ABC OF CERAMICS & GLAZES

BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY

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nightcermaics
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studio moon
 Ceramics
Non-metallic minerals that are heated up to ~570C, with Silica as
the primary component of the clays that mainly compose them.
573C is called “Quartz Inversion Point“. Quartz, is the
most abundant substance on earth with +90% Silica.
“The room-temperature form of quartz, α-quartz, un-
dergoes a reversible change in crystal structure at
573C to form β-quartz. This phenomenon is called
an inversion, and for the α to β quartz inversion is
accompanied by a linear expansion of 0.45%.“(Wikipedia)

• As running water washes clays to lower levels,

they absorb more impurities such as Iron. And,
they are classified based on their impurities.
• The primary minerals, the purest soils, like
China Clay/Kaolin are white, made of Silica
and Alumina, and mainly obtained from
the breakdown of feldspar rocks and have
a higher melting temperature of ~1700C.
• The secondary minerals, with more impurity,
have a lower melting temperature. Some
Red clays, colored by Iron as an impurity,
have a melting temperature of ~1200C.

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 Ceramic bodies are also categorized accord-
ing to their firing temperature: low fire bodies
such as red clays, are fired to ~1000-1100C,
stoneware bodies, to ~1200C... and high fire
white porcelain bodies, are fired above 1200C.

“Feldspars are a group of rock-forming aluminum

tectosilicate minerals, also containing other cations
such as sodium, calcium, potassium... Feldspars
make up about 60% of the Earth’s crust.” (Wikipedia)

The structure of feldspars is similar to

that of a ceramic glaze, which includes of
Silica, Alumina, and a melting agent. i.e.
Nepheline Syenite, which is a Sodium feld-
spar melts at ~1200C, and can form a lay-
er of glass on a ceramic body. Thus, in old East
Asia, feldspars were also called “Glaze Stones”.

A ceramic body is also made

of a similar structure to a glaze,
a mix of Silica, Alumina,
Feldspar Crystal

and a flux, but with less

melting aid, and a higher
melting point due to more
Silica and Alumina content.
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 Glaze
Glaze is a layer of glass applied to a clay surface for
waterproofing, decorating, etc. And like any glass,
Silica is the main glass former in ceramic glazes.

Glass Former Refractory Flux

Colorants
RO R2O3 R2O
Mainly Silica Mainly Alumina Melting Agent Dif. Metals

• Silica on its own would slide off a ceramic body,

and needs refractory materials to stiffen
the melt, and improve adhesion to the body.
•S
‌ilica melts at ~1500C, Alumina at ~2000C,
and their compounds ~1700C... too high!
Melting aids alter Silica/Alumina’s network
and lower the melting point to ~900-1300C.
‌ lazes are also categorized based on their
G
melting point, to Low, Mid or High Fire.
• Low fire glazes have limitations due to the
inactivity of high fire fluxes below ~1100C.

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 Refractory materials, opposite to fluxes/melting aids,
increase the melting point, and stiffen the melt.
Also, colorants may have fluxing or refractory effects.
Low-fire Mid-fire High-fire
~950-1150 C ~1150-1250 C ~1250-1320 C

The chemistry of glaze formulation from raw materials is based

on the work of the German chemist, Hermann Seger. (late 1800s).
Today, manufacturers formulate ready made glazes
for specific melting points, called Frits. A Frit is made
by fusing a variety of minerals in a kiln and then rapidly
quenching the molten mixture, and grinding the result.

Today, experimenting with glazes can start from mix-

ing frits with water and colorants + application, with-
out any involvement with “Unity Molecular Formula”
(UMF)/ Seger Formula. This enables exploring the ef-
fects of different materials on frits, and gradually
building an understanding of glaze chemistry.
There are countless ready-made Frits with various special effects. Amaco Glaze Samples

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 Pyrometric
Glazy Co n e s
Before modern temperature mea-
surement equipment, cone-shaped
ceramic pieces with specific defor-
mation and melting points were
used to read the kiln temperature.
Thus, kilns often have peepholes for observing
them. Cones are still widely used as they provide
a more direct indication of the effects of heat-work
(combined effect of temperature and time) on a
ceramic body rather than just a number. Cones remain
the main reference point for temperature in ceramics.

google for better resolution

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 Fluxes
Alkaline Earth metals (AE Fluxes)
(Ca, Zn, Sr, Mg,etc.) >> the most used
fluxes in mid and high fire glazes, as they
start fluxing above ~1100C>> with
different crystallization and color responses
Alkaline metals (AM Fluxes) (Na, Ka, Li)
>> Highly active even in low-fire range
>> with various effects on color
Boron (Br compounds)>> the only other glass for-
mer than Silica, that forms glass at a much lower
temp. than Silica, and is often used as a flux
>> Phase separations and fun effects on color
Lead (Pb compounds) >> Toxic, yet used since
past in low fire glazes without much effect on color.
Fritting reduces Lead’s toxicity. It can be used
where food safety is not an issue. In mid or high
fire ranges it can evaporate and damage the
kiln. Thus, it is almost only used in low fire glazes.
Copper in a low Copper in a low Iron in a low fire Iron in a low fire
fire Lead Frit fire Alkaline Frit high Boron Glaze Lead Frit

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 Colorants
in approximate order of commonness:
Iron (Fe): Yellow, Amber, Red, Black, Green, etc.
Copper (Cu): Green, Red(reduction), [Link](+Alkaline)
Cobalt (Co): Dark Blue

Manganese(Mn): Brown, Purple (+Alkaline)

Chrome (Cr): Green, Red (+High Pb)
Tin (Sn) & Zirconium (Zr): White
Antimony (Sb): Yellow - Nickel (Ni): Yellowish, etc.
• Colored stains formulated by manufacturers
that result in a precise color are another option.
‌ aw metals often impart some variation and
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randomness while stains produce a solid color.
• Stains are made of the same metals, and no other
coloring substance could stands such temperatures.
A special effect low The Playful green from Copper Carbonate
fire frit vs light green stain’s flat result

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 Frits
Frits are often classified and used based on their
main melting agent: i.e. Boron Frits, Alkaline Frits,
Lead Frits, or a combination of multiple fluxes.
• Clear frits are used when colors are needed,
or on an underglaze painting must be seen
through a transparent layer of glaze/glass.
• Opaque frits are used for white.
• Clear and Opaque frits, both can be glossy or matte.
Alkaline frits are mostly used for their effects on
the color response or glaze. (i.e. crackle effect)
What is a Frit made of?
from Frits, on CAN by Dave Finkelnburg

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 Some of the Internet’s must reads
• C
‌ eramic Materials... and Reduction Firing... two
awesome PDFs... on Linda Arbuckle’s website
• ... her website also has multiple useful PDFs on dif-
ferent subjects... and many glaze recipes.
• Any John Britt Article on his website or on
CERAMIC ARTS NETWORK (...and the rest of CAN!)
‌ [Link], The Internet’s main encyclopedic re-
D
source for glaze chemistry made by Tony Hansen,
... and its pages of common ceramic materials
• The last two also have great YouTube channels.
John Britt has a great playlist called “Free Online
Glaze Course” that doesn’t leave much unsaid.
‌ [Link], an open source database of glaze rec-
G
ipes, and its creator’s blog - Derek Philip Au.
‌Glaze Defects articles on CAN and Digital Fire.
Yabu Meizan

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APPLICATION & FIRING
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
II
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 Preparations & Bisque Firing
• In order to avoid cracks, always make sure of raw
pottery being fully dry before bisque firing.
•
• Pottery must be dried slowly on a plastic and under
another that allows air circulation through small holes.
•
• Better to avoid simultaneous glaze and bisque fir-
ing, as gases from the body may damage the glaze.
•
• Before glazing, dust must be wiped off bisqueware
using a damp sponge, as dust can prevent proper
glaze body bond, and cause issues like crawling, etc.
•
• Can run water over complex forms, but will have
to give the piece more time to fully dry again.
•
To avoid lumps of dry material, always dry ingredi-
ents must be added to water when mixing glazes.
•
• A Toilet brush! is great for stirring glaze, as
it can remove settled glaze particles well.
Also can use an electric mixer, a brush, etc.
•
‌Pottery trimming tools work
well for the annoying task
of removing settled glaze.

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 Glaze Application
Dipping and spraying are the most common glaze application
methods. YouTube has many examples of various glazing
techniques, i.e. brushing, adding textures with a sponge, etc.

