy l evels in an atom.
The Nucleus has its own energy levels. Gamma decay is the nucleus’s way of dropping
from a higher energy level to a lower energy level through the emission of high energy
photons. The energy level transition energies in the atom are in th e order of MeV.
Therefore, the gamma-ray emitted is also of very high energy of the order of MeV, just
like x-rays. The gamma rays emitted can be differentiated from x -rays only by the fact
that gamma rays come from the nucleus. Due to their high energy, t hey are extremely
penetrating and thereby dangerous to biological life forms. Gamma decay is the
emission of electromagnetic radiation of an extremely high frequency i.e. very high
energy, giving out excess energy in order to stabilize the unstable nucleus . You must be
quite familiar with the various energy levels in an atom. The Nucleus has its
own energy levels. Gamma decay is the nucleus’s way of dropping from a higher
energy level to a lower energy level through the emission of high energy photons. The
energy level transition energies in the atom are in the order of MeV. Therefore, the
gamma-ray emitted is also of very high energy of the order of MeV, just like x -rays.
The gamma rays emitted can be differentiated from x -rays only by the fact that gamma
rays come from the nucleus. Due to their high energy, they are extremely penetrating
and thereby dangerous to biological life forms.

Gamma decay is one type of radioactive decay that a nucleus can undergo. What
separates this type of decay process from alpha or beta decay is that no charged
particles are ejected from the nucleus when it undergoes this type of decay. Instead, a
high energy form of electromagnetic radiation - a gamma ray photon - is released.
Gamma rays are photons that have extremely high ene rgies which are
highly ionizing. As well, gamma radiation is unique in the sense that undergoing
gamma decay does not change the structure or composition of the atom. Instead, it only
changes the energy of the atom since the gamma ray carries no charge nor does it have
an associated mass.

In order for a nucleus to undergo gamma decay, it must be in some sort of

excited energetic state. Experiments have shown that protons and neutrons are located
in discrete energy states within the nucleus, not too different from the excited states
that electrons can occupy in atoms. Thus, if a proton or a neutron inside of the

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nucleus jumps up to an excited state - generally following an alpha or beta decay - the
new daughter nucleus must somehow release energy to allow the proton or neutron to
relax back down to ground state. When the nucleon makes this transition from a high
to a low energy state, a gamma photon is emitted. The general equation that
represents this process is:

A∗→ A + γ

Where, A∗ is the excited atom, A is a relaxed state of the initial excited atom, γ is the
released gamma ray photon.

Knowing that an atom undergoes gamma radiation is important, but it is also

possible to determine the frequency of the released gamma radiation if the initial and
final states of the nucleon inside the nucleus are known. The equation representing
the frequency of the gamma radiation is:

E i −E f=h or hf

Where, Ei is the initial (higher) energy state of the nucleon, Ef is the final (lower)
energy state of the nucleon;h is Planck's constant,  or fis the frequency of the emitted
radiation.

04-01.01: E NERGETICSOF  D ECAY

Let’s consider the decay of a nucleus of mass M at rest, from an initial
excitedstate E i to a final state E f. To conserve linear momentum, the final nucleus
willnot be at rest but must have a recoil momentum P R and corresponding recoilkinetic
2
energy T R , which we assume to be non-relativistic (T R = P R / 2M).

Conservation of total energy and momentum give:

E i =E f +E  + T R ……………. (1)

And 0 = P R + P  …….….…. (2)

It follows that P R =P; the nucleus recoils with a momentum equal and oppositeto that of
the -ray. Defining E=E i - E fand using the relativistic relationshipE  = cp  , we have

….….…. (3)

This has the solution:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 252

 ….….…. (4)

The energy differences E are typically of the order of MeV, while the restenergies
Mc 2 are of order Ax10 3 MeV, where A is the mass number. ThusE << Mc 2 and to a
precision of the order of 10 -4 to 10 -5 , we keep only the firstthree terms in the expansion
of the square root:

…….….…. (5)

This also follows directly from Equation (3) with the approximation E≅ E.

The actual -ray energy is thus diminished somewhat from the

maximumavailable decay energy E. This recoil correction to the energy is
generallynegligible, amounting to a 10 -5 correction that is usually far smaller than
theexperimental uncertainty with which we can measure energies. There is
onecircumstance in which the recoil plays an important role; this case, known as
theMossbauerEffect. Except for this case, we will in theremainder of this chapter
assume E  = E.

For low-energy -rays, the recoil energy is less than 1 eV and has a
negligibleeffect. High-energy -rays (such as the 5-10MeV radiations emitted
followingneutron capture give recoils in the range of 100 eV, which may be sufficient
todrive the recoiling atom from its position in a solid lattice. Effects of this sort
areknown as radiation damage and have an important place in the study of solids.

04-01.02: P ROPERTIESOF  D ECAY

The -ray decay has the following properties.

1) The -rays are electromagnetic radiation having the velocity of light, i.e.
3x10 8 m/s.

2) The -rays have no charge, i.e. they are not deflected by electric and magnetic
field.

3) The -rays are highly penetrating radiation.

4) The energy of -quanta are E  = 10 KeV to 5 MeV.

5) The wavelength of -ray is 10 -10 λ   2x10 -13 m.

6) The -rays have the spin I=1 (photon’s spin).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 253

 7) The -quanta emitted by the nuclei carry an angular momentum as:

L=1(Dipole radiation); L=2 (Quadrupole radiation); L=3 (Octupole radiation).

8) The -quanta are emitted due to the different types of oscillations of the nuclear
fluid. The two types of oscillations are: (i) Electric radiation and (ii) Magnetic
radiation.

9) The life time of active nuclei is in the range of 10 -7 to 10 -11 sec.

04-02: M ULTIPOLE TRANSITIONS IN NUCLEI

As we know from study of modern physics, electromagnetic radiationcan be
treated either as a classical wave phenomenon or else as a quantumphenomenon. The
type of treatment weuse is determined by the kind of physicaleffect we are trying to
describe. For analyzing radiations from individual atomsand nuclei the quantum
description is most appropriate, but we can more easilyunderstand the quantum
calculations of electromagnetic radiation if we firstreview the classical description.
The -emission are classified as a multipole order, i.e. dipole, quadrupole,
octupole etc. For each order, the transiti ons can be either electric or magnetic type as
under:
(i) Multipole order is 2 L.
(ii) If ‫ ׀‬I ‫ ׀ = ׀‬L ‫= ׀‬1, then multipole order is 2 and it is called dipole
transition.
(iii) If ‫ ׀‬L ‫= ׀‬2, then multipole order is 4 and it is called quadrupole
transition.
(iv) If ‫ ׀‬L ‫= ׀‬3, then multipole order is 9 and it is called octupole
transition.
The parity change determines the nature of the multipole transition. If ‫ ׀‬L ‫= ׀‬2, then it is
electric quadrupole transition, i.e. the nuclear parity does not change. But for a
magnetic quadrupole transition, i.e. the nuclear parity changes because the -transition
have parity given by equation (17).
04-02.01: C LASSICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Static distributions of charges and currents give staticelectric and magnetic
fields. We know how these fields can beanalyzed in terms of the multipole momentsof
the charge distribution i.e. dipolemoment, quadrupole moment, octupole moment and so
on. These multipole moments give characteristicfields, and we can conveniently study
the dipole field, quadrupole field,and so on.Ifthe charge and current distributions vary
with time, particularly if they varysinusoidally with circular frequency , a radiation
fieldis produced.The radiationfield can be analyzed, like the static field, in terms of

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 254

itsmultipole character.There are three characteristics of the dipole radiation field that
are importantfor us to consider:
1) The power radiated into a small element of area, in a direction at an angle with
respect to the z axis, varies as sin 2 . The average radiated power can
becalculatedbased on wave theory or on quantum theory, and by the
correspondenceprinciple the two calculations must agree when we extend
thequantum result to the classical limit. This characteristic sin 2  dependence
ofdipole radiation must therefore be a characterist ic result of thequantumcalculation
as well. Higher order multipoles, such as quadrupole radiation,have a different
angular distribution. In fact, as we shall see, measuring theangular distribution of
the radiation is a convenient way to determine whichmult ipoles are present in the
radiation.
2) Electric and magnetic dipole fields have opposite parity. Consider the effectof the
transformation r-r. The magnetic field of the electric dipoleclearly changes sign;
thus B(r) = -B(-r).For the magnetic dipole, on theother hand, there is no change of
sign, so B(r) =B(-r).Thus, the electricand magnetic dipoles, which give identical
angular distributions, differ in theparity of the radiation fields. Electric dipole
radiation has odd parity, whilemagnetic dipole radiation has even parity.
3) The average radiated power (energy emitted per unit time) for -

Electric dipolesare: …………… (6)

And, for magnetic dipoles are: …………… (7)

Here d and representthe amplitudes of the time-varying dipole moments.

Without entering into a detailed discussion of electromagnetic theory, we
canextend these properties of dipole radiation to multipole radiation in general. Wefirst
define the index L of the radiation so that 2 L is the multipole order (L= 1for dipole, L=
2 for quadrupole, and so on). With E for electric and M formagnetic, we can generalize
the above three properties of dipole radiation.
1) The angular distribution of 2 L -pole radiation, relative to a properly chosendirection,
is governed by the Legendre polynomial P 2L(cos). The mostcommon cases are
dipole, for which P 2 = ½ (3cos 2  - l), and quadrupole,with P 4 = ⅛ (35 Cos 4  - 30
Cos 2  + 3).
2) The parity of the radiation field is:
(ML) = (-1) L+1

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 And (EL) = (-1) L …………… (8)
Note that electric and magnetic multipoles of the same order always haveopposite
parity.
3) Using,σ= E or Mto represent electric or magneticradiation, the radiated power is:

…………… (9)

Where,m(σL)is the amplitude of the (time-varying) electric or magneticmultipole

moment,and the double factorial (2L + l)!! indicates(2L + 1).(2L - 1) ……..5.3.1. The
generalized multipole moment m(σL)differs,for L = 1, from the electric dipole moment
d and magnetic dipolemoment through some relatively unimportant numerical factors
of orderunity. From now on, we shall deal only with the generalized moments in
ourdiscussion of radiation.

04-02.02: TRANSITION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS

To carry the classical theory into the quantum domain, it is necessary to replace
the (in Eq n . 9)multipole moments by appropriate multipoleoperatorsthat change the
nucleus from its initial state ψ i to the final state ψ f. Aswe have discussed for αand β
radiation, the decay probability is governed by the matrix element of the multipole
operator:

…………… (10)

The integral is carried out over the volume of the nucleus. We shall not
discussthe form of the operator m(σL),except to say that its function is to change
thenuclear state from ψ i to ψ f while simultaneously creating a photon of the
properenergy, parity, and multipole order.
If we regard Eq n . (9) as the energy radiated per unit time in the form ofphoton s,

each of which has energy , then the probability per unit time forphoton emission

(that is, the decay constant) is:

…………… (11)

This expression for the decay constant can be carried no further until we
evaluatethe matrix element m fi (σL),which requires knowledge of the initial and
finalwave functions. We can simplify the calculation and make some

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correspondingestimates of the -ray emission probabilities if we assume the transition is
due toa single proton that changes from one shell -model state to another. In the case
ofelectric transitions, the multipole operator includes a term of the form:
e.r L. Y LM. (, ),
Whichreduces to ezfor L=1 (dipole) radiation as expected, andto e(3z 2 - r 2 )for
L=2(quadrupole) radiation, analogous to the calcu lation ofthe static quadrupole
moment. If we take the radial parts of thenuclear wave functions ψ i and ψ f to be constant
up to the nuclear radius R andzero for r >R, then the radial part of the transition
probability is of the form:

…………… (11)

Where, the integral in the denominator is included for normalization and the r 2 factor
comes from the volume element. Including this factor in the matrixelement, and
replacing the angular integrals by unity, which is also a reasonableestimate, the EL
transition probability is estimated to be:

…………… (12)

With R = R 0 .A 1/3 , we can make the following estimates for some of the lowermultipole
orders:
 λ(E1) = 1.0 x 10 14 .A 2/3 E 3
 λ(E2) = 7.3 x 10 7 .A 4/3 E 5
 λ(E3) = 34.A 2 E 7
 λ(E4) = 1.1 x 10 -5 .A 8/3 E 9 …………… (13)
Where, λ is in s and Eis in MeV.
-l

For magnetic transitions, the radial integral includes the term r L-l , and thesame
assumption as above about the constancy of the nuclear wave functiongives the factor
3R L-1 /( L+2). The magnetic operator also includes a factorthat depends on the nuclear
magnetic moment of the proton. The result for the MLtransition probability is:

………….

(14)

Where, again several angular momentum factors of order unity have been neglected.It is
customary to replace the factor [ p - 1/(L + 1)] 2 by 10, whichgives the following
estimates for the lower multiple orders:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 257

  λ(M1) = 5.6 x 10 13 E 3
 λ(M2) = 3.5 x 10 7 .A 2/3 E 5
 λ(M3) = 16.A 4/3 E 7
 λ(M4) = 4.5 x 10 -6 .A 2 E 9 …………… (15)
These estimates for the transition rates are known as Weisskopf estimates and arenot
meant to be true theoretical calculations to be compared wi th measuredtransition rates.
Instead, they provide us with reasonable relative comparisons ofthe transition rates. For
example, if the observed decay rate of a certain transition is many orders of magnitude
smaller than the Weisskopf estimate, wemight suspect that a poor match-up of initial
and final wave functions is slowingthe transition. Similarly, if the transition rates were
much greater than theWeisskopf estimate, we might guess that more than one single
nucleon isresponsible for the transition.Based on the Weisskopf estimates, we can
immediately draw two conclusionsabout transition probabilities:
1) The lower multipolarities are dominant -increasing the multipole order by one
unit reduces the transition probability by afactor of about 10 -5 . Asimilar effect
occurs in atoms, in which the most commontransitions are dipole.
2) For a given multipole order, electric radiation is morelikely than magnetic
radiation by about two orders of magnitude in medium andheavy nuclei.
04-03: A NGULAR M OMENTUMAND P ARITYSELECTION RULES
A classical electromagnetic field produced by oscillating charges and
currentstransmits not only energy but angular momentum as well. If, for example,
wesurround the charges and currents with a large spherical absorbing shell, the shellcan
be made to rotate by the absorbed radiation. The rate, at which angularmomentum is
radiated, is proportional to the rate at which energy is radiated.
When we go over to the quantum limit, we can preserve the proportionality
ifeach photon carries a definite angular momentum. The multipole operator oforder L
includes the factor Y LM (,), which is associated with an angularmomentum L. We
therefore conclude that a multipole of order Ltransfers anangular momentum of L ħ per
photon.
Let’s consider a  transition from an initial excited state of angular
momentumI i and parity  i ; to a final state I f and  f . For the moment we will assume
I i ≠I f .Conservation of angular momentum requires that the total initial
angularmomentum be equal to the total final angular momentum. In vecto r terms,
Ii= L + If
Since I i , L and Imust form a closed vector triangle, the possible values of Lare
restricted. The largest possible value of L is I i + I fand the smallest possiblevalue is ‫ ׀‬L i -
L f ‫ ׀‬. For example, if I i =3/2and I f= 5/2, the possible values of Lare1, 2, 3, and 4;the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 258

radiation field in this case would consist of a mixture of dipole,quadrupole,
octupole(L= 3) and hexadecapolar(L= 4)radiation.
Whether the emitted radiation is of the electric or magnetic type is determinedby
the relative parity of the initial and final levels. If there is no change in parity(  = no),
then the radiation field must have even parity; if the parity changes inthe transition ( 
= yes), then the radiation field must have odd parity. Asshown by Eq n .(8), electric and
magnetic multipoles differ in their parities.
Electric transitions have even parity if L= even, while magnetic transitions
haveeven parity if L= odd. Thereforea  = no transition would consist of evenelectric
multipoles and odd magnetic multipoles. A = yes transition, on theother hand, would
consist of odd electric and even magnetic multipoles.In ourprevious example (I i =3/2
toI f = 5/2), let us assume that  i =  f, so that = no.We have already concluded that L
= 1, 2, 3, or 4.TheL=1 radiation must beof magnetic character (odd magnetic and even
electric multipoles for = no),the L= 2radiation of electric character, and so on. The
radiation field must thusbe M1, E2, M3, and E4 radiation. If our two states had  i = -f,
( = yes)then the radiation field would be El, M2, E3, and M4 radiation.
We therefore have the following angular momentum and parityselection rule:
 ‫ ׀‬iI - I f ‫ ≤ ׀‬L ≤ I i +I f : (no L=0)
  = no: even electric, odd magnetic
  = yes:odd electric, even magnetic…………… (16)
The exception to the angular momentum selection rule occurs when I i =
I f because there are no monopole (L= 0) transitions in which a single photon isemitted.
Classically, the monopole moment is just the electric charge, which doesnot vary with
time. (A spherical charge distribution of radius R gives only a purel/r 2 Coulomb field for
r >R. Even if we allow the sphere to undergo radialoscillations, the Coulomb field for r
>R is unaffected and no radiation isproduced.) For transitions in which Ii = I f ,the lowest
possible -ray multipoleorder is dipole (L=1).
The case in which either I i or I fis zero is particularly simple, for then only apure
multipole transition is emitted. For example, the first excited 2 + (I i = 2, i = even) state in
even-Z, even-N nuclei decays to the 0 + ground state throughthe emission of a pure
electric quadrupole (E2) transition. The above selectionrules give immediately L= 2and
electric radiation for = no.
For I i = I f = 0, the selection rules would give only L= 0, which as we havealready
discussed is not permitted for radiative transitions. A few even-evennuclei have 0 + first
excited states, which are forbidden to decay to t he 0 + groundstate by  emission. These
states decay instead through internal conversion.In this process the excitation energy is
emitted byejecting an orbital electron, the wave function of which penetrates the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 259

nuclearvolume and samples the monopole distri bution at r <R, where the potentialdoes
fluctuate.
Selection Rule II: In gamma decay parity is conserved. Thus, the parity of the emitted
-radiation is given by:
P= P i . P f…………… (17)
Where P i denotes the parity of the initial state of the nucleus and P f denotes the parity
of the final state. Thus, we have,

For electric radiation ………… (18)

For magnetic radiation …………… (19)

Therefore, E1 transition is possible only between the nuclear states with the different
parities while for M1 transition, parities of nuclear states must be the same. But in both
cases the nuclear spin changes as: I=0, 1.

