THE CELL AND ITS

ORGANELLES

Medical Histology – MD 1
ALL SAINTS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE
DR. MARIE AFFANA
Learning Objectives
• At the end of the lecture, student should know:
• I. GLOBAL VISION OF THE CELL
• 1. The cell, the origin of the cell from prokaryotes to eukaryotes.
• 2. Organization of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
• II. CELLULAR SURFACE
• 1. Structure and composition of the plasma membrane. Functions,
structure and composition of the plasma membrane. Characteristics of the
membrane: fluidity and asymmetry.
• 2. Transport of molecules through the membrane. Simple diffusion.
Transport of ions and small molecules: Passive transport and active
transport. Communicating unions: Gap.
Learning Objectives
• III. COMPARTMENT OF THE EUCARYOTIC CELL
• 1. Introduction to the intracellular compartments and the cytosol. Cell compartmentation.
Protein intracellular traffic. Composition and structural organization of the cytosol. Folding of
proteins, post-translational modification and protein processing; protein degradation.
• 2. Endoplasmic reticulum. Introduction to the endomembrane system. Structure and composition
of the endoplasmic reticulum. Functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum: synthesis of lipids.
Functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum: protein synthesis, protein modifications and
quality control. Vesicular transport between the reticulum and the Golgi apparatus and recovery
of resident proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum
• 3. Bases of vesicular transport. Type of vesicles, vesicle formation and fusion of vesicles with the
target membrane.
• 4. Golgi apparatus and secretion routes. Structure and composition of the Golgi apparatus.
Glycosylation and modifications of oligosaccharides of proteins. Distribution of proteins in the
trans-Golgi network: transport of lysosomal proteins, constitutive secretion and regulated
secretion; Retention of resident proteins of the Golgi apparatus.
Learning Objectives
• 5. Routes of endocytosis. Endosomal compartment: structure, composition and
classification. Endocytosis (pinocytosis and phagocytosis). Lysosomes: structure and
composition; obtaining the digestion material (autophagy and heterophagy); genetic
defects in acid hydrolases.
• 6. Mitochondria. Structure and composition Biogenesis: mitochondrial genome and
protein synthesis; import of lipids and proteins. Functions of the mitochondria: cellular
respiration. Mitochondrial oxidations; electron transport; synthesis of ATP; transport
through the internal mitochondrial membrane; heat production.
• 7. Peroxisomes. Structure and composition Biogenesis: import of lipids and proteins;
genetic diseases related to the import of proteins. General functions of peroxisomes:
oxidative reactions and oxidation of fatty acids. Specific functions in animal cells:
detoxification reactions and synthesis of plasmalogens.
• 8. Nucleus. Nuclear envelope, nuclear lamina and pore complex: structure; bidirectional
transport nucleus-cytoplasm. Nucleolus: structure; synthesis of ribosomal RNA.
Chromatin: composition and structure; DNA heterogeneity; organization of chromatin in
the interphase nucleus: euchromatin and heterochromatin; organization and structure
of the chromosome.
Learning Objectives
• IV. CYTOKESELETEN AND CELL MOVEMENT
• 9. Microfilaments. Structure and composition Polymerization of actin.
Actin binding proteins. Organization of microfilaments in muscle cells and
non-muscle cells. Cell movement Adherent unions: Adhesion bands and
focal contacts.
• 10. Microtubules. Structure and composition Polymerization of tubulin.
Proteins associated with microtubules. Labile microtubules. Stable
microtubules: centrioles, cilia and flagella; structure, biogenesis and
functions.
• 11. Intermediate filaments. Structure and composition Polymerization.
Proteins associated with the intermediate filaments. Associated functions.
Adherent junctions: Desmosome and Hemi desmosome.
 Prokaryotes – The first Cells
• Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
• Includes bacteria
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular chromosome

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 Prokaryotes
• Nucleoid region (center)
contains the DNA
• Surrounded by cell membrane &
cell wall (peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes (no
membrane) in their cytoplasm to
make proteins

7
 Eukaryotes

• Cells that HAVE a nucleus and

membrane-bound organelles
• Includes protists, fungi, plants, and
animals
• More complex type of cells