• D
‌ ipping a mug would need ~0.5kg of glaze. Skill
and experience also are necessary for a clean and
even application, which is a must for a good result.
• I prefer spraying, as can glaze a mug with ~50-
100g of glaze. This can be really helpful in cost and
waste management for small scale production.
And, a good result does not need any special skill.
•G
‌ lazing the inside is always easier. Can easily
pour a glaze in and out of a mug quickly.
Or alternatively, can pour some glaze in-
side a pot, and glaze the interior by rotat-
ing the piece while pouring the glaze out.
(YouTube, Tony Hansen has a good one.)

•T
‌ he inside glaze is typically left to dry over-
night before glazing the exterior, as wa-
ter saturation can prevent glaze absorption.
Can speed up drying under the sun, on a radia-
tor, etc. until the surface is not cold to the touch.
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 ‌ ravity Feed, Three-control spray guns
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are commonly used for glazing. (YouTube)
• A mini-sprayer is often used for detailed work.
• A 1.5-1.7mm nozzle spray gun can be used.
Larger nozzles work better for large glaze particles.
• Mini-sprayers often have a max. nozzle size of ~0.8mm.
• To prevent nozzle clogging, spraying a glaze of-
ten requires sieving it with a fine mesh. (60-100)
• There is a good article about spraying on Derek Au’s
blog, and a comprehensive PDF guide on Digital fire,
+ many other PDF and video guides available Online.
40 L Silent Air Compressor Gravity Feed, Mini & Normal HVLP Guns

Liquid Adj.
MY EQUIPMENT

Fan Adj.

Air Adj.

• Gravity feed spray guns have less issues with settled heavy particles.
• Can block the nozzle with your finger and reverse the air flow to stir.
•Must wash the spray gun immediately after use.
• Most ceramic materials, especially Silver or other corrosives materials,
destroy a nozzle super fast! So, @a spare nozzle can be a lifesaver.
studio moon
 Specific Gravity / Density
“ A comparison of the weights of equal volumes of a given liq-
uid and water. Water has a specific gravity of 1.0 “ (Digital Fire)
• S.G. increases by adding dry materials to water.
S.G. is the main measure of referring to a
specific thickness and density of a liquid.
• S.G. is often measured for 100ml
volume. Can mark any container, a
plastic graduated cylinder is also
a precise, and inexpensive option. DigitalFire
• Must Stir any liquid well before measuring its S.G.
For dipping, different sources recommend
a specific gravity of ~1.3-1.4, for spraying
~1.5-1.6, and for casting slip ~1.7-1.8.
(in other words, dipping needs more water.)
• Glazy recipes often have a recommended S.G.,
and some only work with a certain density.
• There is no need for measuring S.G. for every glaze,
as one can soon get a feel for the right thickness.
I often spray my glazes, and add some 1kg
of dry glaze materials to ~1.2-1.3kg of water.

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Some Notes on Glaze Thickness
(Better to call an under-fired glaze which would
not develop a glossy finish and look matte,
a semi-matte glaze, as a real matte glaze re-
mains matte even when fully molten. For a not
glossy finish, can make a matte glaze, use matte frits,
or alternatively, add refractory materials like Silica,
Magnesium, etc. to a glaze, and practically under-fire it.)
• ‌Higher melting point indicates a higher
• amount of refractory materials in a glaze,
which often also increase the glaze’s surface
tension, making it more prone to crawling.
(the glaze pulling together) As a result, a
matte opaque glaze is often more prone to
crawl than a glossy opaque glaze, which is in
turn more likely to crawl than a clear glaze.
(This might also be due to the presence of Zir-
conium (super refractory) in most opaque frits.)
To reduce crawling in glazes with high sur-
face tension, can add more water to the glaze,
apply a thinner and more even coat, or add
more alkaline fluxes to the glaze to decrease its
surface tension and promote a more fluid melt.
I often add some 1kg of dry opaque/
matte frits to ~1.4kg of water for spraying.
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 Masking/ Wax Resist
• W
‌ ax resist is a type of resin glue used for
masking, often brushed on bisqueware to
prevent the absorption of the covering layer.
After ~15 minutes of drying, it can be easily
removed, or left to burn during the firing.
•A
‌ masked design can be covered with a
glaze, underglaze, slip, etc. i.e. can paint
a design on a red body with wax resist, and
after dipping the pot in a white glaze,
remove the mask, and spray a clear glaze
on the bare patch. This will result in a red
design carved in a white background.
• Masking is a very common decorative tool.
(many examples on YouTube and Instagram)

Liz Cohen Kenny Sing Mathew Arnold

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 • W
‌ ax resist can be tough on brushes, so can use
a dedicated, inexpensive brush for it. Also dip-
ping the brush in soap water before and after
using wax resist can help extend its lifespan.
Can mask using various tapes, wet paper
cut outs, laser cut stencils, leaves, and other
creative methods prior to glazing as well.

The bottom of pottery is typically left

unglazed to prevent sticking to kiln shelves.
• After glazing, can easily clean the bot-
tom of the pot with a wet sponge.
• To cover the bottom of a pot prior to glaz-
ing, some use wax resist (more costly) or heated
paraffin wax (less costly, more problematic,
as can bubble and mistakes need re-firing).
A large, not too soft sponge is better for cleaning the bottom of
pots. This is to prevent the sponge from sinking too deep, or the
edges from getting bent, causing excessive cleaning or untidiness.
Rotating the piece can also help to have a clean and straight line.
my 30cm x 30cm sponge

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 Glaze and Bisque Firing
Especially for bisque firing, a slow rise to
around 200-300C provides more time for
any remaining water to safely evaporate.
In order to avoid cracks in any firing, more
time is needed for ~520-620C range. As quartz
inversion (and its expansion) is not a not a
quick reaction, but rather a gradual process
that takes place within ~ -/+ 50-60C of 573C.
• When cooling, better to wait until ~200C,
and then crack the kiln’s lid using a 4cm
kiln post, and safely fully open it ~100C.
• Many firing schedules are available Online, also
Glazy recipes often include a firing schedule.
• ‌A low fire glaze firing takes some
~9 hours, which is a bit longer than the
bisque firing prior to it, which takes some
~7 hours. This provides more time for
the melt and the gases leaving the glaze,
and give the glaze more time to mature.
A firing with enough Oxygen and ventilation is called
an “Oxidation Firing“, often done with an Electric kiln
... and a firing in an atmosphere deprived of Oxygen is
called “Reduction Firing“, often done with a gas kiln.
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 The last step in any schedule is a 30-45min soak
at the final temperature (or longer if needed).
This evens the temperature throughout the
kiln and the bodies, and also provides more
time for gases leaving the body or the glaze.
My full 1050C glaze kiln (150L) often takes ~24h
to cool, and a bisque kiln often cools a bit quicker.
Materials like various Carbonates (i.e. Calcium) in a glaze
release a lot of bubbles/gases, contributing to pinholes in the
outcome. Thus glazes with such materials often require a lon-
ger soak, or an extra hold at a slightly lower temperature
in order to avoid running and dripping. (drop and hold).
• Some glazes, like crystalline glazes that require
slow cooling, only work with a certain schedule.
(Glazy recipes often include a firing schedule)
• In any schedule, the rate of temperature
change to time is often how each step is
referred to, i.e.: 400C rise with a 200C/1hr rate...
or as in the examples below:
‌A low fire BISQUE firing schedule example:
100C in 10min... 200C in 90min (or more)... 450C in 90min...
650C in 120min... 1050C in 150min... 1050C, 30min soak
‌A low fire GLAZE firing schedule example:
100C in 10min... 450C in 200 min... 650C in 120 min... 800C
in 90 min...1050C in 120 min...1050C, 45 min soak (or more)
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TEST TILES & TESTING
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
II . I
nightcermaics
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 Test Tiles
Always need to test a new glaze before using on a final piece.
There are many different types of tiles, and each is
suitable for a specific purpose. (John Britt’s YouTube)
I use the small round/cup tiles of the below im-
age for bulk testing! and the larger cup tiles for
the best results of the previous step. And lastly,
I use the tall vertical tiles below to study run-
ning of a new glaze at a specific temperature.
The vertical tiles below, copied from Old
Forge’s work, have several interesting features:
Showing a glaze’s behavior on ridges and de-
pressions... collecting the potential drips on
the bottom surface... also can dip the top
twice to see a thicker application... and by
dipping up to a horizontal ridge that I add-
ed near the bottom, I can precisely measure a
glaze’s running. (the main reason I use them.)