04-04: I NTERNAL C ONVERSION

Internal conversion is an electromagnetic process that competes with -
emission.In this case the electromagnetic multipole fields of the nucleus do not result
inthe emission of a photon; instead, the fields interact with the atomic electronsand
cause one of the electrons to be emitted from the atom. In contrast to β-decay, the
electron is not created in the decay process but rather is a previouslyexisting electron in
an atomic orbit. For this reason, internal conversion decayrates can be altered slightly
by changing the chemical environment of the atom,thus changing somewhat the atomic
orbits. Keep in mind, however, that this isnot a two-step process in which a photon is
first emitted by the nucleus and thenknocks loose an orbiting electron by a process
analogous to the photoelectriceffect; such a process would have a negligibly small
probability to occur.
The transition energy Eappears in this case as the kinetic energy Teof
theemitted electron, less the binding energy B that must be supplied to knock
theelectron loose from its atomic shell:
T e = E – B…………… (20)
Asper discussion of nuclear binding energy, we take Bto be a positivenumber.
The energy of a bound state is of course negative, and we regard thebinding energy as
that which we must supply to go from that state up to zero energy. Because the electron
binding energy varies with the atomic orbital, for a given transition Ethere will be
internal conversion electrons emitted with differing energies. The observed electron

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 260

spectrum from a source with a single -emission thus consists of a number of individual
components; these are discretecomponents, however, and not at all continuous like the
electrons emitted in β-decay. Most radioactive sources will emit both β -decay and
internal conversionelectrons, and it is relatively easy to pick out the discrete conversion
electronpeaks riding on the continuous βspectrum (Fig. 1).

Fig.1: A typical electron spectrum emitted from aradioactive nucleus. A few discrete
conversion electron peaks ride on the continuousbackground from β-decay.
Equation (20) suggests that the internal conversion process has a
thresholdenergy equal to the electron binding energy in a particular shell ; as a result,
the conversion electrons are labeled according to the electronic shell from which
theycome: K, L, M, and so on, corresponding to principal atomic quantum numbers n =
1,2,3, ……. Furthermore, if we observe at very high resolution, we can evense e the
substructure corresponding to the individual electrons in the shell. Forexample, the L (n
= 2) shell has the atomic orbitals 2S 1/2 , 2p 1/2 , and 2p 3/2 ;electrons originating from these
shells are called, respectively, L I , L II , and L III conversion electrons.
Following the conversion process, the atom is left with a vacancy in one of
theelectronic shells. This vacancy is filled very rapidly by electrons from highershells,
and thus we observe characteristic X-ray emission accompanying theconversion
electrons. For this reason, when we study the -emission from aradioactive source we
usually find X rays near the low-energy end of thespectrum.
As an illustration of the calculation of electron energies, consider the β-decayof
203
Hgto 203
Tl, follows a single  ray of energy 279.190 KeV isemitted. To calculate the
energies of the conversion electrons, we must look upthe electron binding energies in
the daughter Tl because it is from that atom thatthe electron emission t akes place. (We
will assume that the atomic shells haveenough time to settle down between the
βemission and the subsequent orconversion electron emission; this may not necessarily
be true and will depend onthe chemical environment and on the lifetime of t he excited
state.)

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 For Tl, we find the following:
 B(K) = 85.529 KeV
 B(L I ) = 15.347 KeV
 B(L II ) = 14.698 KeV
 B(L III ) = 12.657 KeV
 B(M I ) = 3.704KeV
and so on through the M, N, and 0 shells. We therefore expect to find
conversionelectrons emitted with the following energies:
 Te(K) = 279.190 - 85.529 = 193.661 KeV
 Te(L I ) = 279.190 - 15.347 = 263.843 KeV
 Te(L II ) = 279.190 - 14.698 = 264.492 KeV
 Te(L III ) = 279.190 - 12.657 = 266.533 KeV
 Te(M I ) = 279.190 - 3.704 = 275.486 KeV
In some cases, internal conversion is heavily favored over γ-emission; in othersit may
be completely negligible compared with -emission. As a general rule, it isnecessary to
correct for internal conversion when calculating the probability for -emission. That is,
if we know the half-life of a particular nuclear level, then thetotal decay probability λ t ,
(equal to 0.693/t 1/2 ) has two components, one (λ  )arising from  emission and another
(λ e ) arising from internal conversion:
λt = λ + λe
The level decays more rapidly through the combined proc ess than it would if
weconsidered emission alone. It is (as we shall see) convenient to define theinternal
conversion coefficient αas:
α= λ  /λ e …………… (21)
That is, αgives the probability of electron emission relative to -emission andranges
from very small (≈ 0) to very large. The total decay probability thenbecomes:
λ t = λ  (1 + α)…………… (22)
We let αrepresent the total internal conversion coefficient and define partialcoefficients
representing the individual atomic shells:
λ t = λ  +λ e.K +λ e.L+λ e.M +………..
= λ  (1+α .K +α .L+α .M +………..) …………… (23)
And thus, α= α .K +α .L+α .M +……….. ……………
(24)
Of course, considering the subshells, we could brea k these down further, such as:

α .L=α .LI +α .LII +α .LIII ……….. …………… (25) and similarly for
other shells.

04-05: N UCLEAR I SOMERISM

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 A nuclear isomer is a meta-stable state of an atomic nucleus, in which one or
more nucleons (protons or neutrons) occupy excited state (higher energy) levels.
Metastable describes nuclei whose excited states have half-lives 100 to 1000 times
longer than the half-lives of the excited nuclear states that decay with a prompt half
life (order of 10−12 seconds). The term metastable is usually restricted to isomers with
half-lives of 10−9 seconds or longer. Some references recommend 5×10 −9 seconds to
distinguish the metastable half-life from the normal prompt gamma-emission half-
life. Occasionally the half-lives are far longer than this and can last minutes, hours, or
years.

Sometimes, the gamma decay from a metastable state is referred to as isomeric

transition, but this process typically resembles shorter-lived gamma decays in all
external aspects with the exception of the long-lived nature of the meta-stable parent
nuclear isomer. The longer lives of nuclear isomers metastable states are often due to
the larger degree of nuclear spin change which must be involved in their gamma
emission to reach the ground state. This high spin change causes these decays to
be forbidden transitions and delayed. Delays in emission are caused by low or high
available decay energy.The first nuclear isomer and decay-daughter system was
discovered by Otto Hahn in 1921.

Nuclei of nuclear isomers:

The nucleus of a nuclear isomer occupies a higher energy state than the non-
excited nucleus existing in the ground state. In an excited state, one or more of the
protons or neutrons in a nucleus occupy a nuclear orbital of higher energy than an
available nuclear orbital. These states are analogous to excited states of electrons in
atoms.When excited atomic states decay, energy is released by fluorescence. In
electronic transitions, this process usually involves emission of light near
the visible range. The amount of energy released is related to bond-dissociation
energy or ionization energy and is usually in the range of few tens of eV per bond.
However, a much stronger type of binding energy, i.e. nuclear binding energy, is
involved in nuclear processes. Due to this, most nuclear excited states decay
by gamma ray emission. For example, a well-known nuclear isomer used in various
medical procedures isTechnetium-99m (99mTc) which is a metastable nuclear
isomer of technetium-99, symbolized as 99mTc (m indicate metastable state).Most of
metastable isomers decay through gamma-ray emission, they can also decay
through internal conversion. During internal conversion, energy of nuclear de-

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excitation is not emitted as a gamma ray, but is instead used to accelerate one of the
inner electrons of the atom. These excited electrons then leave at a high speed.
The following example and Fig. 2 illustrate the nuclear isomer and the process
of decay called nuclear isomerism. It is seen that excited become isomer

and form by two different methods with two half-lives of 18 min and 4.4

hrs. These two half-lives are attributed to two isomeric states of Br. The 4.4 h isomer
decays into the 18m isomer by emission of two γ-rays in cascade having energies of
0.049 MeV and 0.037 MeV respectively. The 18m isomer ( ) decays to by

emission of β-particle and to ground state of by positron emission and orbital

electron capture. The said decay scheme is shown in Fig. 2. The nuclear isomeric
transitions are characterized by a large change in the angular momentum and very
small change in energy. These factor flavors high internal conversion.

Fig. 2: Nuclear Isomeric Transitions

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01
Que. 01:What is nuclear isomerism with example?
Ans:Nuclear isomers are atoms with the same mass number and atomic number, but
with different states of excitation in the atomic nucleus. The higher or more
excited state is called a metastable state, while the stable, unexcited state is called
the ground state.

Que. 02:Who discovered nuclear isomerism?

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 264

Ans:Otto Hahn first discovered nuclear isomers.

Que. 03: What is internal conversion in spectroscopy?

Ans: Internal conversion is the radiation-less transition between energy states of the
same spin state. Intersystem crossing is a radiation-less transition between
different spin states.

Que. 04:What happens during internal conversion?

Ans: A process in which an excited nucleus transfers its excitation energy directly to an
atomic electron in one of the allowed electron energy states, and the electron
(termed an internal conversion electron) is ejected from the atom.

Que. 05:What is the difference between internal conversion and photoelectric effect?

Ans: Internal Conversion is most similar diagrammatically to Photoelectric Effect. The

only difference is the source of energy. In Photoelectric Effect, the source is a
photon from any other nucleus while in Internal Conversion, the source of energy
is the nucleus of the atom itself.

Que. 06: What is the internal conversion of nuclear isomerism?

Ans: An isomeric transition or internal transition (IT) is the decay of a nuclear isomer
to a lower-energy nuclear state. The actual process has two types: γ - ray emission
and internal conversion i.e. the energy used to eject one of the atom's electrons .

Que. 07:What is difference between alpha and gamma decay?

Ans: In alpha decay, the nucleus loses two protons. In beta decay, the nucleus either
loses a proton or gains a proton. In gamma decay, no change in proton number
occurs, so the atom does not become a different element.

Que. 08:Why is gamma decay?

Ans: Gamma decay, in contrast, occurs when a nucleus is in an excited state and has
too much energy to be stable. This often happens after alpha or beta decay has
occurred. Because only energy is emitted during gamma decay, the number of
protons remains the same.

Que. 09:What is gamma transition?

Ans: Transitions between excited states (or excited states and the ground state) of
a nuclide lead to the emission of gamma quanta. These can be classified by
their multipolarity.

Que. 10:What is multipole radiation?

Ans:There are two types of multipole radiation:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 265

 (i) Electric multipole radiations are electric dipole, quadrupole, octupole…
radiation and designated as E1, E2, E3,… radiation.

(ii) Magnetic multipole radiations are magnetic dipole, quadrupole, octupole…

radiation is designated as M1, M2, M3,… rad iation.

MCQ
1. The atomic number is not changed by which type of radioactive decay?
a) Beta
b) Gamma
c) Alpha
d) The atomic number is affected by all forms of radioactive decay.
2. Gamma decay includes electromagnetic processes are…….
a) Internal conversion
b) Internal pair production
c) External conversion
d) Both a) and b)

3. The ratio of internal conversion to the alternative gamma emission is called ……

a) The external-conversion coefficient

b) Decay constant

c) The internal-conversion coefficient

d) Coefficient of transition

4. Gamma decay is also known as ………..

a) Gamma ray emission

b) Electromagnetic energy packet

c) Photons emission

d) All above

5. The equation representing the frequency of the gamma radiation is ……………

a) E i − E f = h
b) E i /E f = h
c) E i + E f = h
d) E i x E f = h

6. The -rays are electromagnetic radiation having the velocity ………..

a) 3x10 10 m/s.
b) 3x10 8 m/s.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 266

 c) 335 m/s.
d) 5x10 5 m/s.

7. The -rays have ……….

a) Positive charge
b) Negative charge
c) No charge
d) Infinite charge

8. The energy of -quanta are ………

a) E  = 10 KeV to 50 KeV
b) E  = 1eV to 50 MeV
c) E  = 10 MeV to 50 MeV
d) E  = 10 KeV to 5 MeV

9. If ‫ ׀‬I ‫ ׀ = ׀‬L ‫= ׀‬1, then multipole order is ………

a) 1 and it is called monopole transition

b) 2and it is called dipole transition
c) 4 and it is called quadrupole transition
d) 8 and it is called octupole transition

10. Electric transitions and magnetic transitions both have even parity if …….

a) L= evenandL= odd respectively

b) L= evenandL= even respectively
c) L= odd andL= odd respectively
d) L= odd andL= even respectively

11. Theinternal conversion coefficient αis given by …….

a) α = λ  xλ e
b) α = λ  +λ e
c) α = λ  / λ e
d) α = λ  -λ e

12. A meta-stable state of an atomic nucleus, in which one or more nucleons occupy,
excited state levels is called as ………

a) A nuclear isotope
b) A nuclear isobar
c) A nuclear isomer
d) An Atomic isomer

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 267

Ans: 1.-b); 2.-d); 3.-c); 4.-d); 5.-a); 6.-b); 7.-c); 8.-d); 9.-b); 10.-a); 11.-c); 12.-c).

SUMMERY
Nuclear decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy
by radiation. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha, beta, and gamma
decay. Alpha decay is observed only in heavier elements of atomic number 52 and
greater while the other two types of decay are observed in all the elements. Gamma
decay is the emission of electromagnetic radiation of an extremely high frequency i.e.
very high energy, giving out excess energy in order to stabilize the unstable nucleus.
Gamma decay is the nucleus’s way of dropping from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level through the emission of high energy photons. In order for a nucleus to
undergo gamma decay, it must be in some sort of excited energetic state. To conserve
linear momentum, the final nucleus will not be at rest but must have a recoil momentum
P R and corresponding recoil kinetic energy T R , which we assume to be non-relativistic
(T R = P R 2 / 2M). The -rays are electromagnetic radiation having the velocity of light,
they have no charge, they are highly penetrating radiation, they have the spin I=1
(photon’s spin).The-emission are classified as a multipole order , i.e., dipole,
quadrupole, octupole etc. For each order, the transitions can be either electric or
magnetic type. The parity change determines the nature of the multipole transition.In
gamma decay parity is conserved. Thus, the parity of the emitted -radiation is given
by: P= P i .P f, where P i denotes the parity of the initial state of the nucleus and P f denotes
the parity of the final state.E1 transition is possible only between the nuclear states
with the different parities while for M1 transition, parities of nuclear states must be the
same. But in both cases the nuclear spin changes as: I=0, 1.Internal conversion is an
electromagnetic process that competes with -emission. Internal conversion decay rates
can be altered slightly by changing the chemical environment of the atom, thus
changing somewhat the atomic orbits. The internal conversion process has a threshold
energy equal to the electron binding energy in a particular shell; as a result, the
conversion electrons are labeled according to the electronic shell from which they
come: K, L, M, and so on, corresponding to principal atomic quantum numbers n = 1, 2,
3, ……. The internal conversion coefficient α is defined as: α = λ  / λ e whereλ  arises
from  emission andλ e arises from internal conversion.A nuclear isomer is
a metastable state of an atomic nucleus, in which one or more nucleons (protons or
neutrons) occupy excited state (higher energy) levels. Metastable describes nuclei
whose excited states have half-lives 100 to 1000 times longer than the half-lives of the
excited nuclear states that decay with a prompt half-life (order of 10 −12 seconds). The
term metastableis usually restricted to isomers with half -lives of 10 −9 seconds or

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 268

longer. Some references recommend 5×10 −9 seconds to distinguish the metastable half-
life from the normal prompt gamma-emission half-life. Occasionally the half-lives are
far longer than this and can last minutes, hours, or years. The nucleus of a nuclear
isomer occupies a higher energy state than the non-excited nucleus existing in
the ground state. In an excited state, one or more of the protons or neutrons in a nucleus
occupy a nuclear orbital of higher energy than an available nuclear orbital. These states
are analogous to excited states of electrons in atoms.