8
 The Cell
• The cell is the fundamental unit of living
organisms.
• Cells grow, adapt to their environment
and reproduce, processes which
characterize life.
• Cells also assemble into groups to form
complex structures.
• Cells and the extracellular material they
make comprise the tissues of our bodies.
• Several different types of tissues then
organize to form organs. The cells in an
organ communicate and work together to
perform the functions of that organ.
The Cell
• The cell is limited by the cell membrane, also known as the plasma
membrane.
• The cell’s content is divided into two main compartments: the nucleus and
the cytoplasm that surrounds the nucleus.
• Cytoplasm is further divided into organelles, cytosol and inclusions.
• Organelles are assemblies of specific macromolecules organized to carry
out complex functions. Many organelles are surrounded by a membrane
that separates their internal environment from the cytoplasm.
• Cytosol is a gel-like substance that contains dissolved macromolecules,
organic compounds and ions. In addition, cytosol contains the cytoskeleton
(microtubules, actin filaments and intermediate filaments) that organize
the organelles and provide mechanical support.
• Lastly, inclusions are insoluble substances in the cytosol such as glycogen
and lipid droplets.
CELL MEMBRANE
 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
(cytoplasm) channel Lipid bilayer
12
 Phospholipids
• Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are
hydrophilic (attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids and are
hydrophobic (repel water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails point inward
toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow small molecules
(O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)

13
The Cell Membrane is Fluid

Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving

and changing
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 Cell Membrane Proteins

• Proteins help move large molecules or

aid in cell recognition

• Peripheral proteins are attached on the

surface (inner or outer)

• Integral proteins are embedded

completely through the membrane

15
NUCLEUS
 Nuclei and Nucleoli
• Due to their size and the limited resolution of
light microscopy, most cellular organelles are
not visible or their detailed structure can't be
studied in regular stained tissue sections.
• The major exception is the cell nucleus of all
nucleated cells.
• This is mainly due to its size and to its content,
as nucleic acids are highly basophilic.
• In larger cells, such as oocytes and many
neurons, additional details and substructures of
nuclei can be analyzed by light microscopy.
Nuclei and Nucleoli
• The nucleus is the largest organelle of most eukaryotic cells and
contains proteins and genetic material (DNA and some RNA).
• Nuclear proteins include histones that control the structural state of
DNA and transcription factors that regulate gene expression. It is
important to remember that nucleoproteins are synthesized in the
cytoplasm and then transported into the nucleus.
• The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus and comprises two
concentric membranes bilayers that are penetrated by nuclear pore
complexes. The pores allow for the transport of proteins into and out
of nucleus.
• The nucleolus serves for ribosome synthesis.
 Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Disappears when cell divides
• Makes ribosomes that make
proteins

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 Inside the Nucleus
The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed &

And appears as wrapped around proteins
CHROMATIN forming
in non-dividing cells as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells
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Euchromatin and Heterochromatin
• The DNA in the nucleus exists in two forms that reflect the level of
activity of the cell.
• Heterochromatin appears as small, darkly staining, irregular particles
scattered throughout the nucleus or accumulated adjacent to the
nuclear envelope.
• Euchromatin is dispersed and not readily stainable.
• Euchromatin is prevalent in cells that are active in the transcription of
many of their genes while heterochromatin is most abundant in cells
that are less active or not active
 CYTOPLASM
Comprises
- Cytosol
- Cytoskeleton
- Organelles
- Inclusions
THE CYTOSKELETON
• The cytoskeleton is a
network of fibers
extending throughout the
cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s
structures and activities,
anchoring many
organelles.
• It is composed of three
types of molecular
structures:
• Microtubules
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
Cytoskeleton - FUNCTIONS
• Structural support
• maintains shape of cell
• provides anchorage for organelles
• Motility
• cell locomotion
• cilia, flagella, etc.
• Regulation
• organizes structures &
activities of cell
Microfilaments (actin filaments)
• Structure
• Thinnest class of fibers
• Solid rods of protein, actin
• Twisted double chain of actin subunits
• About 7nm in diameter
• Function
• 3-D network inside cell membrane
• In muscle cells, actin filaments interact with
myosin filaments to create muscle
contraction