To make the
tall tiles, should
plaster cast a
3D printed or
hand sculpt-
ed model for
slip casting. @
studio moon
 Making Tiles
Ingredients! for Cup Tiles
Any hand Cookie Cutters, 7 & 200 Paper Cups with
building clay 10 CM diameter for holes at the bottom for
small and large cups better air circulation

A large sponge
can save time

Small & large light bulbs,

for small and big cups.

4mm Thick
MDF plates Cutting wire A pair of socks! as they
wrap nicely around
Must cover the surface with a cloth the bulb without leav-
to prevent the clay from stick- ing any fold marks on
ing to it. A big table and a big the clay, unlike a nor-
piece of cloth can speed things up. mal piece of cloth.

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1 Cutting slabs using a wire,
For test tiles, I don’t bother
with wedging much, as the
clay extruded out of a pugmill
(wedging machine), can
not have much air bubbles.
(This is high speed tile making!)

2 Flattening the clay with hand

3 Making a slab using a pin roller
& 4mm boards on both sides.
I think! 3mm and 5mm, make
the slabs too thin and thick.

4 from
Cutting 7CM & 10CM circles
the clay slab for small and
big tiles

5 Placing the circles on the

sponge, my sponge has
room for some 12 circles,
that accelerates the process.
50 of these tiles may be used in a day...
no need to be picky... I often make 200-300 tiles
in a day, and stop worrying about them forever!!

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6
Pressing the light bulb on the clay circles, must pull the fabric
tightly to remove any folds on the front surface of the bulb.
After a while, the fabric starts to stick to the clay due to ab-
sorbing moisture, time to turn the bulb inside the sock.

7 Placing the tiles in paper cups

8 Wet clay is dried on a plas-
tic and under another with
small holes for limited air
flow. In 12-24h, it will slow-
ly reach the semi dry or • Can easily
“Leather Hard“ stage, when form tiles like
the image. This
its color slightly changes, type of tile is
and is dry enough to not more suitable
deform easily, while have than cup tiles
some moisture to be still for measure-
workable. Next, can cut and ing dripping.
level the rims with a knife.
Then, using a damp sponge, • I often use Old Forge’s
can clean them, and also the tiles to measure dripping,
9 small cracks on the back. as prefer their large surface.
Lastly, groups of ~4-5 cups are placed upside down on a plastic, cov-
ered with another with small holes for limited air circulation until they
slowly fully dry, or reach “Bone Dry“ stage... ready for bisque firing.
Wet clay is never dried on an absorbant surface, but
on a plastic covering, as @it can also slightly move
with the movements of contracting
studio moon clay as it dries.
 Experimenting with Glazes
Unity Molecular Formula (UMF)/Seger formula is a “Glaze
recipe format based on the number of molecules instead
of on weights of raw materials, where the total molecules
of flux in a glaze are calculated to total 1.0(mole)” (CAN)

A more experimental approach, based on the weight(g)

of raw materials, often keeps the sum of glass formers
(frits, etc.), fluxes, and refractories to 100 Grams.
Then, colorants are added to this 100g total.

A system based on the weight (g), eradicates the

complexities of molar weight calculations, while
providing a basis for repeating similar results. i.e.,
90% Boron Frit (g) + 5% Mg (g) + 5% Na (g) +
...colorants...
5% Copper Carbonate (CuCo3)(g)
Having fun! with testing, is the only way to learn more
with this approach, and Glazy can be a great guide.

5 and 10 grams of glaze can be enough for small and big

cup tiles, while vertical tile generally need (and waste)
more, Old Forge’s tall tiles would need some 100g.

NOTE! Water soluble materials are generally not

used much in glazes, as they can enter the ceramic
body, and cause issues for the glaze. Normally
glaze particles do not penetrate the body, but are
@
left sitting on it as the studio
glaze’s water is absorbed into it.
moon
Like the example below, when testing a ma-
terial for the first time, in order to understand
the results clearly, and avoid ambiguity, it is
best to change only one variable at a time.
The below tests study the effects of Red and Yellow
Iron Oxides (Fe), as a colorant on a low fire clear glaze.

Low Fire Lead Frit 10 Grams + ...

Test tiles... cleaned Sponge and water
with a damp sponge for cleaning,
before and after
Digital Scale Red Iron Yellow Iron
0.01g Accuracy Oxide Oxide Frit

1% 1% 6% 12% 16% 20%

Wash 0.1 g 0.1 g 0.6 g 1.2 g 1.6 g 2g

Iron

Bottle Y. Fe R. Fe R. Fe R. Fe R. Fe R. Fe

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Stirring with a brush can remove settled particles well.

For glazing, it is enough to pour the glaze in and out

of a cup, can wait a few seconds for a thicker appli-
cation, or if the glaze is too thin... and for even thicker
application, can re-glaze after the first coat dries.

The tiles after Two copies

cleaning of each test,
their rims & for two dif-
backs, to pre- ferent firing
vent fusing to conditions.
the shelves.
5% RIO in 5% RIO in
Oxidation Heavy Reduction
Lastly, marking MT
the tiles with a
high heat mark-
ing pencil, or a
brush and a mix 16 [Link]
of RIO & water.
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 (Boron)
• “‌ Boron in Glazes“ by Matt Katz (CMW)
is a free Online PDF guide for reducing
glaze temperature and translating cone
10 recipes to cone 6 with Boron using
a simple graph. Because Boron “will not
alter the basic nature of the glaze“ as it
does not affect the glaze or the color
response as much Alkaline or AE fluxes,
and also is not toxic like lead, it can be
seen as a magic ingredient in this regard.
• Boron in its raw state (unfrited or non
mineral), as Borax (Compound with Sodium)
or Boric Acid, etc. is water soluble. Thus,
it is often added to a glaze as a part of
other non-soluble minerals or frits in
order to avoid various possible issues,
such as entering the ceramic body and
causing bare patches by melting early.
• Borax, etc. often need sieving as their large
particles can settle and be problematic.
Although Boron cannot activate high fire fluxes
in low fire range, I often have fun with trying
to translate higher firing glazes to low fire
range with similar colorants, and Boron etc.
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 From “Boron in Glazes“
by Matt Katz
Ceramic Materials Workshop

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 .
COLORANTS
.
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
III
nightcermaics
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 Stains
Stains are the simplest way to introduce
color to a glaze, and they provide a
rather precise and flat color response.

•S
‌ tains offer a vast color palette, similar to
commercial paints, but the few following tests can
show some basic principles of working with them.
• Stains can be mixed with each other, or Oxides, etc.
‌ tains, like other colorants, can have their
S
color response influenced by alkaline glazes,
reduction firing, and other firing conditions.
• For a uniform result, Sieving some stains may
be necessary to get rid of large particles.

As slip/body is used in much greater weights

compared to glaze (~a few kg vs. a few hundred g),
making a colored body uses much larger amounts
of stain. Therefore, cheaper and lower quality stains,
called “Body Stains”, are also commercially available.
The impurities of Body Stains, being mainly clay, would fuse
with a clay body properly, but can cause issues in a glaze.

The following tests are all low fire frits mostly fired to
1050C in oxidation, any @
difference will be noted.
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The first test has 5% brown stain, equal to 5g stain
in 100g clear glaze, or 0.5g stain in 10g glaze.
Dark colors typically
need ~5-6% stain,
and light colors
need some ~10%,
while adding more
Lead Frit Lead Frit is often ineffective.
+ 5% Brown stain + 10% L. Green stain

Materials used in
stains like yellow,
orange, and red,
often burn / turn
black in lead frits,
and must be used
Boron Frit Boron Frit with other frits.
+ 10% Yellow stain + 10% L. Red stain

Cobalt has a rath-

er similar response
to dark blue stain,
and due to its
high price, often
is used in more
Opaque Frit Lead Frit complex recipes.
+ 5% [Link] stain + 5% D. Blue stain

Opaque frits lighten the color response of

any colorant, as the color is mixed with white.
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 Copper : Cu Copper Sulphate: CuSO4
Copper Oxide : CuO Copper Nitrate : CuNO3
Copper Carbonate : CuCO3 Copper Chloride : CuCl2

70% Lead F.
Lead Frit 30% Opaque F. Opaque F.
+ 5% CuO + 5% CuCo3 + 5% CuCO3
‌ opper turns green in oxidation, red in
C
reduction, and light blue in alkaline glazes,
while is the queen! color-ant in low fire glazes.
‌
S ieving the glaze would eliminate the coarse
CuCO3 particles evident in the middle test. Likewise,
increasing the firing temperature, as the opaque frit
used here melts at ~1075C, while fired to ~1050C.
Generally, Oxides have larger particles than Carbonates,
and Carbonates than metal salts such as Sulphates,
Nitrates, and Chlorides. This means 1g of i.e. Copper Oxide,
introduces more Copper to a glaze than its Carbonate,
resulting in a stronger green. On the other hand, finer
particles of Copper Sulphate produce a more uniform result.
As a rough estimate, ~3% CuO can be substituted with
~5% CuCO3, and ~10% of Copper Salts. Can Google
substitution ratios of different
@ compounds of materials.
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Adding +20-30% of a colorant metal to a glaze,
results in a glaze saturated with that metal.
Copper saturation results in a matte, metallic, dark gray /
black surface, with possible green separations with ~20%.