KEY WORDS
Gamma decay, Electric, Magnetic Transition, Dipole, Quadrupole, Octupole,
Multipole, Angular momentum, parity selection rules, Metastable,Prompt, Internal
conversion, nuclear isomerism.

REFERENCES
YOUTUBE:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mx44oI-okw.

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S17E3OhrmJc.

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0AAAdFjoMjM.

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7unp33xJSJE.

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRr46COVZ7Q.

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsEGibQVArI.

7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKYSE4pXegs.

8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=davHYgFCdAU.

9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gFj3C8l420.

WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray.

2. https://phys.libretexts.org/Gamma_Decay.

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipolarity_of_gamma_radiation .

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipole_radiation.

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_isomer .

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_conversion .

OER

BOOKS:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 269

 1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First
Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Part icle%20
Physics.pdf).
13. http://websites.umich.edu/~ners311/CourseLibrary/bookchapter16.pdf .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 270

 C REDIT 04

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 271

CREDIT 04 -UNIT 01: ELEMENTARY PARTICLE PHYSICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explaintheknown nuclear particles.

 Define elementary particles.
 Distinguish between elementary and compound particles.
 Describe the history of elementary particles.
 Explainthe concept of elementary particles.
 List different elementary particles.
 Explain the fundamental properties of elementary particles.
 Classify elementary particles.
 Discuss concepts relatedwithdifferent elementary particles.
 Identify different elementary particles with symbols.
 Explain the concepts of particles and their anti -particles.
 Explain an interaction between elementary particles.
 List and explain Types of different interaction between nuclear particles.
 Describe the four fundamental forces (interaction) and which particles
participate in different interactions .
 Identify and describe fermions and bosons.
 Identify and describe the quark and lepton families

INTRODUCTION
Elementary-particle physics deals with the fundamental constituents of
matterand their interactions. In the past several decades enormous amount
ofexperimental information has been accumulated, and many patterns and
systematicfeatures have been observed. Highly successful mathematical theoriesof the
electromagnetic, weak, and strong interacti ons have been devised andtested. These
theories, which are collectively known as the standard model, arealmost certainly the
correct description of Nature, to first approximation, downto a distance scale 1/1000 th
the size of the atomic nucleus. There are also speculativebut encouraging developments
in the attempt to unify these interactionsinto a simple underlying framework, and even
to incorporate quantum gravityin a parameter -free theory of everything.
Elementary particle physics is the study of fundamen tal particles and their
interactions in nature. Those who study elementary particle physics they differ from
other physicists in the scale of the systems that they study. A particle physicist is not
content to study the microscopic world of cells, molecule s, atoms, or even atomic
nuclei. They are interested in physical processes that occur at scales even smaller than

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 272

atomic nuclei. At the same time, they engage the most profound mysteries in nature:
How did the universe begin? What explains the pattern of masses in the universe? Why
is there more matter than antimatter in the universe? Why are energy and momentum
conserved? How will the universe evolve?

01-01: ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

It is very difficult to answer to question “what is an elementary particle?”
Initially atomic models were discovered through which proton (p), neutron (n) and
electron (e) were discovered. The study of beta decay had discovered positron (e +)

and neutrinos (ν and ). Later on, during period of 1935-1938muons (+, -) and

during period of 1947-1950 pions (+, 0, -) were discovered.Then many strange
particles, unstable and resonance particles were found. In 1984 quarks and gluon were
found. Thus, the list of nuclear particles changes with discovery of many new
particles and antiparticles as time advances.
Anelementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is
not composed of other particles. Particles include the two types of
fundamental particles: (i) Matter particles and (or) antimatter particles; (ii) Force
particles or interacting particles. It thought to be elementary include the
fundamental fermions (quarks, leptons, antiquarks, and antileptons), which generally
are matter particles and antimatter particles. Aswell as the elementary particles
include fundamental bosons (gauge bosons and the Higgs boson), which generally are
force particles that mediate interactions among fermions. All elementary particles
will be studied in details.
A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite
particle.Ordinary matter is composed of atoms, once presumed to be
elementaryparticles. Subatomic constituents of the atom were first identified in the
early 1930s; the electron and the proton, along with the photon, the particle
of electromagnetic radiation. By quantum theory, protons and neutrons were found to
contain quarks (up quarks and down quarks) now considered elementary
particles. And within a molecule, the electron's three degrees of
freedom (charge, spin, orbital) can separate via the wavefunction into
three quasiparticles (holon, spinonand orbiton).Meanwhile, an elementary boson
mediating gravitation – the graviton – remains hypothetical.

01-01.01: CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

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 The particles that have been identified in high -energy experiments fall into
distinct classes. The elementary particles are classified according to their properties
(mass, spin, parity, life time and decay mode). According to spin elementary
particles are mainly classified in to two as:
(i) Fermions: They have half (1/2) odd integral spin and obey the Fermi -Dirac
statistics and Pauli’s exclusion principle.
(ii) Bosons: They have zero (0) or integral spin and obey the Bose -Einstein
statistics.
The most important difference between Fermions and Bosons is that there is no
conservation law governing the total number of Bosons in the universe but the total
number of Fermions in the universe is strictly conserved in all transformations. The
Fermions and Bosons are further classified as per rest mass of the particles. The
Fermions are classified asLeptons (lighter than mesons) and Baryons(mass equal to or
in excess of nucleon mass). And the Bosons are classified into two groups as Massless
Bosons (photons and gravitons) and Mesons (mass intermediate between the leptons and
the nucleons). The particles which are heavier than nucleons are collectively called as
Hyperons. The Baryons and Mesons together are termed as Hadrons which generally
takes part in the strong interactions.
The basic laws about the total number of Leptons and Baryons are:
(i) The total number of Leptons minus the total number of Anti -leptons remains
unchanged in all reactions and decay processes.
(ii) The total number of Baryons minus the total number of Anti-Baryons is
absolutely conserved in all reactions.
The brief classifications of elementary particles are shown in Table 1.

Table-1: Classification of the Elementary Particles

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 274

01-01.02: PARTICLES AND ANTIPARTICLES
In particle physics, every type of particle is associated with an opposite
particle with the same mass but with opposite physical charges (electric / magnetic
charge) called antiparticle. For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the anti-
electron (known as positron). While the electron has a negative electric charge, the
positron has a positive electric charge, and is produced naturally in certain types
of radioactive decay. Foreach pair of particle and antiparticle, one is designated as the
normal particle and the other (usually given the prefix "anti-") is designated
the antiparticle. Some particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle.
Particle–antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since the
charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, total charge is conserved. As
the charge is conserved, it is not possible to create an antiparticle without either
destroying another particle of the same charge or by the simultaneous creation of both
a particle and its antiparticle (pair production), which can occur in particle
accelerators. Particles and their antiparticles have equal and opposite charges, so that
an uncharged particle also gives rise to an uncharged antiparticle. In many cases, the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 275

antiparticle and the particle coincide.Following Table 2 gives some elementary
particles-antiparticle with their symbols along with spin, charge and mass.

Table2: Particle and Antiparticle

Symbol
Sr. Charge Mass
Name Spin
No. Particle Anti- (e) (MeV/c 2 )
particle
1 Electron e- e+ 1/2 -1 0.511

Quarks
2 u 1/2 +2/3 2.2
(up)

Quarks
3 d 1/2 -1/3 4.6
(down)

Quarks
4 1/2 +2/3 173100
(top) t

Quarks
5 b 1/2 -1/3 4180
(bottom)

6 Muon µ- µ+ 1/2 -1 105.7

7 Tau 𝜏- 𝜏+ 1/2 -1 1776.86

8 Gamma γ self 1 0 0

9 Sigma Σ+ Σ- -- -- 1189.4

10 Kaon K+ K- -- -- 493.7

01-02: INTERACTION OF THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

All elementary particles interact among themselves through, four types of basic
interactions:
(i) Gravitationalinteractions
(ii) Electromagneticinteractions
(iii) Strong interactions and
(iv) Weakinteractions
The first two are familiar. They are known to have an infinite range; that is, their effect
goes as 1/r with the distance r and is felt over large distances. Gravitationalinteraction
(gravity) is the poorest of the four interactions.For two reaso ns, gravity is perhaps the
most important of the four fundamental forces. First, unlike strong and weak

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interactions and more similar to electromagnetism, gravitation does have an unlimited
range of effectiveness. Second, gravity tends to show attraction a nd never repulsion.
Elementary particle interactions are expressed in terms of four fundamental
forces. Inorderof decreasing strength, these forces are the strong nuclear force, the
electromagnetic force, theweak nuclear force, and the gravitational force.
1. Strong nuclear force: The strong nuclear force is a very strong attractive force that
acts only over very short distances (about 10 −15 m). The strong nuclear force is
responsible for binding protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei. Not all
particles participate in the strong nuclear force; for instance, electrons and neutrinos
are not affected by it. As the name suggests, this force is much stronger than the
other forces.
2. Electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic force can act over very large distan ces
(it has an infinite range) but is only 1/100 the strength of the strong nuclear force.
Particles that interact through this force are said to have charge. In the classical
theory, the electrostatic force varies as the product of the charges of the inte racting
particles, and as the inverse square of the distances between them. In contrast to the
strong force, the electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive. The magnetic
force depends in a more complicated way on the charges and their motions. Th e
unification of the electric and magnetic force into a single electromagnetic force
stands as one of the greatest intellectual achievements of the nineteenth century.
This force is central to scientific models of atomic structure and molecular bonding.
3. Weak nuclear force: The weak nuclear forceacts over very short
−15m −6
distances (10 ) and, as its name suggest, is very weak. It is roughly 10 the
strength of the strong nuclear force. This force is manifested most notably in decays
of elementary particles and neutrino interactions. For example, the neutron
can decay to a proton, electron, and electron neutrino through the weak force. The
weak force is vitally important because it is essential for understanding
stellar nucleo-synthesis, the process that creates new atomic nuclei in the cores of
stars.
4. Gravitational force: Like the electromagnetic force, the gravitational force can act
over infinitely large distances; however, it is only 10 −38 as strong as the strong
nuclear force. In Newton’s classical theory of gravity, the force of gravity varies as
the product of the masses of the interacting particles and as the inverse square of
the distance between them. Compared with the other forces of nature, gravity is by
far the weakest.

01-02.01:CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLESBY FORCE

INTERACTION

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 The elementary particles can be classified on the basis of interaction as follows.
Fermions can be further divided into Quarks andLeptons. The primary difference
between these two types of particles is that quarks interact via the strong force and
leptons do not. Quarks and leptons are organized in Figure 1. The upper two rows (first
three columns in purple) contain six quarks. These quarks are arranged into two particle
families: up, charm, and top (u, c, t), and down, strange, and bottom (d, s, b). Members of
the same particle family share the same properties but differ in mass (given in MeV/c2).
For example, the mass of the topquarkis much greater than the charm quark, and the mass
of the charm quarkis much greater than the up quark. All quarks interact with one another
through the strong nuclear force.

Fig.1: Interactions between Elementary particles

(Credit: modification of work by “MissMJ”/Wikimedia Commons)

Ordinary matter consists of two types of quarks: the up quark(elementary

charge, q=+2/3) and the down quark (q=−1/3). Heavier quarks are unstable and
quickly decayto lighter ones via the weak force. Quarks bind together in groups of tw os
and threes called hadrons via the strong force. Hadrons that consist of two quarks are
called mesons, and those that consist of three quarks are called baryons. Examples
of mesonsinclude the pion and kaon, and examples of baryons include the familiar
proton and neutron. A proton is two up quarks and a down quark (p=uud,q=+1) and a
neutron is one up quark and two down quarks (n=udd,q=0). Properties of
sample mesons and baryons are given in Table 3. Quarks participate in all four
fundamental forces: strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravitational.

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 The lower two rows in the Figure 1 (in green) contain six leptons arranged into
two particle families: electron, muon, and tau (e,μ,τ), and electron neutrino,
muon neutrino, and tauneutrino(ν e ,ν μ ,ν T ).
The muon is over 200 times heavier than an electron, but is otherwise similar to
the electron. The tau is about 3500 times heavier than the electron, but is otherwise
similar to the muon and electron. Once created, the muon and tau quicklydecay to
lighter particles via the weak force. Leptons do not participate in the strong force.
Leptons participate in the weak, electromagnetic, and gravitational forces, but do not
participate in the strong force.
Bosons (shown in red in Fig.1) are the force carriers of the fermions. In this
model, leptons and quarks interact with each other by sending and receiving bosons.
For example, Coulombic interaction occurs when two positively charged particles send
and receive (exchange) photons. The photons are said to carry the force between
charged particles. Likewise, attraction between two quarks in an atomic nucleus occurs
when two quarks send and receive gluons. Additional examples include W and Z
bosons (which carry weak nuclear force) and gravitons (which carry gravitational
force).
The Higgsboson is a special particle: When it interacts with other particles, it
endows them not with force but with mass. In other words, the Higgs boson helps to
explains why particles have mass. The mass, spin and interaction of the elementary
particles are shown in Table 3.
Table-3: Mass, spin and interactionof the Elementary Particles

Rest mass Interaction

Particle Type Spin
(MeV) Strong Weak E. M.
(a) Hadrons (i)Baryons
Nucleons 939 ½ Yes Yes Yes
Hyperons 1116-1674 ½, 3/2 Yes Yes Yes
Resonances 1236 ½, 3/2,5/2 Yes Yes Yes
(ii)Mesons
-Mesons 137 0 Yes Yes Yes
K-Mesons 496 0 Yes Yes Yes
-Mesons 549 0 Yes Yes Yes
Resonances 7770 0,1,2 Yes Yes Yes
(b) Leptons Electron 0.511 ½ No Yes Yes
Muons 106 ½ No Yes Yes
Neutrinos 0 ½ No Yes Yes
(c) Field Photon 0 1 No - Yes
Particles Graviton 0 2? No No No
W-Bosons ? 1? No Yes? Yes

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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01
Que. 01: What are fundamental and elementary particles?
Ans: Fundamental particles (also called elementary particles) are the smallest building
blocks of the universe. The key characteristic of fundamental particles is that
they have no internal structure.
Que. 02:What are the 4 particle interactions?
Ans: The four fundamental interactions known to exist are gravitational force,
electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force.
Que. 03:What are the 3 fundamental particles called?
Ans: Given that these particles make up atoms, they are often referred to as subatomic
particles. There are three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
Que. 04:Differentiate elementary particles?

Ans:All elementary particles are either bosons or fermions. These classes are
distinguished by their quantum statistics: fermions obey Fermi –Dirac statistics
and bosons obey Bose–Einstein statistics. Their spin is differentiated via the spin –
statistics theorem: it is half-integer for fermions, and integer for bosons.

Que. 05:What are the properties of elementary particles?

Ans:There are three basic properties that describe an elementary particle: mass, charge,
and spin.

