Structural Geology in

Metals Exploration
2: Basic Deformation Theory
 Table of Contents
2: Basic Deformation Theory Formation of gash veins
What is in this module? Strain compatibility of structures
Reading rocks Finite Strain Ellipse
Introduction to Deformation Properties of finite strain ellipse
Relationship between structure and forces Foliation is grain scale strain
Rheology Fabrics and strain
Boundary motion from stress & rheology How deformed does it get?
3D flow Strain in 3-D
2D Flow 3-D fabrics
Strain S-tectonite
Finite Strain L-Tectonite
Structures: visible marker response to strain LS-tectonite
Response of existing layers to strain Strain in a regional context
Progressive strain Relationship of structures to strain
Finite vs Instantaneous strain Structure linkage and strain
Deformed lines and planes Linked faults and folds
Fabric patterns and flow
En echelon gash veins

*Note that this module includes many animations that do not display in the pdf form.
Frames from many of the critical animations have been displayed on following pages.
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 2
 What is in this module?

This module is an introduction to deformation theory in the context of

reading and understanding ductile structures. It concentrates on the
kinematics of flow and the strain produced, rather than the dynamics of
forces and stress theory (more applicable to brittle deformation).
It includes:
 An outline of the relationship between stress, rheology, flow, strain, and the
resultant structures seen in some marker object (layer, grain, etc).
 The linkage between the kinematics of flow, strain, and the final structures seen.
 An outline of how en echelon gash veins form and their relationship to both the
instantaneous strain and the finite strain.
 An outline of 3D strain and the development of L, S, and LS tectonite fabrics.
 It finishes with a discussion of how different types of structures (folds, foliations,
faults, veins) can be linked within a single deformation framework.

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 3

 Reading rocks

 The most fundamental thing that a geologists does

is to look at an outcrop and interpret it
 i.e. draw conclusions about the geological history of the
rocks and how this outcrop fits into a 3D geometrical
puzzle

 The challenge comes

when you are confronted
with something you have
never seen before

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 4

 Reading rocks successfully

 How successful you are depends on:

 Theoretical background
 Practical training
 Experience

This module is about the theory

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 5

 Introduction to Deformation
Example: continental margin
Convergence vector
(far-field force)

 Deformation at all scales is caused by forces acting on

boundaries and causing them to move
 Boundary motion causes flow of particles within the
deformable zone
 Deformation is the resultant distortion of the rock mass at
any point

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 6

 Relationship between structure and
forces

 Best to try and understand structures in the context of

strain or flow rather than stress
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 7
 Rheology
 The ‘softness’ of rock masses in response to an
applied force depends on:
 magnitude of the forces
 rate at which the force is applied
 relative strength of surrounding rocks (= competence)
 metamorphic conditions (P, T, ±fluids)
 existing layering/foliation (mechanical anisotropy)
High faults,
in crust fractures,
Brittle- breccias
ductile
transition
folds,
fabrics:
foliation (cleavage)
lineations
Deep
in crust
shears
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 8
 Boundary motion from stress & rheology

 Identical stresses A
σ1 B σ1 C
σ1
 Different boundary

Undeformed
orientations
 Different
mechanical
properties
orthogonal motion parallel motion oblique motion
– (A) Mechanically isotropic σ1 σ1 σ1
body, orthogonal motion
– (B) Mechanically isotropic
Deformed

body, parallel motion

– (C) Mechanically
anisotropic body, oblique
motion

 Final shape of circle (finite strain) is identical in each case, but

orientation and internal flow is different
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 9
 3D flow

 Kinematics (type of flow) is Orthogonal motion

(pure shear)
controlled solely by:
 Direction of motion of
(More) Rigid Block
boundary (relative to its
orientation)
Oblique motion
(transpression/
 The type of flow controls: transtension
 the shape of the deformed
zone (More) Rigid Block

 the orientations of
structures and fabrics within Parallel motion
that zone (simple shear)
 the symmetry of structures
(More) Rigid Block

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 10

 2D Flow
Coaxial flow
Every point in
[animation] the body
(represented by
Note: animation the central point)
does not display in sees the same
pdf versions pattern of motion
in all of its
neighbours
Non-coaxial flow
[animation]

Animations – see next pages for selected frames…

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 11
 2D Flow animation unpacked (1)

Coaxial flow
In each increment, there are two orthogonal flow directions where the points never
rotate away but either expand or contract along those directions. All other points
rotate along hyperbolic paths toward the maximum expansion direction [which is
known as the Fabric Attractor]. That means that no lines lying parallel to either of
these irrotational axes will ever rotate out of that orientation, and all other lines will
rotate toward the Fabric Attractor.
In each increment, the directions of maximum contraction and extension (the
incremental or instantaneous strain axes [ISA]) are parallel to these irrotational
axes, as are the final axes of the deformed circle (the X and Z finite strain axes).
As the flow axes, the ISA, and the finite strain axes (X,Z) remain parallel throughout
the flow the deformation is coaxial (also called pure shear deformation).
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 12
 2D Flow animation unpacked (2)