MT60 MT60 Opq.208

+ 20% CuO + 8% Cu Sulphate + 8% Cu Sulphate

‌ opper salts, Sulphate, Nitrate, and Chloride

C
produce nearly identical outcomes in a glaze,
also listed in the order of common use.
• Copper Chloride can cause issues in some glazes. Thus
generally, firing Chlorides requires good ventilation
as deadly Chlorine gas is released during the firing.
•U
‌ sing a green stain is a more sensible choice for
a flat green color response. As a playful outcome
is among the main reasons of using Oxides, etc.
and i.e. Cu Sulphate is often used in special
cases such as overglaze with raw reduction
materials aka pigment / Persian lusters (cover)
that benefit from the finest grade raw ingredients.
Copper has minor @ Fluxing properties.
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 Cu in an Alkaline glaze Cu in Reduction Partial Chem. Red. of Cu
‌Copper turns light blue/turquoise in alkaline glazes.
• Mixing alkalies with Copper glazes was a
significant early discovery in the history of ceramics.
I‌n reduction, Copper compounds release their Oxygen,
and produce a red color from the remained Copper
metal, and a more intense reduction can develop
a thin film of metallic Copper on the glaze surface.
• Reduced Copper glazes are also called Copper Reds.

Copper reds are also achievable in oxidation firing of an electric

kiln, through “Chemical Reduction” of Copper. For this, fine
mesh (800-1200) Silicon Carbide (SiC), a compound of Silica
and Carbon, is added in small amounts (~1%) to a Copper glaze,
and as its Carbon content burns during the firing, it reduces Copper.

An Online PDF, by Tom Turner, “Chemically Reduced

Copper Reds In Oxidation” covers the subject throughly.
Achieving Copper reds in reduction is relatively straightforward,
while reducing Copper chemically is a delicate process requiring
trial and error. This is because an
@
incorrect schedule can lead to
Copper’s re-oxidation during cooling,
studio moon as in the example above.
 ( SiC : Silicone Carbide )
“Silicone Carbide is a non-Oxide ceramic, and is used in a wide
range of products that must perform in thermally (high heat
and heat shock) and mechanically demanding applications
SiC powder is employed to make crater and foam glazes.
The Carbon combines with Oxygen to make the CO2
that creates the blisters and bubbles.” (Digital Fire)

‌ oam / Crater / Lava / volcanic glazes, are non-functional,

F
decorative glazes, favored for their wildly variable
outcomes, with many recipes available Online.
• L‌
ava glazes often have high Silica and Kaolin
(Source of Alumina), both powerful refractories, as an
incomplete melt is important for their outcome.
•T
‌ he firing schedule is critical for lava glazes, as final
soak’s duration and cooling rate can change them.
>> Rick Malmgren
Marilee’s Lava Glaze
Ceramic Arts Network

> Emons & Sohn Keramic

v Studio Manager Blog

@
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 Manganese : Mn
Manganese Oxide : MnO Manganese Carbonate : MnCO3

Lead Frit Alkaline Frit Floating Blue

+ 1.5% MnCo3 + 1.5% MnCo3 More Details Later
• Manganese Oxide and Carbonate are the main
sources of Manganese in glazes.
• In low fire glazes, Manganese can generally cause
issues such as blistering, especially its Oxide.
Thus, its Carbonate is more commonly used,
and often in small amounts, ~less than 2%.
In Alkaline glazes, Manganese’s normal brown
outcome moves towards purple.
• ‌Mn Oxide is a key component of black stains.
‌Manganese Granular is often used to
make speckled bodies... Also, randomly
spraying a mix of MnO and water on a
raw glaze can create more subtle speckles.
Manganese is not typically employed as the primary
colorant like these tests, but rather as a component in
more complex recipes. i.e.@right, floating blue glazes,
that often have some studio~3-4%
moon Manganese Oxide.
Manganese is highly toxic, to touch, to breathe its dust, or the
fumes it emits when fired. Thus, especially high Manganese
glazes require adequate kiln ventilation during a firing.

• M
‌ anganese saturated glazes, similar to
Copper, can create a metallic surface. These
glazes, aka metallic glazes, are typically
formulated with ~+20-35% MnCO3/MnO.
•M
‌ anganese in saturation, gradually begins
to act as a flux. Therefore, its metallic glazes
often do not require high amounts of added flux.
• Many mid or high fire recipes of beautiful Gold
Metallic Manganese glazes are available Online.
‌
Saturated metallic glazes often are not Food Safe.

JOHN BRITT,
has a PDF
on gold Mn
glazes for
cone 6-10

Mn saturation,
25% MnCO3
added to a
Lead Frit plus
some flux
fired to@~960C
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 (on Lead’s toxicity)
While Lead almost has no use in mid or high
fire glazes, as it can evaporate and damage the
kiln, it still is one of the main low fire fluxes.
‌ ead makes a glaze brighter and shinier
L
by increasing its refractive index.
• Lead also is the main flux in
most low fire traditional glazes.
Fritting Lead decreases its toxicity, and
adding Lead frits in small amounts to other
frits, or using lead i.e. on exterior of a
mug where food safety is not an issue,
are all common with low-fire glazes.
• Can substitute lead frits of the tests here with
other frits, maybe except with alkaline frits.

“The extra mass and density of the lead increases the refractive
index from 1.5 for regular glass to 1.7 for lead glass. This
increased refractive index means that light is refracted at a
larger angle when it passes from air into the glass and from
the glass out into air. This makes the glass surfaces more
reflective. Perhaps more important, the increased refractive
index means that lead glass separates the colors of white
light more than regular glass does. So you see more flashes of
individual colors red, blue, gold, ... - when you look at a pieces
of lead glass. TL; DR: the glass is more sparkly.“ Qoura!
@
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 .
C O L O. R A N T S
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
III . I

nightcermaics
@
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 Red Iron Oxide (RIO or RFe) : Fe2O3 Iron : Fe
Black Iron Oxide : Fe3O4 Yellow Iron Oxide : FeOH3

Opaque Frit Lead Frit Lead Frit

+ 5% RIO + 5% RIO Oxidation + 5% RIO Heavy Red.

I‌ron offers diverse possibilities, and is the primary

coloring agent in mid and high fire glazes.
(More on John Britt’s “All about Iron“ on CAN + Iron’s page on Digital Fire.)
Iron can produce yellow and amber, red,
gold, black, green/Teadust, and light green/
Celadon in Reduction, etc. ... plus in saturation,
tends to crystallize to make Aventurine glazes.
• As noted in the above formulas, Black Iron Oxide
(Fe3O4) introduces the highest amount of Iron
to a glaze, then RIO, and lastly yellow Iron oxide.
•B‌ lack Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) doesn’t mix well with
glazes, and is better for speckles.
• ‌Red Iron Oxide does not cause such issues, and
is the most used form of Iron in ceramic glazes.
Top, small amounts of Iron in low-fire glazes produce a soft yellow
and black speckles, with increasing amounts resulting in darker
tones. Can also create interesting@effects and a green tone with AE
fluxes such as dolomite along with
studio Boron compounds... and more.
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 Iron in Reduction
I‌ron’s weak bond with Oxygen, causes it to readily
bond with Oxygen (rusting) or to lose it (reduction).
Thus, it can be easily reduced with a light reduction.
‌ eduction of Iron turns Fe2O3 of RIO to FeO
R
or Black Iron Oxide. (different from mineral /
commercially available Fe3O4 of Black Iron Oxide)
While Iron is a strong refractory in Oxidation, Iron
in reduction (FeO) is a powerful flux, active in mid
or high fire ranges, similar to Alkaline Earth Metals.
Thus, Iron’s behaviors in (low fire) reduction and
oxidation envIronments can be nearly opposite.