MCQ
1. The spin of the quark is ……………...
a) 0
b) 1
c) ½
d) ¾
2. Fundamental or elementary particles are particles that aren't made up of smaller
particles. What is the most common type of fundamental particle in the universe?
a) Atom
b) Meson
c) Neutrino
d) Quark
3. What are the fundamental particles of an atom?
a) Quarks, gluons and electrons
b) Protons, neutrons and electrons
c) The nucleus and electron orbits
d) An atom cannot be broken down into anything smaller than itself

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4. What are fermions?
a) Elements with ferrous metallic properties
b) Fundamental particles of matter
c) Hard subatomic solids
d) Groups of particles with the same charge or mass
5. What are bosons?
a) Elementary crew members on merchant vessels
b) A term in particle physics used to describe matter
c) Subatomic particles that carry forces
d) An electron switch used in nano-circuits
6. What are mesons?
a) A type of composite particle produced by high energy
b) A contagious disease caught by subatomic particles
c) An antimatter version of the electron
d) A type of Japanese soup
7. Which of the following sentences about antimatter is NOT true?
a) Antimatter is normal matter with an opposite charge
b) Antimatter is only produced in particle accelerators
c) Antimatter annihilates matter
d) Equal amounts of antimatter and matter were created during the Big Bang
8. What do we call a particle that is not made up of any smaller particles?
a) Atomic particle
b) Elementary particle
c) Base particle
d) Original particle
9. What category of elementary particles are matter particles?
a) Bosons
b) Gluons
c) Fermions
d) Leptons
10. What category of elementary particles are force -carrying particles?
a) Bosons
b) Gluons
c) Fermions
d) Leptons

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11. Light is made up of what type of elementary particles?
a) Gluons
b) Fermions
c) Leptons
d) Photons
12. What type of elementary particles are electrons?
a) Leptons
b) Bosons
c) Gluons
d) Fermions
13. What elementary particles are the building blocks for protons and neutrons?
a) Quarks
b) Bosons
c) Gluons
d) Leptons
14. What type of elementary particles creates the strong force between quarks?
a) Bosons
b) Gluons
c) Fermions
d) Leptons
15. How many quarks make up a proton?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
16. What particle is made up of two 'down' quarks and one 'up' quark?
a) Proton
b) Electron
c) Positron
d) Neutron
17. What theoretical particle travels faster than the speed of light?
a) Tachyon
b) Fermion
c) Proton
d) Mesons

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Ans: 1.- c); 2.- c); 3.- a); 4.- b); 5.- c); 6.- a);7.- b); 8.- b); 9.- c);10.- a); 11.- d); 12.-
a);13.- a); 14.- b); 15.- c);16.- d); 17.-a).

SUMMARY
Elementary-particle physics deals with the fundamental constituents of matter
and their interactions. An elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic
particle that is not composed of other particles. Particles include the two types of
fundamental particles: (i) Matter particles (ii) Force particles or interacting particles. It
thought to be elementary include the fundamental Fermions (quarks, leptons, anti
quarks, and anti leptons), which generally are matter particles and antimatter particles.
As well as the elementary particles include fundamental bosons (gauge bosons and
the Higgs boson), which generally are force particles that mediate interactions among
fermions. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite
particle.Theelementary particles are classified according to their properties (mass, spin,
parity, life time and decay mode). According to spin elementary particles are mainly
classified in to two as:(i) Fermions & (ii) Bosons. The Fermions and Bosons are further
classified as per rest mass of the particles. The Fermions are classified as Leptons and
Baryons. And the Bosons are classified into two groups as Massless Bosons and
Mesons. The particles which are heavier than nucleons are collectively called as
Hyperons. The Baryons and Mesons together are termed as Hadrons which generally
takes part in the strong interactions. Particle which is an opposite particle with the
same mass but with opposite physical charges (electric / magnetic charge) called
antiparticle of a particle. Some particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle.
All elementary particles interact among themselves through, four types of basic
interactions: Gravitational interactions; Electromagnetic interactions; Strong
interactions andWeak interactions. The elementary particles can be classified on the
basis of interaction as: proton; electron; positron; neutrino;Fermions; Quarks ;
Leptons; up, charm, and top quarks; down, strange, and bott om quarks; Hadrons;
mesons; baryons; pion and kaon; muon;tau;gluons;W and Z bosons; Higgs boson;
Graviton etc.

KEY WORDS
Elementary particles;Positron; Neutrino;Fermions;
Quarks ;Leptons;Charm;Strange; Hadrons; Mesons; Baryons; Pion;Kaon;
Muon;Tau;Gluons;W and Z Bosons; Higgs Boson; Graviton.

REFERENCES

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WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elementary_Particles .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle .

3. https://www.britannica.com/science/subatomic-particle/Elementary-
particles .

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics .

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction .

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IntroductiontoElementary_Particles(book) .

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics .

YOUTUBE:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3PAQkNAC4Zk .

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tTDHS64wJkk .

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjDV9juWid4 .

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmlAmtFGEYI.

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7orJnDFrClI .

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PasDm5L7Rsk .

7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyC_xlXPPz4 .

BOOKs:

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Cha nd & Company Ltd.

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 11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
( https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/ siteAdmin/dde-
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).
13. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 285

CREDIT 04 -UNIT 02: HADRONS AND LEPTONS
L EARNING O BJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Define elementary particles.

 Distinguish between elementary and compound particles.
 Explain different elementary particles.
 Explain Hadrons and Leptons elementary particles in detail.
 Explain an interaction of Hadrons and Leptons.
 Describe the subparticlesofHadrons and Leptons .
 Explain the different conservation laws of Hadrons and Leptons.
 Explainproperties associated with elementary particles Lepton and Hadrons.
 Distinguish betweenHadrons and Leptons.
 Discussvarioussymmetry of the interaction.
 Explain conservation laws involved in the elementary particles.

INTRODUCTION

The classification of particles is done by their mass and their interactions.

There are four fundamental interactions that govern the particle classification and
they are a strong force, electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the gravitational
force.A given particle may not necessarily be subject to all four interactions. Neutrinos,
for example, experience only the weak and gravitational interaction.The fundamental
particles may be classified into groups in several ways. First, all particles are classified
into fermions, which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and bosons, which obey Bose-Einstein
statistics. Fermions have half-integer spin, while bosons have integer spin. All the
fundamental fermions have spin 1/2. Electrons and nucleons are fermions with spin
1/2. The fundamental bosons have mostly spin 1. This includes the photon. The pion
has spin 0, while the graviton has spin 2. There are also three particles, the W+, W− and
Z0 bosons, which are spin 1. They are the carriers of the weak interactions. We can also
classify the particles according to their interactions. A quark is a type of elementary
particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite
particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the
components of atomic nuclei. All commonly observable matter is composed of up
quarks, down quarks and electrons. Quarks have various intrinsic properties,

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including electric charge, mass, color charge, and spin. They are the only elementary
particles in the Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental
interactions, also known as fundamental forces as well as the only known particles
whose electric charges are not integer multiples of the elementary charge. On the
basis of interactions elementary particles are divided into Hadrons (heavy particles)
and Leptons (light particle).

02-01: HADRONS
Hadron is defined as the subatomic particle made of quarks, gluons and anti-
quarks. Hadrons are the heaviest particles. It is composed of two or more quarks that
are held strongly by the electromagnetic force. Every individual quark has functional
electric charges; these combine such that hadrons carry a net integer electric
charge. A Hadronis a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held
together by the strong interaction. They are similar to molecules that are held together
by the electric force. Most of the mass of ordinary matter comes from two hadrons:
the proton and the neutron, while most of the mass of the protons and neutrons is in
turn due to the binding energy of their constituent quarks, due to the strong
force.Hadrons participate in all interactions since quarks from which they consist
participatein all interactions. They are divided into two sub-categories depending on
their spin.

(i) Baryons:Baryons made of an odd number of quarks (usually three quarks). Baryons
are hadrons with half-integral spin, mainly 1/2 and 3/2. Protons and neutrons are
examples of baryons.

(ii) Mesons:Mesons made of an even number of quarks (usually two quarks). Mesons
are hadrons with integral spin, mainly 0 and 1. Thepions and kaonsare examples of
Mesons.

Hadrons are particles that generally interact through the strong force. Some
hadrons cannot decay via the strong interactions and can only decay weakly (the
neutron is such an example). This is because the quarks come in different types ca lled
flavors and the strong interactions conserve this flavour. For example, the meson K − is
a bound state of a s-quark and an u anti-quark. The s-quark has a flavor called
strangeness. The strong interactions conserve flavor and strangeness in particular, and
since the K − is the lightest meson which contains an s -quark, it cannot decay via the
strong interactions.

Properties of Hadrons:Following are the properties exhibited by the hadrons.

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 1) They carry no net color charge even though the quarks carry a color charge.
Only a very small part of the mass of a hadron is due to the quarks in it, whic h
is the weird thing about hadrons.
2) Protons are stable, and neutrons bound within the atomic nuclei are stable of the
hadrons, while other hadrons are unstable under ordinary conditions.

02-02: LEPTONS
The electron and the neutrino are leptons. They parta ke in the weak interactions
and the electron, being electrically charged, also has electromagnetic interactions. They
do not interact strongly and are not found inside the nucleus. In terms of coupling to
gauge bosons, this means that they both couple to W + & W - and Z-bosons and the
electron couples to the photon. There is no coupling between leptons and gluons.
Nature gives us three copies of each generation of particles. There are, therefore, two
particles with similar properties to the electron (electric charge e, spin 1/2 , weakly
interacting but not strongly interacting). These are called the muon (µ) and the tau (τ).
Each of these has its own neutrino, ν µ and ν τ respectively. Thus, the six leptons are:

Leptons e µ 𝜏 e µ 𝜏
Electric Charge 0 -1

The electron has a mass of 0.511 MeV/c 2 , the muon a mass of 106 MeV/c 2 and
the tau a mass of 1.8 GeV/c 2 . The heavier charged leptons can decay via the weak
interactions into an electron a neutrino and an anti -neutrino. The charged lepton emits a
W − and converts into its own neutrino. The W − then decays into an electron and an
electron-type anti-neutrino - just as in the β-decay of a neutron.The muon has a lifetime
of about 2 × 10 −6 s. and the tau about 3 × 10 −11 s.

Leptons are supposed to possess a property cal led Lepton number (L). Since the
neutrinos associated with electrons and with muons are recognised as different, we
introduce two lepton numbers L e and L  , both of which must be conserved separately in
particle reactions and decays. The number L e =1 is assigned to the electron and the e-
neutrino and L e = -1 to their antiparticles, all other particles have L e =0. Also, the
number L  =1 is assigned to the muon and the -neutrino and L  = -l to their
antiparticles. All other particles have = 0.

Properties of Lepton:

1) All leptons possess a negative charge.

2) All have spin-1/2.

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 3) They also possess an intrinsic rotation in the form of their spin, which means
that electrons with an electric charge i.e. charged leptons will generate magnetic
fields.

4) They are able to interact with other matter only though weak electromagnetic
forces.

5) The charge of lepton determines the strength of interactions, as well as the

strength of their electric field and how they react to external electrical or
magnetic fields.

6) However, none are capable of interacting with matter via strong forces.

7) In the Standard Model, each lepton starts out with no intrinsic mass.

8) Charged leptons obtain an effective mass through interactions with the Higgs
field, while neutrinos either remain massless or have only very small masses.

Difference between a Hadron and a Lepton:

1) As per the classification of particles, Hadron is considered as the heaviest

particles while the Lepton as the lightest particles.

2) Hadron particles subject to strong nuclear forces and Lepton to weak nuclear
forces.

3) Hadron is classified into two types which are baryons and mesons. Lepton is
classified into three types which are the electron, muon, and tau.

4) Examples of Hadron are Kaon, Proton, Neutron, Antiproton, and Antineutron.

Examples of Lepton are Electron, Neutron, and Muon.

02-03: S YMMETRY AND C ONSERVATION L AWS

It is complicate to understanding conservation laws of particles in physics.
Strong evidence exists that energy, momentum, and angular momentum are all
conserved in all particle interactions. The annihilation of an electron and positron at
rest, for example, cannot produce just one photon because this violates the
conservation of linear momentum. The special theory of relativity modifies
definitions of momentum, energy, and other familiar quantities. In particular
relativistic momentum of a particle differs from its classical momentum by a
factorγwhere

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The factor γ varies from 1 to ∞depending on the speed of the particle. But whatever
is the quantity that is getting conserved is always leads to some symmetry. Closely
related to conservation laws are three symmetry principles that apply to changi ng
the total circumstances of an event rather than changing a particular quantity. The
three symmetry operations associated with these principles are:

(i) Charge conjugation(C), which is equivalent to exchanging particles and

antiparticles.

(ii) Parity (P), which is a kind of mirror-image symmetry involving the

exchange of left and right.

(iii) Time-reversal (T), which reverses the order in which events occur.

Time Reversal Symmetry (T): Time reversal is a fundamental concept in physics that
involves reversing the direction of time in the evolution of physical systems. It is
denoted by the symbol T and represents a theoretical operation that reverses the flow of
time, effectively running physical processes backward.The idea of time reversal arises
from the fundamental symmetry of the laws of physics under time reversal
transformations. If a physical process obeys time reversal symmetry, it means that the
laws governing that process remain unchanged if time is reversed. In other words, the
physics of the system should be the same whether time progresses forward or backward.
Under time reversal transformation, the positions and momenta of all particles in a
system are reversed.

According to the symmetry principles (or invariance principles), performing one

of these symmetry operations on a possible particle reaction should result in a second
reaction that is also possible. However, it was found in 1956 that parity is not
conserved in the weak interactions, i.e., there are some possible particle decays whose
mirror-image counterparts do not occur. Although not conserved individually, the
combination of all three operations performed successively is conserved; this law is
known as the CPT theorem. There is an insightful connection between the conservation
laws obeyed by a physical system and the symmetries.

02-03.01: CONSERVATION LAWS FOR ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

We are familiar with law of conservation of nuclear reactions, momentum
and energy. All the interactions are accompanied by certain conservation laws.
Thereexist a few conservation laws, which are valid for some interactions and not
for all other interactions. For example, parity, isospin, and other flavor quantum
numbers are not conserved in the weak interactions. The stronger an interaction is,
the more symmetrical it happens to exist a rule for conservation laws.

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 The familiar conservation laws of classical physics are:
 Conservation of energy;
 Conservation of charge;
 Conservation of linear momentum and
 Conservation of angular momentum.
These conservation laws also hold good for particle physics, provided we have made
relativistic formula for to mass momentum etc. Here we will discuss some
conservation laws.
1) Conservation of Electric Charge:
The electric charge is one of the quantum numbers, which is exactly conserved.
This conservation is associated with the masslessness of the photon. It is due to the
conservation of charge that the electron can‘t decay, for instance as shown below.

2) Conservation of Baryon Number:

Each baryon is given a baryon number B=1, each corresponding antibaryon is
given a baryon number B= -1. All other particles have B=0. The law of conservation
of baryons states that the sum of the baryon numbers of all the particles after a
reaction or decay must be the same as their sum before. This rule ensures that a
proton cannot change into an electron, even though a neutron can change into a
proton. Baryon conservation ensures the stability of the proton against decaying into
a particle of smaller mass.
The neutron along with all the heavier baryons decays directly to the proton or
eventually forms proton, since the proton is the least massive baryon. This indicates
that the proton can‘t decay further without violating the conservation of baryon number,
which means that if the conservation of baryon number holds exactly, the proton should
be completely stable against any decay. One prediction of the grand unification of
forces is that the proton can also decay. Until now, such a possibility hasn‘t been
experimentally verified.

Conservation of baryon number forbids a decay of the type:

Although, with adequate energy permits pair production in the reaction

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3) Conservation of Lepton Number:
Each of the three sets of leptons (Le, Lμ, Lc) are to be conserved separately. For
example, decay processes

Since, well-defined muon energy is observed from the decay, the first reaction
- -
(decay of 𝜋 )is known to be a two-body decay. However, the decay of muon ( µ ) into
electron produces a distribution of electron energies, indicatin g that it is at least three-
body decay. In order for both Le and Lμ to be conserved, the other particles must be ¯ e
and  μ .

4) Conservation of Isospin (I):

According to law of conservation of isospin, the total isospin for particles
subjected to strong interactions is always same before and after the particle
reaction/decay. Remember that like angular momentum addition, isospin adds
vectorially as

This means that I can have discrete values starting from I 1 -I 2  to I 1 +I 2  differing by
unity.

Consider the following decay:

Total Isospin (I) :3/2 → ½ + 1

In this total isospin of the final state (1/2 + 1 = 3/2) match with that of the
parent particles, so this decay is allowed to occur through the strong interactions.

Now consider the decay of

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 Here, before the decay isospin is 1 and after the decay, it is zero. Hence, this
decay is not allowed by strong interaction. However, this decay is possible via the
electromagnetic interactions, as total isospin may not be conserved in these
interactions.

5) Conservation of Hypercharge:

According to this conservation law, for strong and electromagnetic interactions,

the total hypercharge remains the same before and after the particle reaction/decay.

Consider the reaction-

Hypercharge before the reaction is 1+1=2 and after the reaction, i t is 0+1+1+0=2.
Hypercharge before and after the reaction is same (=2), hence this reaction is possible
via strong or electromagnetic interactions. However, weak interactions can violate
hypercharge conservation.