2005-2006
Microfilaments (actin filaments)
• Dynamic process
• Actin filaments constantly form & dissolve making the cytoplasm liquid or stiff during
movement (Ex: Movement of Amoeba)
Microfilaments (actin filaments)
• Made of the protein actin
• G-actin
• Free actin molecules in the cytoplasm
• F-actin
• Polymerized actin in a filament
• ATP dependent
• May exist as single filaments, in bundles, or in networks
• Variety of cell functions
• Anchorage
• Structural core of microvilli
• Locomotion
• Extension of cell processes
• Microvilli
• Cyclindrical, membrane-bound cytoplasmic projections
• Core of 25-30 actin microfilaments
• Crosslinked by villin
• Anchored into the terminal web
Intermediate filaments
• Structure
• Rod-like filaments
• Specialized for bearing tension
• built from keratin proteins
• same protein as hair
• Intermediate in size 8-12nm
• Function
• Hold “things” in place inside cell
• More permanent fixtures of cytoskeleton
• Essential for integrity of cell-cell & cell-ECM
junctions (Connecting with desmosomes &
hemidesmosomes)
• Reinforce cell shape & fix organelle location
• nucleus is held in place by a network of intermediate
filaments
2005-2006
 Intermediate Filaments
• 4 Major Classes
• Keratins (cytokeratins)
• Diverse group
• >50 isoforms
• Found in different cells of epithelial origin
• Vimentin & Vimentin-like
• Diverse family of cytoplasmic filaments
• Found in many cell types
• Vimentin
• Most abundant in mesoderm-derived cells
• Vimentin-like found in a variety cells
• Desmin in muscle cells
• Glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) in glial cells & astrocytes
• Peripherin in neurons
• Neurofilaments
• Formed from a group of neurofilament-triplet (NF) proteins of
different molecular weights
• Extend from cell body into the ends of axons & dendrites
• Provide structural support
• Lamins
• Nuclear lamins associated with the nuclear envelope
• Formed by 2 types of proteins
• Lamin A & Lamin B
• Located in the nucleoplasm of almost all cells
Intermediate Filament Construction
Microtubules
• Structure
• composed of polymerized dimers of α- and β-tubulin. Each dimer has 2 GTP
molecules bound
• Constant assembly (slow) and disassembly (fast)
• Function: Component of many important cellular structures
• Cilia
• 9+2 arrangement of microtubules with dynein axonemal dynein
• Forms the core of flagella
• Mitotic Spindles
• Molecular Motor Proteins: Mediates intracellular transport
• Kinesin
• Cell center → periphery: e.g. transports neurotransmitter vesicles down axon towards
synapse
• Dynein
• Periphery → cell center: e.g. lipid transport from synapse back to Golgi apparatus
The microtubules are
arranged as nine
peripheral doublets
with two central
singlets.
Fig. 6-21

Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
motor protein

Motor protein Microtubule

(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a)

Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

(b)
Table 6-1

10 µm 10 µm 10 µm

Column of tubulin dimers

Keratin proteins
Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)

7 nm 8–12 nm

  Tubulin dimer
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules
grow out from a centrosome
near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a
“microtubule-organizing
center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome
has a pair of centrioles, each
with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a
ring
 Centrosome

Microtubule

Centrioles
0.25 µm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole
Centromere & Kinetochore

• Centromere
• Centric heterochromatin
• Persists throughout interphase
• Constricted region that holds sister
chromatids together
• Also the site of kinetochore formation

• Kinetochore
• Large protein complex (>80 proteins)
• Forms near the centromere
• Attach chromosome to mitotic
spindle
Centrosome

• Microtubule Organizing Center (MTOC)

• Contains a pair of centrioles
• Numerous g-tubulin ring complexes anchor
microtubules minus (-) end
Cytoskeleton Review
1. What are 3 roles of the cytoskeleton?
2. There are 3 main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton –
what are they?
3. Microtubules are hollow rods. What are four functions of
microtubules?
4. Microfilaments are solid. What is their function in a cell?
5. Intermediate filaments are bigger than microfilaments but smaller
than microtubules. What is their function?
Cytoskeleton Review
• What are 3 roles of the cytoskeleton?
• Maintain shape, mechanical support, cell motility
• There are 3 main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton –
what are they?
• Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
• Microtubules are hollow rods. What are four functions of
microtubules?
• Maintenance of cell shape, cell motility, chromosome movement during cell
division, organelle movement
Cytoskeleton Review
• Microfilaments are solid. What is their function in a cell?
• Movement
• Intermediate filaments are bigger than microfilaments but smaller
than microtubules. What is their function?
• Maintenance of shape, anchorage, and formation of nuclear lamina
ORGANELLES
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The detailed structure of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum can't be studied by light microscopy.
• However, the abundance of membrane-bound
ribosomes makes areas of RER extremely
basophilic and therefore visible, especially in
cells that are highly secretory.
In electron micrographs of rough endoplasmic reticulum, numerous ribosomes are visible. These ribosomes are
temporarily attached to the cisternae as the cell translates mRNA into protein that is destined to be membrane-bound or
secreted.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• In contrast to the RER, smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and
is not involved in protein synthesis.
• Note that the lack of ribosomes means that the smooth ER is not
basophilic and usually stains poorly by H&E.
• The main functions of SER are the biosynthesis of phospholipids and
cholesterol and the synthesis and repair of membranes.
• It also possesses some tissue-specific functions: in the liver, the SER
contains large amounts of cytochrome P450 and participates in the
detoxification of metabolic waste products, drugs, and alcohol;
• In the muscle, the SER is known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum and stores
and releases calcium ions needed for muscle contraction. Although the
composition and function of the smooth ER is different than the rough ER,
they are continuous with each other.
Electron micrographs reveal the lack of ribosomes on smooth ER
 Endomembrane System

Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected

to cell membrane (transport)
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Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus is a system of membranous cisternae and vesicles
arranged in stacks near the nucleus.
• The Golgi processes and modifies sugar side chains on proteins that are
being secreted or destined for the plasma membrane or other membrane-
bound organelles like the lysosome.
• Therefore, the Golgi apparatus is particularly prominent in cells
synthesizing large amounts of glycoproteins and proteoglycans, such as
goblet cells that produce mucous in the gut epithelium.
• The Golgi can be stained with osmium or silver stains and appears as a
network of black-staining tubules or clusters of granules.
• Like the smooth ER, the Golgi stains poorly by H&E, but can occasionally
be seen as a pale staining region on one side of the nucleus
Electron micrographs reveal Golgi as a series of flattened, membrane-bound cisterna. Each cisterna contains a unique set of
enzymes that modify the sugar side chains on proteins. Vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum fuse with the cisternae on the
cis side. Proteins are shuttled between cisterna by vesicles. Proteins leave the Golgi on the trans side and are delivered to the
plasma membrane, endosomes/lysosomes, or stored in secretory vesicles.
Each cisterna contains a unique set of
enzymes that modify the sugar side chains
on proteins.

Vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum

fuse with the cisternae on the cis side.

Proteins are shuttled between cisterna by

vesicles.

Proteins leave the Golgi on the trans side

and are delivered to the plasma membrane,
endosomes/lysosomes, or stored in
secretory vesicles.
Golgi Animation

Materials are transported from Rough ER

to Golgi to the cell membrane by VESICLES 68
RER & Golgi Transport

• Coatomer-coated vesicles
• Mediate bidirectional
traffic between the ER and
Golgi
• COP-I
• Retrograde transport
• Golgi to ER
• COP-II
• Anterograde transport
• ER to Golgi
Secretory Vesicles
• Secretory vesicles or granules usually contain specific substances
synthesized by cells that are exported to the extracellular medium.
• They include zymogen granules, mucous droplets, and mast cell
granules.
The electron micrograph of pancreatic acinar cells shows the secretory granules localized to the apical side
of the cell. Note their uniform dark appearance due to the high concentration of proteins and other
macromolecules. Fusion with the plasma membrane releases the contents of the granules into the
extracellular space
LYSOSOMES

• Lysosomes also vary in size and shape, but

can be recognized as membrane-bound
organelles containing granular material.
• There are more than 40 lysosomal enzymes
that are active at acidic pH.
 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle cells have
MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION (burning
glucose)

74
MITOCHONDRIA
Surrounded by a DOUBLE
membrane

Has its own DNA

Folded inner membrane
called CRISTAE
(increases surface area
for more chemical
Reactions)

Interior called MATRIX

75
MITOCHONDRIA
• Mitochondria are organelles that vary greatly in number, size, and
shape between different cells.
• They are unusual in that they contain their own mitochondrial DNA
(Circular) and ribosomes; mitochondrial proteins come from genes in
both the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.
• These organelles also undergo self-replication.
• Structurally, two features characterize mitochondria: double bilayer
membranes, and cristae, folds that project from the inner membrane
into matrix.
Interesting Fact ---
• Mitochondria Come
from cytoplasm in the
EGG cell during
fertilization
Therefore …
• You inherit your
mitochondria from your
mother!

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Mitochondrial Diseases inheritance
• Affected males
• transmit to none of their children
• Affected females
• transmit to all of their children
•