Digital Fire Iron in Reduction

Iron’s change to a flux in reduction, occurs while heating
the glaze to melt, and the firing continues after Iron
is reduced, so it can act as a flux during the melt. This
requires a complete reduction firing, which is different from
reduction of luster glazes, often done in ~700-800C range
when cooling, or more often by reheating a fired glaze.
@
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 Thermal Reduction of Iron
I‌ron undergoes through a process known as
“Thermal Reduction” in temperatures above ~1100C
(~1000C), through which it gradually loses an
Oxygen, and changes from a refractory to a
powerful flux (FeO), similar to Iron’s behavior in
reduction firing. This is not a quick reaction, and
starts gradually in temperatures above ~1000C.
‌ ue to thermal reduction of Iron, its behaviors
D
are nearly opposite in low fire glazes and mid
or high fire glazes. This makes Iron the most
common colorant in higher ranges, while many of
its possibilities remain dormant in low fire range.
Digital Fire’s pages of common ceramic materials
are among the basic must reads in glaze chemistry.
Celadons Tenmoku Teadust/Iron crystals

1% 3% 5% 7% 9% 11% 13% 17% 19% 21%

Digital Fire @ Iron in Reduction
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 ‌ hermal reduction of Iron, even in 1050C (~cone
T
04) of low fire range, can be observed by the
effects made by the bubbles released by Iron on
a glaze applied on top of a high Iron glaze, even
though it still is more of a refractory in this range.
• When layering glazes, I often include some
Iron in the first layer in order to create more
interesting patterns. (if it does not cause
unwanted color changes, i.e. with black stain)
• J‌ ohn Britt explains Iron’s thermal reduction,
and the glazes made by the effect in another
CAN article, “Oil Spot and Hare’s Fur Glaze”.
The article describes two methods of making Oil Spot glazes:
The first is to apply a thick layer of a high Iron glaze. And
the second is to apply multiple layers of high Iron glazes
on top of each other. In both cases, the released oxygen/
bubbles create interesting random patterns on their way out.
“Oil Spot and Hare’s Fur Glaze”, John Britt, CAN

An Opaque @ glaze on a black

glaze studio
with 5% added RIO, 1050C
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 Iron in Saturation
I‌ron in saturation has a high tendency to crystallize,
resulting in the so called “Aventurine glazes”,
with many recipes available on various resources.
‌Iron crystalline glazes along with a high Iron content
(+15-20%), often also include other materials that
promote crystallization and are normally used in
crystalline glazes, such as additional Silica (10-20%),
different AE Fluxes with various effects on Iron, especially
when accompanied with Boron compounds, etc.
A fluid melt is always needed for crystallization. This is because
easier movement of particles facilitates their precipitation
around nuclei and crystallization as the glaze cools. As most
of above mentioned materials are powerful refractories, a
relatively high amount of flux is always present in any crystalline
glaze. Dripping of such fluid melts on vertical surfaces is
often problematic, and necessitates some trial and error.
50% High Lead Frit + 30-50% Borax + 20% Si + 20% [Link]
...+ various amounts and forms of Calcium, Magnesium ,etc.

Slow cooling promotes crystal formation as it

provides more time for crystal development.
Iron crystals are typically tiny, glittering specks on a dark
backdrop, unlike larger crystals@
of other crystalline glazes.
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Different behaviors of Iron in low fire oxidation glazes, mostly
based on Glazy recipes, or testing the effects of AE fluxes on Iron.
Bottom-Right, An Opaque glaze layered on a high Iron Glaze,
different fluxes in the first layer can create interesting variations.

Qianlong Teadust Vase

from “Tea Dust Glazes”,
Derek Philip Au’s blog

... also an interesting post

@ about Iron saturated glazes
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 Cobalt Chrome Nickel Others
• ‌Cobalt is rather expensive and has a mostly similar
response to more affordable dark blue stains. This
limits its uses to more complex recipes, painting, etc.
• ‌Cobalt Oxide can be problematic in low fire glazes.
Thus, Cobalt’s compounds with finer particles
such as Cobalt Silicate are used more commonly.
• ‌Chrome results in a green similar to a green stain,
and its uses are limited to more complex recipes, etc.
• ‌Chrome in small amounts, ~under 0.5%,
accompanied with Tin can result in pink. Also, Tin
and Chrome glazes in close proximity can create
pink flashes on each other. Old Forge’s page
on Glazy has some examples of Chrome pinks.
• ‌Chrome can turn red in high lead glazes when fired
to ~900C, although not common due to toxicity.
• ‌Nickel in small amounts, can look similar to
Iron, but does not have many uses on its own,
and is often part of more complex recipes.

from left,
• Cobalt in
a Lead frit
• Chrome’s
green & red
in lead frits @
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 Tin Zirconium Titanium Others
Opacifiers
Today’s opaque frits have almost eliminated the use of
above mentioned materials as opacifiers, and they often
are only used in more complex recipes, painting, etc.
• ‌Tin (Sn) is expensive, and some 5% can create white.
Tin can produce iridescence effect in reduction.
Therefore, it can be seen in reduction luster
or raku recipes in small amounts. (~5-10%)
•Z
‌ irconium (Zr) can produce white with some
10%. Although it is a super refractory,
due to its lower cost, Zr is today’s
substitute for Tin as the main opacifier in
traditional glazes. Today’s opaque frits
often are opcified with a mix of Zr and Sn.
•T
‌ itanium (Ti) is not typically used as an opacifier,
but for its distinctive crystallization effects.
Rutile is a compound of
Titanium and Iron, with roughly
90% Titanium and 10% Iron.

Amaco glaze samples

@
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Chinese and Korean Celadon and Oilspot Antiques

@
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John Britt

ALKALINE FLUXES
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
II II

nightcermaics
@
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 Alkaline Metals Alkaline Metals
... that live! in the periodic
table’s first column, are
highly reactive and powerful
melters from low-fire range.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Digital Fire

Alkaline earth metals / AE fluxes start their

fluxing activity within 1100-1200C range. Thus,
they are also referred to as high temperature fluxes,
and are the most used melting aids in mid and
high fire glazes. While on the contrary, they mostly
act as powerful refractories in low fire range.
The side effects of other fluxes are among the
reasons for the preference for AE fluxes. As Boron
can have other effects, alkaline fluxes like Sodium
can cause crazing, and Lead is toxic and also can
evaporate and damage the kiln in mid or high fire
glaze firings, thus is only
@ used in low fire glazes.
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 The fluxing power of alkaline metals decreases as
their molecular weight increases. (lower in the table)
Also, for a given weight(g), higher molar mass translates
to fewer molecules and therefore less fluxing power.
• ‌Lithium despite being the most potent alkaline flux
is too costly for common applications. (white gold)
• I‌n low fire range, Potassium doesn’t act as a flux.
And, the elements below it are not used in glazes.
• (‌By the process of elimination!) Sodium is the most
common alkaline flux in low fire glazes,
while Potassium finds wider uses in higher ranges.
In mid or high fire ranges, Sodium or Potassium are
often sourced from minerals like Nepheline Syenite (high
Sodium feldspar) or Custer feldspar (potash feldspar).
In low fire range, such minerals act as refractories. Thus, low fire glazes
source Sodium either as part of a frit, or despite water solubility, as Sodium
Bicarbonate / Baking Soda (NaHCO3). (especially in high amounts can
cause issues like bare patches by penetration the body and melting early)
‌ oda ash / Caustic soda / Sodium Carbonate is a problematic
S
material, without common use in glazes, except for
some Shino glazes that use “Carbon Trapping“, etc.
Table salt (NaCl) is another source of Sodium with minor uses
in ceramics. And its most common use may be in fuming with
Sodium or Soda firing, in which various Sodium compounds are
introduced to the kiln ~1200C, and vaporized Sodium melts a layer
of the body developing a glaze @ like layer. (while advised to avoid
using NaCl even for this duestudio
to the release of deadly Chlorine gas)
moon
 Surface Tension &
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Digital Fire
”Glazes with low surface tension spread over
the body surface and shed bubbles well. Glazes
with high surface tension resist spreading
out, resist releasing bubbles and can crawl.
• Surface tension is determined by chemistry
and as expected, oxides that matte and
opacify glazes increase surface tension,
• in this approximate order:
• MgO (Magnesium), Al2O3 (Alumina), ZrO2
(Zirconium), ZnO (Zinc), CaO (Calcium),
SnO2 (Tin), BaO (Barium), SrO (Strontium).
• And, strong fluxes reduce it, in this order:
• PbO (Lead), B2O3 (Boron), K2O (Potassium),
Na2O3 (Sodium), Li2O (Lithium).
SiO2 (Silica), and Fe2O3 (Iron) are intermediate.
ZnO (Zinc) is an interesting exception because it is
both a strong flux and increases the surface tension.