6) Conservation of Parity (P):

Parity is a fundamental concept in physics that refers to the symmetry of
physical systems under spatial reflections. It is associated with the transformation that
reverses all spatial coordinates, effectively flipping a system across a mirror plane. The
parity transformation, often denoted as P, changes the sign of each spatial coordinate,
while leaving time unchanged. In other words, if a point in space has coordinates (x, y,
z), under the parity transformation, it is transformed to ( -x, -y, -z). Parity
transformation essentially reflects a system across a mirror plane, interchanging left
and right. The concept of parity plays a significant role in particle physics and quantum
mechanics. For a physical system to possess parity symmetry, it must exhibit the same
behavior under a parity transformation. This means that the laws of physics governing
the system should remain unchanged if all spatial coordinates are reversed. In certain
physical processes, such as electromagnetic interactions, the laws of physics are indeed
invariant under parity transformations. This property is known as parity conservation or
parity symmetry. For example, in classical electromagnetism, the equations governing
the behavior of electric and magnetic fields are symmetric under parity transformatio ns.

Short Answer Questions with Model Answer 01

Que. 01: What are the properties of hadron?

Ans.: The valence quarks determine the properties of hadrons. They carry no net color charge
although the quarks carry a color charge. Only a very small part of the mass of a hadron is due
to the quarks in it, which is a bizarre thing about hadrons.

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Que. 02: What is Baryon?
Ans.: The baryons are created with three valence quarks. Therefore, they are fermions, that is to say,
they have odd half-integer spin because they comprise an odd number of quarks. As quarks
possess baryon number B = 1/3, the baryon number B = 1. The best-known baryons are Proton
and neutron.
Que. 03: What are the different types of hadrons?
Ans.: Hadrons divide into two categories depending on the quarks. Further, they are baryons and
mesons. Baryons compose of three colored quarks whereas mesons compose of 1 quark and 1
anti-quark.
Que. 04: What is symmetry in conservation laws?
Ans.: That symmetry leads to the law of conservation of linear momen tum. A system of
particles in otherwise empty space conserves its total amount of linear momentum.
Similarly, if you place a system of particles in empty space, it does not make a
difference under what angle you put it.
Que. 05: What are the conservation laws of particle physics?
Ans.: The conservation laws of classical physics, such as the conservation of energy,
linear and angular momentum and electric charge all readily hold in particle
physics; that is, when particles interact with one another, energy, charge and
momentum are all conserved.
Que. 06: What is a lepton in particle physics?
Ans.: In particle physics, a lepton is an elementary particle of half-integer spin (spin
1⁄2) that does not undergo strong interactions . Two main classes of leptons exist:
charged leptons i.e. electron and neutral leptons , i.e., neutrinos.
Que. 07: What is Hadron in particle physics?
Ans.: Hadrons are massive particles with internal structure . There are two classes of
hadrons: mesons (bosons) and baryons (fermions). Hadro ns are composed of
quarks, so they interact via the strong force.
Que. 08: What is the difference between a hadron and a lepton in terms of the type of
force experienced by each particle?
Ans.: Hadrons are particles that feel the strong nuclear force, whe reas leptons are
particles that do not. The proton, neutron, and the pions are examples of hadrons.
The electron, positron, muons, and neutrinos are examples of leptons, the name
meaning low mass. Leptons feel the weak nuclear force.
Que. 09: What is lepton and their properties?
Ans.: Leptons are the elementary particles which can either carry one unit of electric
charge or be neutral. The charged leptons are the electrons, muons, and tau’s.
Each of these types has a negative charge and a distinct mass
MCQ

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1. Conservation laws that describe events involving the elementary particles include
the conservation of ……….
b) Linear and angular momentum.
c) Electric charge.
d) Baryon and lepton numbers.
e) All of these are correct.
2. The conservation law violated by the reaction p→ π 0 +e + is the conservation of……
a) Charge.
b) Energy.
c) Lepton number and baryon number.
d) Linear momentum.
3. Particles that participate in the strong nuclear interaction are called …….
a) Neutrinos.
b) Hadrons.
c) Leptons.
d) Electrons.
4. The interaction that describes the forces among nucleons that hold nuclei together
is….
a) The strong nuclear (hadronic) interaction.
b) The electromagnetic interaction.
c) The weak nuclear interaction.
d) None of these is correct.
5. Which of the following is not one of the four fundamental forces?
a) Gravity
b) Friction
c) Strong nuclear
d) Electromagnetic
6. Mesons are elementary particles that consist of ………..
a) Protons and neutrons
b) Quarks
c) One quark and one anti-quark
d) Hadrons
7. The baryon is a-…………
a) π – meson
b) K – meson
c) λ – meson
d) μ – meson

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8. Each hadron consists of a proper combination of a few elementary components
called…….
a) Photons.
b) Vector bosons.
c) Quarks
d) Meson-baryon pairs.
9. Which of the following is not conserved in a nuclear reaction?
a) Nucleon number.
b) Baryon number.
c) Charge.
d) All above are conserved.
10. The first antiparticle found was the………..
a) Positron.
b) Hyperon.
c) Quark.
d) Baryon.
11. The proton, neutron, electron, and the photon are called………
a) Secondary particles.
b) Fundamental particles.
c) Basic particles.
d) Initial particles.
12. The exchange particle of the electromagnetic force is the…….
a) Gluon.
b) Muon.
c) Proton.
d) Photon.
13. Particles that interact by the strong force are called……..
a) Lepton
b) Hadron
c) Muon
d) Electron
14. At the present time, the elementary particles are consider ed to be the……
a) Photons and baryons.
b) Leptons and quarks.
c) Baryons and quarks.
d) Baryons and leptons.
14. The electron and muon are both……..
a) Hadrons.

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 b) Lepton
c) Muon
d) Electron
15. Particles that make up the family of hadrons are……..
a) Baryons and mesons.
b) Protons and electrons.
c) Baryons and quarks.
d) Baryons and leptons.

Ans: 1- d); 2- c); 3- b); 4- a); 5- b); 6- c); 7- b); 8- c); 9- d); 10- a); 11- b); 12- d);
13- b); 14- b); 15- b); 16- a).

SUMMARY
The particles are classified by their mass and their interactions. There a re four
fundamental interactions that govern the particle classification and they are a strong
force, electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the gravitational force. Hadron is
defined as the subatomic particle made of quarks, gluons and anti-quarks. Hadrons are
the heaviest particles. It is composed of two or more quarks that are held strongly by
the electromagnetic force. Most of the mass of ordinary matter comes from two
hadrons: the proton and the neutron, while most of the mass of the protons and
neutrons is in turn due to the binding energy of their constituent quarks, due to the
strong force. Hadrons are divided into two sub-categories depending on their spin:
Baryonswith half-integral spin, mainly 1/2 and 3/2 and Mesons with integral spin,
mainly 0 and 1.Leptons are the particles with weak interactions. The electron and the
neutrino are leptons. The six leptons are electron, positron, neutrino, antineutrino,
muon and tou. Leptons are supposed to possess a property called Lepton number
(L).The three symmetry operations associated with the particles are: Charge
conjugation (C), Parity (P) and Time-reversal (T). Law of conservation for elementary
particles are: conservationof nuclear reactions, conservation of charge,
conservationofmomentum and conservationofenergy. More conservation laws
include:Conservation of Baryon number, Conservation of Lepton Number, Conservation
of Isospin, Conservation of Hypercharge, Conservation of Parity.

KEY WORDS
Conservation, Symmetry, Hadron, Quarks, Anti -quarks, Gluons, Baryon, Meson,
Lepton, Electron, Positron, Neutrino, Antineutrino, Muon, Tou, Charge
conjugation, Parity, Time-reversal, Isospin, Hypercharge, Parity.

REFERENCES

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WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepton .

3. https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron .

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics .

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Conservation_laws

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_conservation

7. https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/p757 .

YOU TUBE:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vz9CAyK0STw .

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-y9_G65pCE .

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtClp-1sTuk .

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3PAQkNAC4Zk .

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Opg4f1vMrnU

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUfDBcqtsZQ .

7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=56Pob9Xamsc .

BOOKs:

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 298

 12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde-
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf)
13. Nuclear Physics (MSCPH511) Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani,
Nainital.
14. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 299

CREDIT 04 -UNIT 03: ELEMENTARY IDEAS OF CP AND CPT
INVARIANCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Explainthe interaction related to the elementary particles.

 Discussthe symmetry and different conservation laws of particles.
 Explainthe elementary ideas of conjugate of charge and parity (CP).
 Describe and state the CPT theorem.
 Describe Symmetry and Conservation Laws.
 Explain the c onservation of Parity(P)
 Explain Conservation of Charge conjugation parity (C) andTime Reversal
Symmetry(T).
 Classify the hadrons.
 Explain the concepts of Lie algebra.
 Understand SU (2), SU (3) multiplets.

INTRODUCTION
In developing the standard model for particles, certain types of interactions and
decays are observed to be common and others seem to be forbidden. The study of
interactions has led to a number of conservation laws which govern them. These
conservation laws are in addition to the classical conservation laws such as
conservation of energy, charge, etc., which still apply in the empire of particle
interactions. Strong overall conservation laws are the conservation of baryon
number and the conservation of lepton number. Specific quantum numbers have been
assigned to the different fundamental particles, and other conservation laws are
associated with those quantum numbers.Conse rvation laws for parity, isospin,
and strangeness have been developed by detailed observation of particle interactions.
The symmetry combination of charge conjugation (C), parity (P) and time reversal (T)
is considered to be a fundamental symmetry operatio n.Allphysical particles and
interactions appear to be invariant under this combination. Here we will discuss the
elementary ideas of CP and CPT invariance.

03-01: ELEMENTARY IDEAS OF CP

Parity:
One of the conservation laws which apply to particle interactions is associated
with parity.Quarks have an intrinsic parity which is defined to be +1 and for an

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antiquark parity = -1. Nucleons are defined to have intrinsic parity +1. For
a meson with quark and antiquark with antiparallel spins (s=0), then the parity is given
by

The meson parity is given by

The lowest energy states for quark-antiquark pairs (mesons) will have zero spin and
negative parity and are called pseudoscalar mesons. Excited states of the mesons occur
in which the quark spins are aligned, which with zero orbital angular momentum gives
j=1. Such states are called vector mesons.

The vector mesons have the same spin and parity as photons.

Parity involves a transformation that changes the algebraic sign of the

coordinate system. Parity is an important idea in quantum mechanics because the
wavefunctions which represent particles can behave in different ways upon
transformation of the coordinate system which describes them. Theparity
transformation is diagrammatically shown in the Fig.1.

Fig.1: The Parity Transformation.

The parity transformation changes a right -handed coordinate system into a left-
handed one or vice versa. Two applications of the parity transformation restore the
coordinate system to its original state.

The particle's parity is a characteristic of the wave function representing its

quantum mechanical state. Positive parity refers to a wave function that represents a
single particle that does not undergo a sign change upon reflection through the origin,
whereas negative parity refers to a wave function that undergoes a sign change. So, we
have

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 The concept of parity plays a significant role in particle physics and quantum
mechanics. For a physical system to possess parity symmetry, it must exhibit the same
behavior under a parity transformation. This means that the laws of physics governing
the system should remain unchanged if all spatial coordinates are reversed. In certain
physical processes, such as electromagnetic interactions, the laws of physics are indeed
invariant under parity transformations. This property is known as parity conservation or
parity symmetry. For example, in classical electromagnetism, the equations governing
the behavior of electric and magnetic fields are symmetric under parity transformations.
03-01.01: Conservation of Charge Conjugation Parity(C):
Charge conjugation is a fundamental concept in particle physics that involves
changing the sign of the electric charge of particles while keeping other properties
unchanged. It is denoted by the symbol C and r epresents a theoretical operation that
reverses the charge of particles.

Paticle → Antiparticle ORAntipaticle → Particle

Under charge conjugation, particles with positive electric charge are transformed into
corresponding antiparticles with negative electric charge, and vice versa. For example,
an electron (-e or e - ) would be transformed into a positron (+e , i.e., e + ) under charge
conjugation.

Charge conjugation also affects other properties associated with particles, such
as baryon number, lepton number, and weak isospin. When applying charge
conjugation, these properties are reversed as well. The baryon number of a proton (+1)
is transformed into the baryon number of an antiproton ( -1) under charge conjugation.
For example, if in a hydrogen atom, the proton is replaced by an antiproton and the
electron is replaced by a positron, then this antimatter atom will behave exactly like an
ordinary atom, if observed by people also made of antimatter. In fact, C is not
conserved in the weak interaction.

It is important to note that not all particles are affected by char ge conjugation in
the same way. In the Standard Model of particle physics, charge conjugation is a valid
symmetry operation for electrically charged particles (fermions) but not for neutral
particles or particles with zero electric charge (such as photons or neutral mesons). For
these neutral particles, the concept of charge conjugation does not apply.

03-01.02: Time Reversal Symmetry (T):

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 Time reversal is a fundamental concept in physics that involves reversing the
direction of time in the evolution of physical systems. It is denoted by the symbol T and
represents a theoretical operation that reverses the flow of time, effectively running
physical processes backward.The idea of time reversal arises from the fundamental
symmetry of the laws of physics under time reversal transformations. If a physical
process obeys time reversal symmetry, it means that the laws governing that process
remain unchanged if time is reversed. In other words, the physics of the system should
be the same whether time progresses forward or backward.
Under time reversal transformation, the positions and momenta of all particles
in a system are reversed. For example, if a particle is moving forward in time with a
certain momentum, under time reversal, it would be moving backward with t he opposite
momentum. Essentially, the roles of the past and future are interchanged. Prior to 1964,
time parity T was considered to be conserved in every interaction. It was discovered in
1964 that one form of the K° kaon can decay into 𝜋 + + 𝜋-, which violates the
conservation of T.The concept of time reversal has profound implications in various
areas of physics. In classical mechanics, if the laws of motion are invariant under time
reversal, then the trajectories of particles should be reversible. Howe ver, in practice,
the irreversibility of certain processes, such as the dissipation of energy or the increase
of entropy, indicates that time reversal symmetry is not universally valid.
In quantum mechanics, time reversal symmetry is more subtle due to th e
presence of quantum superposition and measurement. While the fundamental laws of
quantum mechanics are time reversal invariant, the process of measurement can
introduce a preferred direction of time. In the context of quantum field theory, charge
conjugation is often combined with other symmetry operations, such as parity (P) and
time reversal (T), to form the combined operation known as CPT. The CPT symmetry is
a fundamental property of relativistic quantum field theories and is believed to be
preserved in all known physical interactions.
03-01.03: CPT Theorem
As per the advanced quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory), all
interactions should be invariant under the combination of C, P ant T,i.e., CPT
operation.

This is also called as CPT theorem. In the experiments, pions and muons were
found to come with both particle and antiparticle species. In 1957, CPT (C = charge
conjugation, P= parity, T = time reversal) theorem was formulated which enunciates
that "for every particle that exists in nature t here is a corresponding antiparticle". The
theorem also predicts that the antiparticle has the same mass as its particle, the same

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lifetime (if the particle is not stable), the opposite charge and the opposite of all other
internal quantum numbers. Certain particles act as their own antiparticle, like photon
and 𝜋 0 .