Non-coaxial flow [simple shear end member ]

In each increment, there is only one direction where points (and line) do not
rotate and all points move in this single direction.
Only lines joining points in that flow direction remain constant in orientation. All
other lines rotate toward that Fabric Attractor direction.
In each increment, the directions of maximum contraction and extension (ISA)
remain parallel to the very first increment (which is at 45° to the flow direction).
But because the flow direction and the ISA are not parallel, the finite strain axes
defined by the deformed circle rotate away from those incremental axes and
rotate toward the flow direction (the Fabric Attractor). Because the various axes
do not remain mutually parallel, the deformation is non-coaxial
Simple shear deformation is an end-member of a spectrum of possible flow
patterns with pure shear at the other end.

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 13

 Strain

 Distortion produced from particle flow

 Instantaneous strain ISA = instantaneous strain axes
 The strain increment each instant • ISA1 = axis of maximum stretch
during the deformation • ISA3 = axis of minimum stretch
 Finite strain X,Z = principal finite stretch axes
 Final accumulated strain
(principal strain axes)

Coaxial flow
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 14
 Finite Strain
1
 Strain is a measure of the final shape,
distortion and volume relative to an initial
shape or size 1
 i.e independent of the type of flow
 In general volume is ~conserved,
therefore:
 Contraction in one direction is
balanced by extension in another

2
 Concentrate on the eyes:
– Note that the change in the 1
shape and distance between
pairs of eyes depends on the
initial orientation
1/2
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 1/2 15
 Structures:- strained visible markers

 Structures are the response of visible markers to strain

 Markers might be grains, layers, or map bodies
 The response depends on:
 the rheology of the marker
 its original shape
 its orientation in the 3D strain field
 The homogeneity of the strain relative to the scale of the marker

Any variation in any one of these can produce a different

structural response - even in the same strain homogeneous
field

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 16

 Structures:- strained visible markers
Animations – see next pages for selected frames…

 Foliation: the result of grain-scale deformation

 Folds, boudins: the result of deformation on layers

 Faults and shear zones: the result of highly partitioned deformation

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 17
 Structures animations unpacked (1)
Foliation: the result of grain-scale deformation
 In this example of a high strain pure shear zone the deformation causes
randomly shaped grains to gradually deform into ellipses parallel to the zone
 From a random fabric a foliation is born!

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 18

 Structures animations unpacked (2)
 Folds, boudins: the result of deformation on layers
 In this example, four differently oriented lines are deformed by a pure shear
 The different fold and boudinage structures we see depend only on the
original orientation of the line (plus the rheology of the line will control
whether it folds or simply thickens, boudinages or simply thins).
undeformed 5% contraction 15% contraction 30% contraction 45% contraction

60% contraction

75% contraction

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 19

 Response of existing layers to strain

 Contraction B A
 thickening B A
 folding
 Extension
 thinning A B
 boudinage A B deformed
undeformed

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 20

 Progressive strain

 At each increment the instantaneous strain

accumulates to produce the finite strain
 The type of flow controls the way the finite strain
accumulates

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 21

 Finite vs Instantaneous strain

 Instantaneous strain
 Distortion at any one instant or very short interval (incremental
strain)
 Controls the initial orientation of many structures
 Remains constantly oriented within a single flow regime

 Finite strain accumulates with time

 Accumulated distortion over a finite time interval or over the entire
history of the rock
 Principal axes remain constant in coaxial flow regimes (pure shear)
 Rotate in non-coaxial flow regimes (various shear types)
 Most structures and fabrics in ductile rocks reflect the finite strain

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 22

 Deformed lines and planes

 Pure shear – coaxial flow - symmetric fabrics

Animations – see next page for selected frames…

 Simple shear – non-coaxial flow – asymmetric fabrics

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 23

 Deformed lines and planes (animations unpacked)

 Pure shear – coaxial flow - symmetric fabrics 60% contraction

 (as in this previous page)

 Simple shear
 Shows what happens to 3 lines (planes) during pure shear. The line parallel to the shear direction
contains initial slight symmetric undulations.
undeformed γ = 0.25 γ = 0. 5 γ=1

γ = 2; 59% contraction
Although the finite strain in the pure shear figure above is
about the same as in the simple shear figure on the right,
the deformation history of each of the corresponding lines
is qute different.