Co-efficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is a measure of the

reversible volume or length change of a ceramic material
with temperature. The more the expansion during heating
the more contraction must occur
@ while cooling it back down.
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When the glaze has a higher CTE than the body,
a result called crazing can occur. Crazing occurs
because the glaze wants to contract more than the
body during cooling ; it is therefore placed in tension,
causing cracks, crazing in the glaze. If the CTE of
the glaze is lower than the body, glaze is placed in
too much compression and shivering can occur.”

Simply put, high surface tension creates a stiff

melt, which makes the glaze more likely to pull
together or crawl. While, high thermal expansion
results in a fluid melt, and can cause crazing.
High surface tension glazes can cause a thin
ceramic body to crack or break, especially
when applied on one side. This is because the
unbalanced tension of the glaze can stress the piece.
Crawling issues can be solved by lowering
the surface tension of the glaze, often done
by increasing high Sodium materials or other
alkaline fluxes, i.e. Nepheline Syenite,
or baking soda (5-10%) in low fire glazes.

Surface tension and CTE and the effects of increasing them,

respectively crawling or crazing, are inversely proportional,
and materials that increase one, decrease the other.
@
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 Crackle Glazes
“Sodium has a higher thermal expansion than
any other oxide and will promote crazing.” (DF)
Low surface tension and high fluidity of alkaline glazes cause
them to tend to pool in recesses and slide off of protrusions.
‌ lkaline frits are the first choice to make a high alkaline glaze,
A
as fritting stabilizes the raw materials. The second choice, in mid
and high fire ranges, is increasing high Sodium feldspars, and
in low fire glazes baking soda is a common source of Sodium.
Although beautiful, crackle and crawling glazes are not food safe.

Arakawa Toyozo, Crawling Shino Japanese Antique Crackle glaze

GLAZE BEHAVIORS SUCH AS CRAWLING AND CRAZING,
OFTEN CALLED DEFECTS, CAN BE UTILIZED AS DECORATIVE
@
ELEMENTS WHERE FOOD studioSAFETY
moon IS NOT AN ISSUE.
• Alkaline frits are often too strong to be used on their
own, and a ~50/50 mix with a clear glaze is sufficient
to cause crazing or alter the color response, etc.
Adding ~10-20% baking soda to a low fire clear frit is
enough to create crackle effect, while higher range crackle
recipes often rely on high Nepheline Syenite content.
• T
‌ oo much Alkaline flux in a glaze can cause issues.
Especially with a thick and messy application,
i.e. the bare patches of the test on the left.
Alk. Frit+
5% CuCO3

< 960C >

80% Lead Frit+

20% B. Soda +
5% CuCO3

Copper is the colorant that undergoes the most

dramatic transformations in alkaline glazes.
Suppliers can provide information on the varying effects
of different alkaline frits, stemming from their distinct
compositions, for instance, the size of cracks can vary. i.e.
Lithium causes smaller cracks compared to Sodium.
@
studio moon
Too much alkaline flux, i.e. higher than ~25% baking soda,
aside from bare patches, can lead to excessive crazing,
and causing chips of the cracked glaze to flake off.
A high alkaline low fire Copper blue glaze is often
fired to ~960C instead of low fire’s usual ~1050C.
At higher temperatures Copper starts to turn green,
and also the cracks will start to cure, as increasing
temperature can also be a solution for unwanted crazing.

Takashi Suzuki, Crackle Glaze Snowflake Glaze, John Britt

‌Snowflake glazes are one of the most beautiful crackle
glazes. John Britt explains their chemistry and the
process of making them with Nepheline Syenite on CAN.
The thickness of glaze application affects the
size of the cracks. And gradually increasing
the application thickness while spraying can
result in a gradient of small to large cracks.
Can also use thermal shock for crackle effect, by spraying water on a
piece taken out of the kiln ~200C. (while cooling or after reheating)
@
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 To prevent crazing while using alkaline

+5% CuCO3
fluxes, refractory materials such as Silica
and Kaolin or AE fluxes, that increase
surface tension and decrease thermal
expansion, can be added to a glaze. (Zinc
may cause issues in high alkaline glazes.)
70% Lead Frit + 20% Baking Soda +10% Silica

Greg Daly’s method to avoid cracks caused by alkaline fluxes is

to dry mix 4 parts Silica and 6 parts Kaolin, and add 5g,10g,and
15g of this mixture to several tests and observe the results.

Good results of alkaline fluxes makes them common in reduction glazes.

Due to the strong bond between alkalies and Oxygen, alkaline
fluxes can prevent the darkening caused by reduction of Lead in
a glaze, which happens due to reduced Lead’s dark gray color.
V
a crackle glaze
Clay
Indian ink on
Galaxy

V
To color the cracks of a fired crackle glaze, various coloring agents or
natural oils can be applied to the pot, and then wiped with a cloth.
Can create colored crackle effect also by re-glazing
a piece with a crackle glaze and re-firing it. To clean
the glass surface after the 2nd glaze, the stain can
be quickly wiped off the glass under low-pressure
water, leaving the second glaze only in the cracks.
@
Unlike Sodium, Lithium’s smaller
studiocracks
moon can resist glaze penetration.
 )Boron(
As the other glass former besides Silica, Boron
melts and forms glass at much lower temperatures.
Thus, it improves glass development in a glaze,
while is more commonly used as a strong flux.
“B2O3 is the key fluxing oxide (in most glazes) and it makes
melting possible at cone 6. No combination of common raw flux
sourcing materials like feldspar, (or AE fluxes), will melt nearly
enough at cone 6 to produce a functional glossy glaze.” Digital Fire
Boron is preferably sourced from frits or its minerals. And
its water soluble forms like Borax can cause issues such
as bare patches by entering the body and melting early.
‌ oron’s soluble forms like Borax and Boric
B
Acid can be sources of Boron in low fire glazes.
Their issues can be partly mitigated with small
additions, sieving, and a slow firing schedule.
Boron can cause phase separation and movement
in the color response, and therefore, is often a part
of many interesting recipes like Floating Blue glazes.
effects of Boron on Iron and Chrome
A significant part of Borax is water and
Oxygen. (~10% of Borax’s weight is Boron,
10% Sodium and the rest Oxygen and
water), but ~17.5% of Boric Acid’s weight is
Boron. Which translates to almost twice as
much Boron in the same weight in grams.
@
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ALKALINE EARTH FLUXES
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
II I II

nightcermaics
@
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 Alkaline Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
... placed in the periodic table’s
second column (except Zinc),
start fluxing in ~1100C-1200C
range, and below ~1100C
Alkaline Earth Metals act as powerful refractories.
“The oxides of the alkaline earth
metals are used as secondary fluxes
in glazes. They have surprisingly high
melting temperatures, but act in
eutectic mixtures to lower the melting
point of the glaze. They also stabilize
the glaze and make it more durable.”
Chemistry for Potters
Left, the periodic table’s order Linda Bloomfield, CAN
Right, the order of common use
Digital Fire
“The common alkaline earths are the fluxing oxides at
medium and high kiln temperatures: MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, ZnO.
These are not as active as the alkalies but have much lower
thermal expansions. They also tend to create matte glazes
when adequate amounts are present and the host glaze
chemistry has the right balance. While in a general sense,
each of these oxides can produce matteness in glazes,
each has their own mechanism that creates the visual
phenomenon which can vary with the temperature range
(eg. crystallization, surface ripples,
@
multiple melt phases).“
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 • “Calcia alone resists melting even at very
high temperatures (an incredible 2600C).
It can be smelted with Al2O3 to produce
refractory calcium aluminate cement (which
can service to 2000C). But when soda and
potash are added, CaO becomes a very active
flux in both oxidation and reduction.” (DF)
“‌ Ca is the most used flux in Mid and High
fire range activating about 1100C.” (DF)
... while acts as a refractory in low fire glazes.
• Ca is also the main flux of Ash Glazes, a unique
glaze with many Online recipes.
Ellen Shankin Chinese Antique Japanese Antique
Tortoiseshell glaze