03-01.04: Parity Violation

Parity violation is a phenomenon in physics where certain physical processes do
not exhibit symmetry under spatial reflections, known as parity transformations. It
refers to situations where the laws of physics governing a system are not the same when
left and right directions are interchanged. The discovery of parity violation was a
significant milestone in the development of particle physics. In 1956, Chien -Shiung Wu
and her collaborators conducted an experiment known as t he Wu experiment, which
demonstrated a violation of parity symmetry in weak nuclear interactions. The
experiment involved the beta decay of cobalt -60 nuclei and showed that the emitted
electrons were preferentially emitted in one direction, indicating an a symmetry under
parity transformations.
The violation of parity symmetry in weak interactions had profound implications
for our understanding of the fundamental forces and the nature of elementary particles.
Prior to thisdiscovery, it was widely believed that all known interactions, including
electromagnetic and strong nuclear interactions, exhibited parity symmetry. However, the
Wu experiment revealed that the weak nuclear force violates this symmetry. The
violation of parity symmetry in weak interactions led to the formulation of the V-A
(vector minus axial vector) theory by Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann. This
theory described the behaviour of weak interactions by introducing the concept of left-
handed and right-handed particles, and it successfully accounted for the experimental
observations of parity violation. The discovery of parity violation had a profound impact
on our understanding of the fundamental forces and the structure of matter. It
demonstrated that the laws of physics are not always symmetric under spatial reflections
and highlighted the importance of studying the underlying symmetries and their
violations.
Since the discovery of parity violation, further experimental investigations have
revealed violations of other symmetries, such as CP-violation (combined charge
conjugation and parity violation) and time reversal symmetry. These discoveries have
deepened our understanding of the fundamental interactions and the behavior of
particles, contributing to the development of the Standard Mo del of particle physics.
03-02: CP V IOLATIONIN M ESONS

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 The term CP violation in mesons refers to the phenomena of combined parity
(P) and charge conjugation (C) violation seen in some meson’s decay processes. The CP
violation in the decays of mesons, which are composite particles made of a quark and
an antiquark, was crucial in helping to understand how fundamental symmetries in
particle physics were broken.
James Cronin and Val Fitch made the first observation of CP violation in the
decays of neutral kaons ( K 0 mesons). K 0 and its antiparticle, (K 0 ), are the two
different states that make up the neutral kaon system. These two states are capable of
oscillating back and forth between one another.
The interference between the direct decay process and the decay via K 0 - K 0
oscillation in the neutral kaon system is how the CP violation is seen. The combined CP
symmetry is broken because the rates of decay of K 0 and K 0 distinct end states are not
the same.
Epsilon (ε), a quantity that expresses the asymmetry between the rates of K 0 and
K 0 decays, is used to describe CP violation in neutral kaon decays.The discovery of CP
violation through the measurement ofε opened up new research directions for
understanding the fundamental interactions and sym metries of particle physics.
A significant understanding of the nature of matter and antimatter asymmetry in
the universe was revealed by the finding of CP violation in mesons. It improved our
knowledge of the Sakharov requirements, which are required to produce the apparent
matter-antimatter asymmetry in the early cosmos. In order to explain why the cosmos is
mostly made up of matter rather than being symmetric with equal proportions of matter
and antimatter, CP violation is a key component.
03-02: CPT I NVARIANCE
The most significant symmetry characteristic of relativistic quantum field theory
is CPT invariance. It claims that the principles of physics remain unaffected by the
combined operation of charge conjugation (C), parity inversion (P), and time re versal
(T). In other words, if a physical process abides by CPT invariance, it is anticipated to
behave in the same way when charge, parity, and time are all reversed at the same time.
The discovery that these three transformations combine to create a com plete
symmetry operation that upholds the fundamental principles of physics gives rise to the
idea of CPT invariance. The formulation of the Standard Model of particle physics,
which describes the fundamental particles and their interactions, depends criti cally on
CPT invariance.
Particles undergo charge conjugation (C), which reverses their electric charge to
create their antiparticles. The system is essentially reflected across a mirror plane via
parity inversion (P), which flips the spatial coordinates. Physical processes are carried
out in the reverse order thanks to time reversal (T). Under these coupled

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transformations, symmetry of the physical laws is guaranteed by CPT invariance. The
simultaneous reversal of the charge, the spatial coordinates, and t he time implies that
physical processes have the same characteristics. All presently understood physical
interactions, including electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions, are thought to
preserve this symmetry.
The consequences for particle characteristics and interactions are what give CPT
invariance its relevance. It results in the equality of the masses, lifetimes, and decay
rates of particle-antiparticle pairs. Additionally, it imposes restrictions on how particles
behave, such as the conservation of a number of quantum constants, including as the
electric charge, baryon number, lepton number, and strangeness. In numerous high -
precision investigations, including measurements of particle -antiparticle mass
differences and lifetime ratios, the CPT invariance has been put to the test. The data
support the theoretical foundation of relativistic quantum field theory and CPT
invariance.

03-03: C LASSIFICATION OF H ADRONS

Hadron as the subatomic particle composed of quarks, gluons and anti-quarks. Further, they
are the heaviest particles. It is made up of two or more quarks which the electromagnetic force holds
together strongly. Hadrons are classified asbaryons and mesons.
03-03.01: Baryons
These are the Strongly Interacting Fermions. These particles come in the
category of fermions of half-integral spin and have masses equal to or in excess of
nucleon mass. They are subject to all the three types of interactions, viz. strong
week and electromagnetic particles of this category which are heavier than nucleons
are collectively known as hyperons. Members of this group are:
(i) Omega hyperon (Ω)
(ii) Cascade hyperons( Ξ 0 , Ξ - )
(iii) Sigma hyperons (Σ + , Σ 0 ,Σ - )
(iv) Lambda hyperon (∧ 0 )
(v) Thenucleons (proton and neutron).
The baryons are created with three valence quarks. Therefore, they are fermions, that is to
say, they have odd half-integer spin because they comprise an odd number of quarks. As quarks
possess baryon number B = 1/3, the baryon number B = 1. Baryons carry an additively
conserved internal quantum number, called the Baryon number B which has a value B =
+1 for the baryons and B = -1 for antibaryons and zero for all other particles.
03-03.02: Mesons
These are the strongly Interacting Bosons.Mesons are hadrons which comprise of a
quark-antiquark pair. They are bosons that must possess some integral spin, i.e., 0, 1, or -1 as the

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number of quarks would be even. Their baryon number B = 0. Instances of mesons that are the by-
products of particle physics experiments include kaons and pions. Pions play a chief aspect in
possessing atomic nuclei by making use of the residual strong force.This group consists of four
Bosons of spin 0 and having masses intermediate between the leptons and the
nucleons.These are subjected to all the three types of interaction, viz. strong, weak and
electromagnetic. Members of this group are:
(i) η-meson (η 0 )
(ii) K-mesons (K + , K - , K 0 , K 0 )
(iii) π-mesons (π + , π - , π 0 )
Baryons and Mesons together are also termed as hadrons as they are strongly
interacting particles. By definition, hadrons are those particles which t ake part in strong
interactions, but hadrons participate into other type of interactions also. Mesons have
Strong interaction, Bosons with integer spin and masses are greater than muon mass,
fairly short lifetime. Baryons areFermions with half integer spin and strong interaction.
All baryons have baryon no. 1 and antiparticles have baryon no. -1.Masses at least as
large as the proton mass. Proton and Neutrons are called Nucleons and have strangeness
number 0.Baryons with non-zero strangeness number are called
Hyperons. Classification of Hadrons is diagrammatically shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2: Classification of Hadrons

03-04: L IE ALGEBRA SU (2) & SU (3) M ULTIPLETS

Lie algebras were introduced to study the concept of infinitesimal
transformations by Marius Sophus Lie in the 1870.
Definition: Lie algebra (L)is a vector space gover some fieldFtogether with
an operation called the Lie bracket[-,-], an alternating bilinear map g x g →g that
satisfies the Jacobi identity.

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 In other words, Lie algebra is algebra over a field F for which the multiplication
operation (Lie bracket) is alternating and satisfies the Jacobi identity.
The Lie bracket of two vectors a and b is denoted by [a, b] and is called as the
commutator. TheLie bracket is the commutatorand is given by-
[a, b]=ab –ba…………. (i)
Properties: Lie algebra L demands the following properties of its elements a,b,c, …..
1. The commutator of two elements is again an element of the algebra , i.e.,
[a,b]∈ L for all a, b ∈ L …………. (ii)
2. A linear combination αa + βb of the elements a and b with the real or complex
numbers α and β is again an element of the algebra i.e.
αa + βb ∈ L , if a, b ∈ L…………. (iii)
Therefore, the element 0 (zero) belongs to the algebra.
3. Bi-linearity is postulated, i.e.,
[αa + βb,c] =α [a,c] + β [b,c] for all a,b,c∈ L ..……….. (iv)
4. Interchanging both elements of a commutator results in the relation -
[a,b] = −[b,a] ………….. . (v)
i.e. it is skew symmetric: [x, x] = 0 which implies [x, y] = −[y, x] for all x, y ∈L.
With (5) and (4) one can proves the following (6) that also holds good.
5. [a, βb + γ c] = β [a, b] + γ [a, c] ……….... (vi)
Of course, we have [c, c] = 0
6. Finally, the Jacobi identity has to be satisfied as follows.
[a,[b,c]]+ [b, [c,a]] + [c,[a,b]]= 0 …………. (vii)

03-05: U NITARY G ROUPS AND P ARTICLE S YMMETRIS (US)

Unitary groups are fundamental mathematical objects in the field of linear
algebra and group theory. They play a crucial role in various areas of mathematics
and physics, particularly in quantum mechanics. The unitary group is a colle ction of
matrices that preserve the inner product of vectors.

Definition: The unitary group of degree n, denoted as U(n), is the group of n × n

unitary matrices. A unitary matrix U satisfies the condition U U * = I, where
U * denotes the conjugate transpose (or Hermitian adjoint) of U, and I is the identity
matrix.
Properties:
1. Unitarity: A matrix U is unitary if and only if its columns (or rows) form an
orthonormal set of vectors. This means that the inner product of any two distinct
columns (or rows) is zero, and the inner product of a column (or row) with itself is
one.

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2. Group Structure: The unitary group U(n) forms a group under matrix multiplication.
The group operation is associative, and the identity element of U(n) is the n × n
identity matrix, denoted as I.
3. Inverses: Every element U in U(n) has an inverse, denoted as U -1 , which is also a
unitary matrix. The inverse of a unitary matrix is simply its conjugate transpose, i.e.,
U -1 = U * .
4. Subgroup: The special unitary group SU(n) is a subgroup o f U(n) consisting of
matrices with determinant 1. In other words, SU(n) contains those unitary matrices
that also have a determinant of magnitude 1.
5. Lie Group: The unitary group U(n) is a Lie group, which means it is a smooth
manifold and has a group structure that is compatible with the smooth structure. This
makes it agreeable to analysis and differential geometry.
6.Unitary Transformations: Unitary matrices are often used to represent unitary
transformations in linear algebra and quantum mechanics. A unitary transformation
preserves the norms of vectors and the inner product between them. Therefore,
unitary matrices play anessential role in studying quantum systems and quantum
operations.

These are some of the basic properties and concepts related t o unitary groups.
Unitary matrices have numerous applications in areas such as quantum mechanics,
signal processing, coding theory, and more. They provide a powerful mathematical
framework for understanding and manipulating complex systems.
The concept of symmetry has acquired great and fundamental significance in
classical as well as in modern physics, more particularly in particle physics. The term
symmetry means that a system, state or quantity remains unchanged (or invariant) as a
result of a particular transformation, such between different physical states, which can
be connected through the corresponding as a change in space coordinates, or change in
time, etc. Symmetries also predict degeneracy between different physical states, which
can be connected through the corresponding transformations. Every conservation law is
related to a particular invariance (or symmetry) principle. For example, conservation of
total energy is due to the invariance of a system under shift in time, called time
translation. Conservation of linear or angular momentum is due to invariance under
displacement in space (space translation) or rotation in space respectively These
transformations can be abstract also, i.e. they may have no relation to actual space,
time, etc. Examples of these are like conservation of charge, lepton number, baryon
number, isospin etc.

03-05.01: SU(2) S YMMETRY

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 Inaddition,having same spin, proton and neutron have many similarities.
Particularly, it is well known that nuclear forces (strong forces) are charge-
independent. That means strong binding force between p -p, p-n, and n-n is essentially
the same. The small difference is attributed to the electromagnetic interactions, which
arise due to difference in charges of proton and neutron. These facts sugge sted the
existence of new kind of nuclear spin, called isospin. Stating differently, in the world
of strong interactions, we can think of proton and neutron as the two orthogonal states
of the same particle, called nucleon. As has been mentioned before, a general isospin
state is described by two quantum numbers, I and I 3 , where I s can have values ranging
from -I to I separated by unity. Thus, for isospin I there are 2I+1 degenerate states
available. Isospin conservation is consequence of the invariance of the strong
interaction Hamiltonian under the rotations in isospin space. Isospin symmetry also
reflects in the physical states belonging to an isospin multiplet, which have the same
mass.

Consequently, the nucleon doublet, i.e., proton and neutron, have t he same mass
due to the strong isospin SU(2) symmetry. SU(2) denotes Special (S) Unitary (U) group
in two complex dimensions, that means it is a group of 2 x 2 unitary matrices U with
unity determinant. A unitary matrix is that whose inverse is given by co mplex conjugate
of its transpose. Such a matrix, can be written as

................... (1)

Where, σ j are the well-known Pauli matrices given by equation (2)and θ j

denote the angles of rotation in isospin space.

................... (2)
SU(2) allows all integral (2I+1) multiplets; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5....respectively for I= 0, 1/2, 1,
3/2, 2, 5/2, …....., states. The fundamental particle-multiplet of the SU(2) is two-
dimensional which is given by two-component column matrices. For example, we can
imagine proton and neutron to be described by the following isospin states of the
isospin symmetryon which the Pauli matrices can operate.

................... (3)

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 Strong interactions respect the isospin symmetry leading to conservation of
isospin in strong decays or reactions. This is quite similar to the conservation of
angular momentum due to the invariance of the Hamiltonian under the rotations in
ordinary space. Isospin symmetry is broken by the electromagnetic and weak
interactions. However, the electromagnetic interactions conserve the third component of
the isospin;breaking of isospin symmetry permits us to differentiate between a proton
and a neutron.
03-05.02: F UNDAMENTAL R EPRESENTATION OF SU(2)
The fundamental representation of SU(2) refers to the smallest -dimensional
complex representation of the special unitary group SU(2). This representation plays a
crucial role in various areas of physics, particularly in the study of angular momentum
and the behavior of spin-1/2 particles. Let‘s explore the fundamental representation of
SU(2):
Definition: The special unitary group SU(2) is the group of 2x2 comple x unitary
matrices with determinant 1. Mathematically, it is defined as:

SU(2) = { U ∈ C^(2x2) | U*U = I and det(U) = 1 } ................... (4)

Where, U* denotes the conjugate transpose of U, and I is the 2x2 identity matrix.
Fundamental Representation of SU(2):
The fundamental representation of SU(2) is a 2-dimensional complex
representation of the group. It is obtained by associating each group element in SU(2)
with a 2x2 complex matrix that acts on a 2-dimensional complex vector space.
Let σ i be the Pauli matrices: The matrix representation is defined as follows:

…………… (5)
Where,i represents the imaginary unit.
Thus, for any U in SU(2), the fundamental representation is given by:

ρ(U) = cos(θ/2) I + I sin(θ/2) (n.σ) ................... (6)

Where, θ is the rotation angle around the axis n; I is the 2x2 identity matrix; ‘·’
denotes the dot product; ‘n’ is a unit vector (n·n = 1) representing the axis of rotation.
In other words, the matrix ρ(U) is a linear combination of the identity matrix
and the Pauli matrices, where the coefficients are determined by the rotation angle θ
and the axis of rotation ‘n’.
The fundamental representation of SU(2) is of great importance in theoretical
physics, especially in quantum mechanics. It provides a mathematical framework for
describing the behavior of spin-1/2 particles, such as electrons, neutrinos, and quarks.
In quantum mechanics, the spin operators are related to the Pauli matrices, and the

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fundamentalrepresentation of SU(2) plays a crucial role in the theory of angular
momentum and its quantization.
In short, the fundamental representation of SU(2) is a 2-dimensional complex
representation of the special unitary group SU(2). It is an essential concept in quantum
mechanics and is used to describe the behavior of spin -1/2 particles and angular
momentum.

03-05.03: SU(3) S YMMETRY

The number of observed hadrons is more than hundred and more of them are yet
to be seen. All the observed hadrons are extended objects having size at the Fermi scale.
Obviously, all of the hadrons could not be treated as elementary. A certain pattern,
similar to the Mendeleev periodic table of atoms, among them was found independently
by Gell-Mann and Y Ne'eman. Consider a system of coordinates in which X-axis and Y-
axis are used to represent third component of isospin (I3) and Hypercharge (Y = B+S)
respectively.
If we draw mesons of same spin and parity say JP=0, they create geometric
symmetric octet patterns, called weight diagrams. Similar pattern is also created by J½
baryons, Gell-Mann called this schemeEightfold Way as term octet was occurring again
and again. In fact, all the observed baryons, seemed to appear in the grouping of 1
(singlet), 8 (octet) and 10 (decuplet), whereas the mesons fall into groups of 1 and 8. As
observed patterns, SU(3) symmetry, is a mathematical generalization of the SU(2) isospin
symmetry. SU(3) is thegroup of 3 x 3 unitary matrices with unit determinant, and its
fundamental multiplet is obviously three-dimensional.
In contrast to SU(2), SU(3) permits selective multiplets, say
1, 3, 3*, 6, 6*, 8, 10, 10*, 15, ……....
The SU(3) could explain several regularities observed in the hadron world. In
fact, the SU(3) symmetry scheme achieved wonderful confirmation with the discovery
of Ω-hyperon, which waspredicted by Gell-Mann, as a missing partner of the already
observed nine spin 3/2 baryons filling the decuplet. However, this symmetry is not
exact and is broken even by the strong interactions, though in a particular way.
Assuming that the SU(3) breaking also follows eightfold way, several properties of the
hadrons could be explained. For instance, Gell-Mann-Okubo obtained a well-satisfied
mass formula as:

……………(7)
1129 MeV 1135 MeV

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Where, particle symbol denotes the average mass of the particles in that isospin
multiplet.
Higher Symmetries:
Later higher symmetries, described by SU(4), SU(5), SU(6) and higher groups,
have also been employed to study the hadronic behavior. For instance, SU(6), which
combines the SU(3) symmetry with the SU(2) spin symmetry, could explain rea sonably
the ratio of nucleon magnetic moments µ p ⁄ µ n = -3/2 and experimental value is -1.46.
SU(4) and SU(S) are used to describe spectra of hadrons carrying charm and bottom
quantum numbers.