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 24

 Fabric patterns and flow
Animations – see next page for selected frames…
 Pure shear – symmetric fabrics

 Simple shear
– asymmetric
fabrics

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 25

 Fabric patterns – animations unpacked (1)
 Pure shear – fabrics symmetric with the high strain zone

 Simple shear – fabrics asymmetric to the high strain zone

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 26

 En echelon gash veins

 En echelon extension veins

 (‘Tension gashes’)

A result of both
instantaneous and
finite strain
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 27
 Formation of gash veins
 Vein tips open perpendicular to the
maximum instantaneous stretching axis
(ISA). ISA in a shear zone are at 45° to the
shear zone wall.
 Once formed the vein segment rotates as
finite strain accumulates. The degree of
rotation is a measure of the total strain.
 The tip propagates by continuing to open ⊥
ISAext producing a curved vein
 If the vein rotates so far that tip
propagation is difficult, new veins form
across the old ones

Animations – see next page for selected frames…

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 28
 Formation of gash veins – animation
unpacked
 New vein tips form perpendicular to the maximum instantaneous stretch, which
is at 45° to the shear zone.
 Once a crack and
vein is formed, it
then rotates under
the non-coaxial flow.
 Thus, the central
segment of each
sigmoidal vein is the
oldest part and has
undergone the most
rotation, compared
to the increasingly
younger segments
toward the tip.

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 29

 Strain compatibility of structures
Just because one set of veins is folded and one is straight does not
necessarily mean that the straight veins occur after the folding

 The straight veins were in

an orientation which has
become longer than it was
originally and hence they
have been stretched

 The folded veins were in an

orientation that is now
shorter than it was
originally and it has been
folded to allow it to
shorten

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 30

 Finite Strain Ellipse

 Note that in the

diagrams so far the
easiest way to
visualise the strain is
to look at what has
happened to a circle
 The ellipse is the
Strain Ellipse

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 31

 Properties of finite strain ellipse

 Comparison of the strain ellipse with the original

circle shows how lines have changed

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 32

 Foliation is grain scale strain
 All grains deform

 But only the ones

that were originally
circular best imitate
the strain ellipse
Animations – unpacked previously here…

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 33

 Fabrics and strain
Deformed conglomerate, Manitoba
undeformed ~50% maximum contraction

~75% maximum contraction

~40% contraction during next deformation

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 34

 How deformed does it get?
 20-30% maximum contraction produces
spectacular folds
 (e.g. Andes)
 50-60% average contraction is common in
moderate metamorphic terranes
 >70% strains are common in local narrow
shear zones

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 35

 Strain in 3-D

 Plane strain Flinn diagram

 Flat elongate
ellipsoids

1
k=
 Intermediate axis does

intermedia te axis
not change length
 Flattening strain constrictional

major axis
strains
Oblate ellipsoids

n


ai
str
 Constrictional strain k= flattening

ne
 Prolate ellipsoids Pla strains
a=

k= 0
b = intermediate axis
minor axis
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 36
 3-D fabrics

 Tectonite - rock with fabric plane

strain
that reflects finite strain
 i.e. regional metamorphic rock
 Tectonite types - X

 L-tectonite Y
Z

 Lineation-dominated fabric
 S-tectonite flattening
strain
 Surface-dominated fabric
 LS-tectonite
 Composite surface + lineation
fabrics
constric tional
strain

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 37

 S-tectonite
 Ulverstone,
Tasmania

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 38

 L-Tectonite
 Ulverstone, Tas

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 39

 L-tectonite
 Sybella
Granite
 Queen St
mall
paving

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 40

 LS-tectonite

 Deformed granite
 Eyre Penisular, S.A.

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 41

 Strain in a regional context

 Diagram illustrating development of different types of

mountain system in Argentinan Andes

Constriction Pure shear ne

Flattening Altiplano/
Puna n Zo
ma
cu
Caracas

Tu
Bogota
Quito

Lima
La Paz Brasilia

Santiago
Buenos Aires
Sierras
Fa
m
at
Pampeanas
ina

<7 Ma
18-9 Ma

PreCordillera
Frontal Cordillera

Va
~ 200 km

lle
Fe
16-9 Ma

rt i l
San Juan

Fa
ult
Palaeozoic & Precambrian
basement exposed <7 Ma
15-7 Ma Miocene foreland loaded basins
inverted at ~7Ma
Precordillera thin-skinned
fold-thrust belt (16-9 Ma)
Frontal Cordillera
(uplift age 18-9) Cretaceous?-Eocene
foreland basin

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 42

 Relationship of structures to strain

 Folds, boudins in pre-existing X

50% shortening
layers Y
Z
(plane strain)

 Whether fold or boudin depends

on orientation of layer relative to
strain ellipsoid
 Extension veins
 Related to direction of max stretch
(X)
 Fibrous qtz veins
 Strain fringes
 Boudin dilation sites

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 43

 Structure linkage and strain

 Some structures can only

produce a length change Linked plane strain structures
in one or two dimensions
 E.g. extension veins
 Other structures need to
be linked to produce the
3D strain

Similar structures are required in the 3rd

dimension to produce non-plane strain

Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 44

 Linked faults and folds

 Sinistral fault with marginal fold and

internal synthetic faults
 Small structure within large scale
dextral wrench system

R2

R1

BIF, Brazil
Structural Geology in Metals Exploration: Basic Deformation Theory 45