In low fire glazes, any alkaline earth metal can be a way for
increasing the firing temperature/ matting the glaze / stiffening the
melt / increasing surface tension,@ and therefore resolving crazing.
Additionally, they can enhance
studioscratch
moon resistance and durability.
 Magnesium starts fluxing above 1170C. (DF)
• “Mg can be used to create matte surfaces as it stiffens
the melt, even can completely replace Alumina” (DF)
• Low and Moderate amounts of Mg combined
with Boron can have intriguing effects on colorants.
Higher Mg amounts (up to 50%) can be used to
create crawling/lizard skin glazes, as it has the
highest surface tension among ceramic materials.
• Mg can cause interesting crystallization effects,
also to some extent in low-fire glazes.
• Mg is often sourced from Talc (Mg + Si) or
Dolomite (Mg +Ca), or other compounds.
Talc has more Mg than Dolomite in the same weight.
Can roughly substitute 8g Talc with 12g Dolomite.
Crawling glaze, Mary Fox Floating Blue glaze w Talc, Old Forge Creations

@
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 Zinc starts fluxing around 1100C.(DF)
Zn in small amounts (~5%) is often used to
achieve more brilliant colors.
Zn in high amounts (~20-35%), is among the main
ingredients of various types of crystalline glazes.
Higher Zn (up to 50%) in the glaze, can be utilized
for making crawling glazes. (more subtle than Mg)

“ZnO is easily changed to Zn metal in reduction, (and

possibly poorly ventilated electric kilns). Pure Zn metal
melts at 419C and then boils and vaporizes at 907C.” (DF)
3 CAN articles • The Crystalline Journey - I. Childers
• Microcrystalline Glazes - R. Coppage, J. Wicks
• Developing a Microcrystalline Glaze Palette - B.D. McBroom
Ian Childers B.D. McBroom
Micro-crystalline glaze
Crystalline glaze

@
studio moon
 • ‌Barium can make matte glazes but is often used for
its unique effects. However, being extremely toxic
Strontium Carbonate is often used as a substitute.
• Due to its higher molar mass, in the same weight,
Barium has fewer molecules compared to Strontium. So,
typically 75% of Barium is substituted with Strontium.
“Strontium does not break down till about 1100C (cone 02)
so it is not useful as a predominant glaze flux below this
temperature (although it participates will in low fire frits
with others). Thus SrO must thus be employed in frit
form below 1100C to be effective as a flux.”(DF)
• Can partly activate Strontium’s fluxing by
reaching ~1125C . (~1 cone higher than 1100C)
• ‌
Strontium loves Titanium! and its crystallization
and color variation effects with other colorants is
enhanced when used in combination with Titanium.
Daniel Semler, CAN

Leaving Bariumville

This is an example of the difficulties

@ of substituting Br with Sr.
Left, a Barium glaze & Right,
studiothe
moonsame glaze with Strontium
 Floating Blue Glazes
Nepheline Syenite 35
Gerstley Borate (Br + Ca) 23.5

Old Forge Creations

Silica 23
EP Kaolin 11
Whiting 4.5
Strontium Carbonate 3
Total base recipe 100
Rutile (Ti + Fe) 4
Bentonite 2
Manganese Dioxide 2
Cobalt Carbonate 1
Total 109
Floating Blues are popular higher firing
glazes with many recipes in different sources.
They turn brown when thin, i.e. on the
ridges, and where thicker a playful blue
with phase separations happening mainly
due to the presence of Boron and Titanium.
“Understanding Floating Blues“ on Old Forge’s blog
explains each material’s role in this glazes throughly.
‌ E fluxes are among the main ingredients
A
in floating blues, some Calcium, plus some
Talc/Dolomite/Strontium. Substituting the
three, which also is a part of Old Forge’s
studies can make interesting subtle variations.
Interestingly, this glaze harmoniously blends a little bit
of (somehow) every ceramic material! And studying
and understanding it through some testing can take
your glaze chemistry knowledge
@ one step further.
studio moon
As 100g sum is not considered in below mix, the units are in Grams.
70g Boron Frit + 30g Alk. Frit+ ~10g Si +~5g EPK +~5g Ca+ ~10-15g Boric acid+
12g Dol / 8g Talc / 4-8g Sr + 4g Ti + 5g [Link] + 2g MnO + 3g CoSi / etc.

5%Potassium 5% CuCO3 1%Co+2%Cr 10% RIO 8% Talc 12% Dol

Dichromate 10% Strontium
Due to the dormancy of Alkaline Earth fluxes in low fire range, low
fire floating blues are not very feasible. However, the above tests
are my low fire studies that try to somehow activate AE fluxes by
getting the kiln to ~1125C. The results were less successful when
scaled up to larger pieces, suggesting a potential need for higher
firing temperature. Overall, Strontium yielded the best low fire results.

• Floating blues are a striking example of how magnesium

and boron can interact with various colorants to
produce interesting effects. i.e. various amounts of Iron.
•A
‌ lkaline fluxes, often in form of Nepheline Syenite,
are among the main ingredients of floating blues.
•T
‌ here is a sweet spot for Boron, and less or more
Boron can kill the color.
• This glaze is well known as a troublesome formula,
and can have defects such as crawling, etc. These
issues can be controlled to a certain extent by
sieving, thinner application,
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studio moon
higher firing, etc.
 Unity Molecular Formula & Stull Chart
Unity Molecular Formula / UMF / Seger formula:
“This representation of a glaze recipe shows the
proportions of molecules rather than the weights of
materials. In the UMF, the fluxes always add up to
1 (=unity,1mole) and each glass former is displayed
in its proportion to 1 molecule of flux.” (CAN)
“Stull Chart is a graph developed by R.T. Stull in
1912, which plots the SiO2 and Al2O3 levels from
the UMF of a glaze recipe. The position of a plotted
recipe on the graph indicates whether a glaze is likely
to be matte / glossy / under-fired / crazed etc.” (CAN)

‌ ltering Silica content of a glaze, moves it

A
on X axis, and Alumina/Kaolin on Y axis.
The main use of the Stull chart is providing a perspective
for understanding the outcomes and a basis for
manipulating them. i.e. adjusting the matteness/
glossiness of a glaze by altering Silica/Alumina content.
• This chart can work for different temperatures
and any glaze.
• ‌Glazy recipes also have a section for the Stull chart.
Glaze calculators can determine the UMF, and Si:Al ratio of a glaze.
There are many available Online, and they are similar to an Excel
file with Molar masses of elements, and some simple math. They
can simply link experimenting with glazes with the UMF method.
@
studio moon
 An Updated Version of The Stull Chart from [Link]

The gray area of Crazing in the above chart, is

dependent on the relationship between a glaze
and the body it is used on, and is not a general rule.
This chart also demonstrates the difference between
an under-fired, not glossy glaze and a matte glaze.
• J‌ ohn Britt’s channel on YouTube, has a through
explanation of UMF and the Stull chart.
• Old Forge’s floating blue post shows the strong effects
of altering Si:Al of a glaze on the color response,
and also is a good example of utilizing the Stull
chart and the UMF studio
method
@
moon
to enhance the results.
Ian Childers

ALKALINE EARTH FLUXES

BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
II I II . I

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Matte Glazes
“A glaze that is not glossy. Of course, unmelted
glazes will not be glossy, but to be a true matte a
glaze must be melted and still not glossy. To be a
functional matte it must also resist cultery marking,
clean well and not leach into food and drink.” DF
“A more useful definition for us is that a matte glaze
is one that isn’t glossy because it scatters reflected
light in many or all directions... because it doesn’t
have the super-smooth surface of a gloss glaze. “ CAN
Gloss Stain Matte