03-05.04: F UNDAMENTAL R EPRESENTATIONOF SU(3)

The fundamental representation of SU(3) refers to the smallest -dimensional
complex representation of the special unitary group SU(3). SU(3) is a group of 3x3
complex unitary matrices with determinant 1. The fundamental representation plays a
significant role in the study of quantum chromodynamics (QCD), which describes th e
strong interaction between quarks and gluons.
Let‘s look into the fundamental representation of SU(3):
Definition: The special unitary group SU(3) is defined as:
SU(3) = { U ∈ C^(3x3) | U * U = I and det(U) = 1 } …………… (8)
Where, U * denotes the conjugate transpose of U, and I is the 3x3 identitymatrix.
Fundamental Representation of SU(3):

The fundamental representation of SU(3) is a 3-dimensional complex

representation. It associates each group element in SU(3) with a 3x3 complex matrix
that acts on a 3-dimensional complex vector space.
To define the matrix representation, we introduce the Gell -Mann matrices,
which are a set of eight linearly independent 3x3 Hermitian matrices:

…………
(9)

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These matrices span the space of traceless Hermitian 3x3 matrices, forming a basis for
the Lie algebra su(3) associated with SU(3).
For any U in SU(3), the fundamental representation is given by:

ρ(U) = exp(iθ a , λ a )…………… (10)

Where, θa are the parameters associated with the group element U andλ a are the Gell-
Mann matrices.
The exponential term represents a matrix exponentiation, and it allows the
representation to take into account the group structure and composition of SU(3).
The fundamental representation of SU(3) is widely used in theoretical physics,
particularly in the study of quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the theory of strong
interactions. In QCD, quarks and gluons, the elementary particles that interact via the
strong force, are described by fields transforming under the fundamental representation
of SU(3). The Gell-Mann matrices provide a basis for the color charge associated with
the strong force.
Furthermore, the fundamental representation of SU(3) plays a crucial role in the
classification of hadrons, which are composite particles made up of quarks. Hadrons are
classified into different multiplets based on their transformation properties under SU(3)
symmetry, and the fundamental representation helps to organize and understand their
properties.
In short, the fundamental representation of SU(3) is a 3 -dimensional complex
representation of the special unitary group SU(3). It is essential in the study of quantum
chromodynamics and provides a mathematical framework for describing the behavior of
quarks and the strong interaction between them. The Gell -Mann matrices form a basis
for the representation and allow for the incorporation of group structure and
composition.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01

Que. 01: What is CP and CPT invariance?
Ans: The CPT theorem states that any quantum field theory that is local, unitary, and
in- variant under Lorentz transformations has to be invariant under the combined
charge conjugation (C), parity transformation (P) and time reversal (T).
Que. 02: What is CP and CPT symmetry?
Ans: CPT symmetry is recognized to be a fundamental property of physical laws. In
order to preserve this symmetry, every violation of the combined symmetry of two

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 of its components (such as CP) must have a corresponding violation in the third
component (such as T); in fact, mathematically, these are the same thing.
Que. 03:What are the different types of Hadrons?
Ans: Hadrons are divided into two categories depending on the quarks and they
are: Baryons: It is made up of three colored quarks. Mesons: It is made up of 1
quark and 1 anti-quark.
Que. 04:How baryons are classified?
Ans:Baryons are massive particles which are made up of three quarks in the standard
model. This class of particles includes the proton and neutron. Other baryons are
the lambda, sigma, xi, and omega particles.
Que. 05:What is Quark?
Ans:A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks
combine to form particles called hadrons (the most stable of which are protons
and neutrons). Quarks cannot be observed outside of hadrons. There are six types
of quarks, known as flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top.
Que. 06:Who invented Lie algebra?
Ans: Lie algebras were introduced to study the concept of infinitesimal transformations
by Marius Sophus Lie in the 1870s,
Que. 07:Define Lie algebra.
Ans: A Lie algebra is a vector space g over a field F with an operation [·, ·]: g × g →
g; [·, ·] is called a Lie bracket.
Que. 08:Why is Lie algebra important in physics?
Ans: Lie Algebras are the biggest tool in physics. They are useful in classical
mechanics, quantum mechanics, and even general relativity. They are a subset of
math called Representation Theory, which uses tools called Groups to provide a
formalism to describe matter and energy.

Que. 09: What is the difference between SU2 and SU3?

Ans: It gave the definition of SU2 as the group of unitary 2x2 matrices and that SU3 is
the group of unitary 3x3 matrices.

MCQ
1. CPT invariance is related to ……..
a) Charge conjugation, parity and time reversal.
b) Charity, Parity and time reversal.
c) Clarity, parity and time reversal.
d) Charge conjugation, positivity and time period.
2. …………….. implies that CP violation is equivalent to T violation.
a) T Conservation

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 b) CPT conservation
c) CPT violation
d) CP conservation
3. A proton is made up of …………
a) One up quark and two down quarks.
b) One down quark and One up quark.
c) One down quark and two up quarks.
d) Two down quark and two up quarks.
4. The examples of commonly generated mesons in particle physics are ………..
a) Kaons and pions
b) Gluons and pions
c) Kaons and baryons
d) Electron and protons
5. Lie algebras invented by……………..
a) Marius Sophus Lie
b) Thomas Lie
c) Wilhelm Lie
d) Louis Pasteur
6. Lie algebra is said to be Abelian if the Lie bracket of any two elements in it is
……….
a) Positive
b) Negative
c) Zero
d) None of above
7. SU(n), is the Lie group of n × n unitary matrices with determinant……..
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 0
8. Quarks combines to form composite particle called ………..
a) Lepton.
b) Hadron.
c) Electron.
d) Positron.
9. ………are made up of Quarks.
a) Lepton
b) Proton.

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 c) Electron.
d) Positron.
10. The nuclei having equal number of neutrons are called ………….
a) Neutron.
b) Hadron.
c) Electron.
d) Proton.

Ans: 1. -a); 2. -b); 3. -c); 4. -a); 5. -a); 6. -c); 7. -a); 8. -b); 9. -b); 10. -a).

SUMMARY
One of the conservation laws which apply to particle interactions is associated
with parity. The lowest energy states for quark-antiquark pairs (mesons) will have zero
spin and negative parity and are called pseudoscalar mesons. Parity involves a
transformation that changes the algebraic sign of the coordinate system. In certain
physical processes, such as electromagnetic interactions, the laws of physics are indeed
invariant under parity transformations. This property is known as parity conservation or
parity symmetry.Charge conjugation (C) is a fundamental concept in particle physics
that involves changing the sign of the electric charge of particles while keeping other
properties unchanged. Under charge conjugation, particles with positive electric charge
are transformed into corresponding antiparticles with negative electric charge, and vice
versa. Charge conjugation affects other properties associated with particles, su ch as
baryon number, lepton number, and weak isospin. C is conserved in strong interaction
and is not conserved in the weak interaction. It is important to note that not all particles
are affected by charge conjugation in the same way. Time reversal ( T ) is a fundamental
concept in physics that involves reversing the direction of time in the evolution of
physical systems. It represents a theoretical operation that reverses the flow of time,
effectively running physical processes backward.Under time reversal transformation,
the positions and momenta of all particles in a system are reversed. In the context of
quantum field theory, charge conjugation is often combined with other symmetry
operations, such as parity (P) and time reversal (T), to form the combine d operation
known as CPT. The CPT symmetry is a fundamental property of relativistic quantum
field theories and is believed to be preserved in all known physical interactions. In
1957, CPT theorem was formulated which enunciates that "for every particle that exists
in nature there is a corresponding antiparticle".Parity violation is a phenomenon in
physics where certain physical processes do not exhibit symmetry under spatial
reflections, known as parity transformations.Since the discovery of parity violatio n,
further experimental investigations have revealed violations of other symmetries, such
as CP-violation and time reversal symmetry.The term CP violation in mesons refers to

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the phenomena of combined parity (P) and charge conjugation (C) violation . A
significant understanding of the nature of matter and antimatter asymmetry in the
universe was revealed by the finding of CP violation in mesons.The most significant
symmetry characteristic of relativistic quantum field theory is CPT invariance. It claims
that the principles of physics remain unaffected by the combined operation of charge
conjugation (C), parity inversion (P), and time reversal (T).
The discovery that these three transformations combine to create a complete
symmetry operation that upholds the fundamental principles of physics gives rise to the
idea of CPT invariance. Hadron as the subatomic particle composed of quarks, gluons and
anti-quarks. Further, they are the heaviest particles. It is made up of two or more quarks
which the electromagnetic force holds together strongly. Hadrons are classified as baryons
and mesons. Baryons are the Strongly Interacting Fermions. These particles come in the
category of fermions of half-integral spin and have masses equal to or in excess of
nucleon mass. The baryons are created with three valence quarks. Mesons are the strongly
Interacting Bosons. Baryons and Mesons together are also termed as hadrons which
comprise of a quark-antiquark pair. Lie algebras were introduced to study the concept
of infinitesimal transformations by Marius Sophus Lie.Lie algebra is algebra over a field
F for which the multiplication operation (Lie bracket) is alternating and satisfies the
Jacobi identity. The Lie bracket is the commutator and is given by[a, b]= ab – ba.The
unitary group of degree n, denoted as U(n), is the group of n × n unitary matrices. A
unitary matrix U satisfies the condition UU* = I.The concept of symmetry has acquired
great and fundamental significance in classical as well as in modern physics, more
particularly in particle physics. The term symmetry means that a system, state or quantity
remains unchanged (or invariant) as a result of a particular transformation, such between
different physical states, which can be connected through the corresponding as a change
in space coordinates, or change in time, etc. SU(2) denotes Special (S) Unitary (U) group
in two complex dimensions, that means it is a group of 2 x 2 unitary matrices U with
unity determinant. A unitary matrix is that whose inverse is given by complex conjugate
of its transpose.The fundamental representation of SU(2) refers to the smallest-
dimensional complex representation of the special unitary group SU(2). The special
unitary group SU(2) is the group of 2 x 2 complex unitary matrices with determinant 1.
SU(3) symmetry, is a mathematical generalization of the SU(2) isospin symmetry. SU(3)
is thegroup of 3 x 3 unitary matrices with unit determinant, and its fundamental multiplet
is obviously three-dimensional. The fundamental representation of SU(3) refers to the

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 318

smallest-dimensional complex representation of the special unitary group SU(3). SU(3) is
a group of 3 x 3 complex unitary matrices with determinant 1.

KEY WORDS
CP; CPT; Invariance; Parity; Pseudoscalar; Charge Conjugation; Time reversal;
Violation; Quark-antiquark; Lie algebra; Lie bracket;SU(2); SU(2).

REFERENCES
WIKIPEDIA :
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPT_symmetry .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP_violation .

3. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Particles/cpt.html .

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron .

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_hadron .

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles .

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_algebra .

8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Lie_algebra .

9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_SU(2) .

10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_unitary_group .

YOUTUBE:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j4oSCLZZ2RY .

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_gisMEa1gLg .

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXEfa1OLVG0 .

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0OHa0QLu0w .

5. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=nSU-YBeUhq0 .

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9tP1lXiRYs .

7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XgTErplKcKU .

8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YLl8LSrxEW0 .

9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WN29BA5xsQo .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 319

BOOKs:

1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First

Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, In c.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
( https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in /siteAdmin/dde-
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).
13. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A .
14. M. Sc. IV Semester Particle Physics; Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani,
Nainital- 263139; htpp://uou.ac.in.
15. The Lie Algebras su(N):An Introduction; Walter Pfeifer;
www.walterpfeifer.ch .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 320

CREDIT 04 -UNIT 04: QUARK MODEL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to -

 Discussthedifferent elementary particle.

 Explainthe characteristics of the particles.
 Classify the different particles.
 Explain the Quark model.
 Describe the Quark Model.
 Apply the Quark model for different particles.
 Explain need of colors in Quark model.
 Stateand explain Gell–Mann Okubo mass formula .
 Apply the Gell–Mann Okubo mass formula to predict of masses of some
particles .
 Illustrate about octet and decuplet.
 Define the Charm, Bottom, and Top quarks.
 Describe the quark combination for different particles.
 Classify Mesons and Baryons by the quark combination.

INTRODUCTION
Developing classification schemes for hadrons became a timely question after
new experimental techniques uncovered so many of them that it became clear that
they could not all be elementary. Constructing hadrons as bound states of fewer
constituents would thus organize the zoo at hand. Several early proposals, such as the
ones by Enrico Fermi and Chen-Ning Yang (1949), and the Sakata model (1956),
ended up satisfactorily covering the mesons, but failed with baryons, and so were
unable to explain all the data. The Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula, developed
by Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima, led to the Eightfold
Way classification, invented by Gell-Mann, with important independent contributions
from Yuval Ne'eman, in 1961. The hadrons were organized into SU(3) representation
multiplets, octets and decuplets, of roughly the same mass, due to the strong
interactions; and smaller mass differences linked to the flavor quantum numbers,
invisible to the strong interactions. The Gell-Mann–Okubo mass formula systematized
the quantification of these small mass differences among members of a hadronic
multiplet, controlled by the explicit symmetry breaking of SU(3).

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 321

 Finally, in 1964, Gell-Mann, and, independently, George Zweig, discerned
what the Eightfold Way picture encodes: They posited three elementary fermionic
constituents, i.e.,theup, down, and strangequarkswhich are unobserved and possibly
unobservable in a free form. Simple pairwise or triplet combinations of these three
constituents and their antiparticles underlie and elegantly encode the Eightfold way
classification. Hadronic mass differences were now linked to the different masses of
the constituent quarks.

04-01: QUARK MODEL

Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently, has proposed that all strongly
interacting particles and resonances (, i.e., all hadrons) can be constructed from
fundamental particles of three types (up, down, and strange).Gell -Mann had called
these particles as quarks while George Zweig called them aces. Now they are familier
with name quarks. Originally these three quarks were labeled by up (u), down (d)
and strange (s) quarks.

Each quark has an antiquark associated with it . The magnitude

of each of the quantum numbers for the antiquarks has the same magnitude as those
for the quarks, but the sign is changed.

04-01.01: Some properties of Quarks

1) The quarks and antiquarks are assumed to be an interacting particles of spin ½,
having quantum numbers.

2) Each quark and its antiquarkhas equal and opposite values of charge, baryon
number and strangeness.

3) Baryons are composed of three quarks and antibaryon of three antiquarks.

4) Mesons are composed of a quark and an antiquark.

5) Quarksand antiquarks are Fermions having spin ½ and thus are subjected to the
Pauli Exclusion Principle.

6) Quarks may combine with their spin parallel or antiparallel. Thus, mesons have
spin=0 () or 1() but baryons have spin ½ ()or 3/2 ().

7) The exchange particles which bind quarks together is called gluon which is the
mediator of strong interaction.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 322

 The characteristic quantum numbers of the quarks are as shown in the
following table 1.

Table 1: Characteristics of quarks and antiquarks

04-01.02: Assumptions of Quark Model

The assumption of the model is that:
1. Hadrons are not fundamental but they are built from valence quarks i.e. quarks (q)

and antiquarks ( ), which give the quantum numbers of the hadrons.

2. Hadrons as we have already studied that is composed of baryons or mesons.

Baryons= q qqand Mesons= q

3. A baryon is made up of three quarks. For example, the proton is made up of two u
quarks and a d quark (uud). For these quarks, the electric charges are +2/3, +2/3,
and -1/3 for a total value of +1. The baryon numbers are +1/3, +1/3 and +1/3, for a
total of +1.
4. The strangeness numbers are 0, 0 and 0 for a total strangeness of 0. All are in
agreement with the quantum numbers for the proton.
5. Fig.1 shows quark models of the proton, antiproton, neutron, and antineutron.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 323

 Fig.1: Quark models of the proton, antiproton, neutron and antineutron
6. A meson is made up of one quark and one antiquark. For example, the π + meson is

the combination of a u quark and a d antiquark ( ). Electric charges of these

quarks are +2/3 and +1/3 for a total of +1.

7. The baryon numbers are +1/3 and -1/3 for a total baryon number of 0. The
strangeness numbers are 0 and 0 for a total of 0.
8. All of these are in agreement with the quantum numbers for the pi -meson.
9. Quarks all have spins of 1/2, which accounts for the observed hadrons.
10. All known hadrons can be explained in terms of the various quarks and their
antiquarks. Table 2 shows the quark contents of hadrons.
Table 2: Quark contents of hadrons

04-01.03: Overview of the Quark Model of Elementary Particles.

The basic ideas of the quark model are:

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 324

 1. Quarks are Elementary Particles.
2. The quark model deals with the isotopic spin, hypercharge, strangeness, and
baryon number ofthe hadrons.
3. There are 3 quarks and 3 antiquarks.
4. A meson consists of a quark and an antiquark.
5. Each quark has three different colors.
6. A baryon consists of 3 quarks of different colors and an antib aryon consistof 3
antiquarks.
7. By combining quarks in all possible ways, it is possible to construct those
particles that appear inthe singlets, octets, and decimets, and no others.
8. In this regard, twodifferent combinations of quark states may actually hav e the
samequark content but they are combined to give two different values ofthe
magnitude of the total isotopic spin.
9. The quark content of a particle in a certain multiplet is the sameas the quark
content of the analogous particle in other multipletsof t he same type.
10. Quarks are also assigned spin and baryon number.
11. The total angularmomentum of the quarks is the spin of the composite particle
andthe net baryon number of the quarks is the baryon number of thecomposite
particle.
12. The model explains all known unitary multiplets.
13. The model can be used to find the ratio of magnetic moment of nucleons.
14. The model explains some features of the weak interaction.

04-01.04:Need of Color in Quarks

There was problem with the quark model that it was believed to contain three
identical s quarks (sss). This violates the Pauli’sExclusion Principle. Thisdifficultycan be
solved by assigning a new property to the quarksby giving each quark a different value of
new quantum number, which is known as colour. The three colours are labelled Red,
Blue and Green (RBG). These additional quantum numbers can take any one of three
possible values, and obeys the Pauli’s Exclusion principle.The antiquark colours are anti-
red, anti-blue, and anti-green ( ). There were problems with the quark model, one of
them being Ω-hyperon. It was believed to contain three identical s quarks(sss) which
violates the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The proton, neutron, and others with two identical
quarks would also violate Pauli Exclusion Principle.Thus,theexample, Ω- hyperonwould
then (sRsBsG). An essential component of the quark model with colour is that all observed

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 325

meson and baryon states are colourless, i.e., either colour anti-colour combinations in the
case of mesons, or equal mixtures of R, B and G in the case of baryons.
04-02: GELL–MANN OKUBO MASS FORMULA
The Gell-Mann-Okubo mass formula, also known as the Gell -Mann-Okubo
relation, is an empirical formula that provides a relationship between the masses of
certain hadrons within the framework of SU(3) flavor symmetry. It was proposed
independently by Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Okubo in the 1960s. The formula
relates the masses of the octet and decuplet baryons, which are composed of three
quarks.
The rule was first formulated by Murray Gell-Mann in 1961 and independently
proposed by Susumu Okubo in 1962. Isospin and hypercharge are generated by SU (3) ,
which can be represented by eight Hermitian and traceless matrices corresponding to
the components of isospin and hypercharge. Six of the matrices correspond to flavor
change, and the final two correspond to the third -component of isospin projection, and
hypercharge.
The formula is based on the concept of approximate SU (3) symmet ry of the
strong nuclear force, also known as flavor symmetry, which was observed in the
behavior of certain baryons. The SU (3) symmetry describes the interactions among
three types of quarks: up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quarks, which are the element ary
particles that constitute protons, neutrons, and other hadrons.
The Gell-Mann–Okubo mass formula provides a sum rule for the masses
of hadrons within a specific multiplet, determined by their isospin (I) and strangeness.
The Gell-Mann-Okubo mass formula is given by:

………………(1)

Where,
• Mis the mass of the hydrons (baryons or mesons),
• a 0 , a 1 , a 2 are constants that depend on the specific baryon octet under
consideration,
• I is the isospin (a quantum number related to the weak force) of the b aryon,
• Yis the hypercharge of the baryon.
Y is defined as the sum of the number of strange quarks (n s ) and the difference
between the number of up quarks (n u ) and down quarks (n d ) as:

………….… (2)

The baryon octet includes eight baryons that exhibit SU(3) symmetry: the proton and
neutron, which are the lightest baryons, along with six other more massive baryons. By

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 326

using this formula, Gell-Mannand Nishijima successfully predicted the masses of
certain baryons, providing strong evidence for th e existence of quarks and the
underlying SU(3) symmetry. The quark model eventually became a central component
of the Standard Model of particle physics, providing a framework for understanding the
subatomic world and its interactions.
This mass formula was obtained by considering the representations of the Lie
algebra SU(3) . In particular, the meson octet corresponds to the root system of
the adjoint representation. However, the simplest, lowes t-dimensional representation of
SU(3) is the fundamental representation, which is three-dimensional, and is now
understood to describe the approximate flavor symmetry of the three quarks u, d, and s.
Thus, the discovery of not only an SU(3) symmetry, but a lso of this workable formula
for the mass spectrum was one of the earliest indicators for the existence of quarks.
04-02.01: Gell – Mann OkuboMass formula for octet and decuplet
hadrons
Hadrons are composed of baryons or mesons. We can rewrite the Gell-
MannOkubo mass formula for baryons and mesons.
Baryon: Using the values of relevant I and S for baryons, the Gell-MannOkubo formula
can be rewritten for the baryon octet as:

……………… (3)

Where, N, Λ, Σ, and Ξ represent the average mass of corresponding baryons. Using the
current mass of baryonsthis yields:

This means that the Gell-Mann–Okubo formula reproduces the mass of octet baryons
within ~0.5% of measured values.

The baryon decuplet formula famously allowed Gell-Mann to predict the mass
of the then undiscovered Ω − .
Meson:The same mass relation can be found for the meson octet,the Gell-MannOkubo
formula can be rewritten for the baryon octet as:

………………. (4)

Using the current mass of mesons, LHS of equation (4) yields496 MeV/c2 and RHS of
equation (4) yields445 MeV/c2.
04-03: C HARM , B OTTOMAND T OP Q UARKS

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 327

 Quarks have various intrinsic properties, including electric charge, mass,color
charge and spin. They are the only elementary particles in the Standard
Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions.
Initially three types of quarks were known as up quark (u), down quark (d) and
strange quark (s). Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The
heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle
decay. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common
in the universe, whereas strange quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions.
For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as
an antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties having equal
magnitude but opposite sign.
In 1970, Glashow, Iliopoulos, and Maiani proposed the existence of fourth
quark, called c or charmed quark. The charmed quark was suggested to ex-plain the
suppression of certain decay processes that are not observed. With only three quarks,
the processes would proceed at measurable rates and should have been observed. The
charm quark has a charge of⅔ e, strangeness 0 and a charm quantum number of +1.
Other quarks have 0 charm.
In 1977, a new particle was discovered at Fermi Lab that provided evidence for
yet another quark. This particle, called the upsilon-meson, was thought to be made up of
the new quark called b (for bottom or beauty) along with the associated antiquark .
Antibottom quark has electric charge -⅓ e.
As quarks seem to come in pairs, it is expected that there is a partner to the b
quark, called t (for top, if b = bottom) and (t for truth, if b = beauty). It has a charge of
+⅔ e.
Subsequent discovery of new particles, hadrons introduced new quantum
numbers, called charm (C), bottom (b) and top (t).Therefore, now there are six types
(known as flavors) of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.The following
table 3shows the properties of six quark flavors.
Table3: Quark Flavors and its Properties

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 328

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER 01
Que. 01: What is the quark model?
Ans: The quark model is a classification scheme for hadrons in terms of their valence
quarks, the quarks and antiquarks that give rise to the quantum numbers of the
hadrons.
Que. 02:Who proposed the quark model?
Ans: The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann
and George Zweig in 1964.
Que. 03:What does quark mean?
Ans: Atoms are made up of smaller particles - protons, neutrons and electrons - some
of which are made up of even smaller ones, called quarks.
Que. 04: What is quark made of?
Ans: Quarks are elementary particles. They are not made up of any other particles.
Que. 05:What are the colors of quarks?
Ans: The quarks have the colors red, green and blue. Their opposites, anti-red, anti-
green, and anti-blue, are ascribed to antiquarks.
Que. 06:What are the types of quarks?
Ans: Six types of quarks areUp, Down, Strange, Charmed, Top and Bottom quark.
Que. 07: What does the Gell-Mann Okubo mass formula provide?
Ans: The Gell-Mann–Okubo mass formula provides a sum rule for the masses
of hadrons within a specific multiplet, determined by
their isospin and strangeness.
Que. 08:What are top and bottom quarks?

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 329

Ans: The bottom quark, the fifth quark to be detected, is a member of the third and
heaviest pair of quarks. The companion particle of this pair is the top quark,
which is the sixth and most-massive quark
Que. 09:What is the difference between up charm and top quarks?
Ans: Up, charm and top quarks have exactly the same properties except for their mass.
They are sometimes called up-type quarks.
Que. 10:What is the bottom quark?
Ans: Bottom quark is the quark having electric charge −1/3 times the elementary
charge and bottom quantum number −1. It is more massive than the up, down,
strange, and charmed quarks.
Que. 11:What is a beauty quark?
Ans: A beauty quark is a quark with a charge of -⅓ and a mass of approximately 10,000
times that of an electron.
Que. 12: Who discovered the bottom quark?
Ans: Leon Lederman at Fermilab provided the first evidence for the existence of the
bottom quark.

MCQ
1. What are the fundamental particles of an a tom?

a) Quarks, gluons and electrons

b) Protons, neutrons and electrons

c) The nucleus and electron orbits

d) An atom cannot be broken down into anything smaller than itself

2. Quarks discovered are ………

a) Up, down and charm

b) Strange, top and bottom

c) Up and down

d) All of a) and b)

3. What are mesons?

a) A type of composite particle produced by high energy

b) A contagious disease caught by subatomic particles

c) An antimatter version of the electron

d) A type of Japanese soup

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 330

4. Particles that participate in the strong nuclear interaction are called ………

a) Neutrinos

b) Hadrons

c) Leptons

d) Electrons

5. Current thought is that all matter is composed of is …………

a) Four quarks and four leptons.

b) Six leptons.

c) Six quarks and six leptons.

d) Six quarks and four leptons.

6. Fundamental particles quark name was given by ………..

a) George Zweig
b) Gell-Mann
c) Chen-Ning Yang
d) Nishijima

7. Quarks and antiquarks are Fermions having spin …….

a) 0
b) 1
c) ½
d) 3/2

8. A baryon is made up of …………

a) One quark.
b) Two quarks.
c) Three quarks.
d) Four quarks.

9. Gell-Mann-Okubo mass formula is based on the concept of approximate…………..

a) SU (2) symmetry of the strong nuclear force.
b) SU (3) symmetry of the weak nuclear force.
c) SU (3) symmetry of the strong nuclear force.
d) None of above

10. The charm quark has a charge of ……….

a) ⅔ e
b) -⅔ e

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 331

 c) 1/3 e
d) 1/2e

11. Glashow, Iliopoulos, and Maiani proposed the existence of fourth quark called
………
a) Down quark
b) Charm quark
c) Bottom quark
d) Top quarks.

12. In 1977, a new particle was discovered at Fermi Lab called ………..
a) Down quark
b) Charm quark
c) Bottom quark
d) Top quarks.
Ans: 1.-a); 2.-d); 3.-a); 4.-b); 5.-c); 6.-b); 7.-c); 8.-c); 9.-c); 10.-a); 11.-b); 12.-c).

SUMMARY
The Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula, developed by Murray Gell-
Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima, led to the Eightfold Way classification, invented by
Gell-Mann, with important independent contributions from Yuval Ne'eman, in 1961.
The Gell-Mann–Okubo mass formula systematized the quantification of these small
mass differences among members of a hadronic multiplet, controlled by the explicit
symmetry breaking of SU(3). Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently, has
proposed that all strongly interacting particles and resonances (, i.e., all hadrons) can be
constructed from fundamental particles of three types (up, down, and strange). Gell -
Mann had called these particles as quarks. Each quark has an antiquark. The magnitude
of each of the quantum numbers for the antiquarks has the same magnitude as those for
the quarks, but the sign is changed. Each quark and its antiquark have equal and
opposite values of charge, baryon number and strangeness. Quarks and antiqua rks are
Fermions having spin ½ and thus are subjected to the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The
exchange particles which bind quarks together is called gluon which is the mediator of
strong interaction. The assumption of the model is that: Hadrons are not fund amental
but they are built from valence quarks i.e. quarks and antiquarks. All known hadrons
can be explained in terms of the various quarks and their antiquarks. The quark model
deals with the isotopic spin, hypercharge, strangeness, and baryon number oft he
hadrons. By combining quarks in all possible ways, it is possible to construct those
particles that appear in the singlets, octets, and decimets, and no others. The quark

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 332

model explains all known unitary multiplets and some features of the weak interaction.
Model can be used to find the ratio of magnetic moment of nucleons. The problem of
violating the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle can be solved by assigning a new property to
the quarks by giving each quark with a different value of new quantum number, whi ch
is known as color. The Gell-Mann-Okubo mass formula, also known as the Gell -Mann-
Okubo relation, is an empirical formula that provides a relationship between the masses
of certain hadrons within the framework of SU(3) flavor symmetry. The Gell-Mann–
Okubo mass formula provides a sum rule for the masses of hadrons within a specific
multiplet (octate, decuplate) determined by their isospin and strangeness. Initially three
types of quarks were known as up quark (u), down quark (d) and strange quark
(s). Subsequent discovery of new particles, hadrons introduced new quantum numbers,
called charm (C), bottom (b) and top (t). Therefore, now there are six types (known
as flavors) of quarks: up,down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.

KEY WORDS
Quarks, Antiquark, Quark model, Hadrons, Murray Gell-Mann–Okubo, Nishijima,
Kazuhiko, George Zweig, up, down, and strange, Singlets, Octate,
Decuplate,Decimets, Up quark, Down quark,
strangequark,Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom quark.

REFERENCES
WIKIPIDIA:

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_model .

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics) .

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark.

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gell- n%E2%80%93Okubo_mass_formula.

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gell-Mann%E2%80%93Nishijima_formula .

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm_quark .

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_quark .

8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_quark .

YOUTUBE:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlTcCa9INIQ .

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-TnmD4WTkgU .

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 333

 3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SP7Z1UsZTYk.

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16uWGbIrd-Y .

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oWl6aVxPlQs .

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJhj2xEm940 .

7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAhtheBYe2Q .

8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Msk3Wv3A2nk .

9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3Vt7k1fNGs.

B OOKs:
1. Fundamental of Nuclear Physics: Johan Singh, Pragati Prakashan Meerut, First
Edition (2012), ISBN:978-93-5006-593-8.
2. Introductory Nuclear Physics: Kenneth S. Krane, (2008), Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Nuclear Physics and analytical Techniques: Dr. V. Komalamba, Prof. N.
Manohara Murthy, Prof. C. Nageshwara Rao, 2009, BRAOU.
4. Nuclear Physics: D. C. Tayal, 2008, Himalaya Publishing House.
5. Nuclear Physics: S. N. Ghoshal, 2008, S. Chand Publishing.
6. Introduction to Nuclear Physics: Herald A. Enge, (1966), Addison Wesley
Publishing Company.
7. Concepts of Nuclear Physics: Bernard L. Cohen, (2002), Tata McGraw -Hill.
8. Nuclear Physics: R.R. Roy & B.P. Nigam, (2000), New Age International (P)
Ltd.
9. The Atomic Nucleus: Robert D. Evans, (1955), McGraw -Hill Book Company.
10. Atomic Physics: J.B. Rajam, (Edition 2002), S. Chand & Company Ltd.
11. University Physics: Young & Freedman, (Edition 2004), Pearson Education, Inc.
12. 34542 Nuclear and particle physics,
(https://mis.alagappauniversity.ac.in/siteAdmin/dde -
admin/uploads/4/PG_M.Sc._Physics_34542%20Nuclear%20and%20Particle%20
Physics.pdf).
13. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A .
14. M. Sc. IV Semester Particle Physics; Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani,
Nainital- 263139; htpp://uou.ac.in.

PHY609: Nuclear and Particle Physics Page 334

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Warming up Check Point Answer to Check Points

To Begin with Summary References

Objectives Key Words

03. Do you feel the following sections or features, if included, will enhance self -
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Index

Glossary

List of “Important Terms Introduced”

Two Colour Printing

Content
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08. Which Topics you find most difficult to understand in this book?

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09. List the difficult topics you encountered in this Book. Also try to suggest how they
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Code 4 for “Special emphasis on this topic in counseling”

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10. List the errors which you might have encountered in this book.

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11. Based on your experience, how would you place the components of distance
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Printed Book Counseling Lab Journal

Audio Lectures Home Assignment YouTube

Videos

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Counseling

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