Matte glazes , CAN

Matte glazes achieve their finish due to micro-crystals that cover
the surface of the glaze, and the high crystallization potential
of AE fluxes makes them a main ingredient of matte glazes.
In order to control the gloss, matte and glossy frits can
be mixed. The ratio determines the final sheen, while
to a certain degree, maintaining glaze functionality.
Either clear or opaque matte frits can be used.
Creating a true matte glaze requires knowing the UMF of
the glaze and using the Stull chart. And, making a true matte
@
glaze by randomly addingstudio
AE fluxes
moon to a frit is not practical.
• Although with limited functionality, can create a matte
appearance by under-firing a glaze, or in other words, by
increasing its melting point by adding refractory materials.
Small additions of refractory materials, or matte frits to a clear glaze
can adjust the gloss while minimizing the impact on functionality.
‌ ilica and Alumina/Kaolin are commonly used for
S
increasing the melting point. While, AE fluxes also act
as refractories in low fire glazes.
• AE fluxes may affect the color, other glaze properties, or cause
issues like pinholes, crawling, etc., and always need testing first.
50% Lead Frit +
50% Al2O3 +
4% CuO (<)

Kiln Wash Application,

“Studio Manager“
blog (>)
Alumina is often sourced from Kaolin, not Al2O3.
• Left, Alumina slightly mutes the color.
The extreme matteness of this test, compared to the
following low-fire tests with AE fluxes, demonstrates
Alumina’s strong refractory influence. Alumina along with
Zirconium are often called super refractories on Digital Fire.
And, kiln wash is among the few
@
common uses of pure Alumina.
studio moon
Calcium is often hired as flux in higher firing ranges. However,
in low fire range it can be hired as a refractory to alter the gloss.

CaCO3, Calcium Carbonate, aka whiting, is a common source of

Calcium in glazes due to its low cost and minimal impact on color.
‌ igher Calcium content (left) has resulted in a matte finish, while
H
less Ca (right) has resulted in a semi-glossy/semi-matte surface.

50% Lead Frit +

50% CaCo3 +
4% CuO (<)

80% Lead Frit +

20% CaCo3 +
6% Black Stain (>)

During a firing, CaCO3 releases ~half its weight as gases,

(high LOI - Loss on Ignition - Materials such as organics,
Carbonates, Sulfates, and Hydrates, all have high LOI)
Excessive gases exiting the melt can cause pinholes,
especially in thicker areas where the glaze accumulates,
like lower edges). This can be mitigated by
extending the final soak, which provides more time
for the gases to escape. Or in order to prevent dripping,
after ending the firing, can add a hold at slightly
lower temperatures (100-200C). (drop and hold)
“There are alternate sources of Ca like wollastonite,
frits, etc., that do not release bubbles very much,
but Whiting’s small particle size causes it to start
fluxing much lower than@ CaO (Cone8~1263C).”(DF)
studio moon
CaO / Lime’s molar mass is nearly half of CaCO3 / whiting’s.
This translates to roughly twice the amount of Calcium
in the same weight. Consequently, the tests below,
containing lime and therefore more Calcium, are more
significantly affected compared to the previous tests with whiting.
50% Lead Frit +
50% CaO/ Lime (<)

50% Opaque Frit +

50% CaO (>)

+ 3% CuO (<>)
• Due to its inherently high surface tension, the
opaque base above is less affected by the additional
surface tension introduced by Ca. In contrast,
the more fluid lead frit is more heavily affected.
• The cracks are more pronounced in the center of the
tile due to thicker application.
B While all these tests
contain 10% Iron and
the similar amount of
Kaolin +

Calcium, increasing Silica

and Alumina along
the AB diagonal has
effectively reduced the
Silica + A [Link] relative Calcium content.

“Calcium Oxide has an important role in glazes containing Iron Oxide.

The effect of Iron as a colorant is largely determined by whether the
Iron is dissolved in the glaze or crystallizes
@ out. Calcium Oxide is very
effective in dissolving the iron.”studio
([Link]-
moon a good read about Ca & Fe)
Right, The increased surface tension, resulting from
Magnesium’s presence have prevented the release
of gases and caused the visible pinholes, that also
are intensified by thicker application in the center.
50% Talc +
50% Borax (<)

50% Lead Frit +

50% Talc (>)

+ 3% CuO (<>)
• Samples of matting a low fire frit with Magnesium.
• Left, Talc (Si+Mg) and Boron as the only other glass
former than Si, can develop a layer of glass together.
(even 50% Borax is unable to melt Talc at 1050C)
• As seen here, Talc also affects the color, and has
added a subtle yellow tint to Copper’s green.
• These tests demonstrate the interesting effects of
Magnesium and Boron on colorants.
Alisa Clausen
Glazy’s 16503
Tenmoku Gold Tea Dust

Magnesium + Boron
+ etc. +
2% Co Ox +
1% CuCO3 (>)
@ 14% RIO (<)
studio moon
 Crawling / Lizard Skin Glazes
Crawling glazes are made by drastically increasing the surface
tension of a glaze in order to cause intense crawling effects.
Very high percentages of Magnesium or Zinc
can be utilized to create Crawling glazes.
A crawling glaze is often made of two layers of glaze. The pot
is first glazed with a glaze with a good melt (but not too fluid),
and then a second layer of a crawling glaze is applied thickly.
This would allow the top layer to move easily on the first, and
also provide a background in the gaps instead of the bare body.
Thicker second layer results in more intense crawling.
Zinc causes rather delicate flat capillary cracks, in
contrast with Magnesium’s drastic bumpy result.
Due to Copper’s minor fluxing activity and therefore
a more fluid melt, the Copper+Zinc test has crawled
less, while Stains often have minor refractory effects.
1st : Op. Frit + 10 Y stain Opaque Frit Opaque Frit
2nd : 50% MgCo3 30% 50% ZnO + 50% ZnO +
50% Opaque Frit 70% 50% Lead Frit + 50% Opaque Frit +
5% Brown Stain 5% 5% Brown Stain 3% CuO

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studio moon
 Crystalline Glazes
“Giant multicolored crystals grown on a super
gloss low alumina glaze by controlling multiple
holds and soaks during cooling.“ (Digital Fire)

“The chemistry: Crystalline glazes must have

almost zero Al2O3 to produce a fluid melt. So it
would be easier for the component oxides to
migrate to the site of formation and they have more
freedom to arrange themselves in the preferred
crystal formation. A saturation of ZnO is also
required, this is the magic crystallizing oxide.
Adequate SiO2 is needed to form zinc-silicate crystals.
The ZnO provides the conditions for crystal growth,
it is not physically providing nucleation points,
but could be considered a catalyst.” (Digital Fire)

José M. Mariscal Ian Childers ‫فرآیند تشکیل کریستال از‬

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studio moon
 The process of crystal formation is similar to high
school’s rock candy experiment. In which, heated
water saturated with sugar, is suddenly cooled, and the
extra sugar precipitates out of the solution on a core.
Replacing sugar with crystal-forming ceramic materials,
and water with a glaze, results in a crystalline glaze.
Any crystalline glaze (micro-crystalline, aventurine, etc.)
benefits from slow cooling. For controlled cooling, after
finishing the firing, the kiln is soaked at ~100-200C below
the final temperature for 30min to a couple of hours. This
is called the “Crystallization Temperature”, at which the
glaze starts becoming less liquid, and also is not too
cold and solid, a condition needed for the process.
Longer holds at crystallization temperature
promotes the process, and repeating
it by increase/drop/hold is hired to
grow halos around the crystals and
intensify the result. Long periods of soaking, 3-10
hours or more, may be used to intensify the effect.
Drip Catcher, CAN Due to the very fluid melt
of crystalline glazes, small
ceramic pieces called
Drip Catchers are commonly
placed under the pots to
capture the excess drips.
They often are thrown
with the pot to contract
similarly. And after the
firing, they are broken
@
Ben Owen studio moon off the base after heating.
 ‌Crystalline glazes often have ~20-35 Zinc Oxide.
Titanium is Also often present in crystalline recipes,
along with Strontium and / or other AE fluxes
that would promote the crystallization process.
While these materials do not form crystals in low fire
glazes, using them in smaller amounts can still produce
visually interesting effects, promoted by slow cooling.
[Link] includes many crystalline recipes and their firing schedule.
• Youtube has a few long, comprehensive
videos from crystalline glaze workshops.
‌ venturine glazes are more easily achievable,
A
and are also possible in low fire range.
40% Br Frit + 30% AlkFrit+
10% Si + 15% ZnO +
10% CaCO3 + Brx 30% +

MT60 + AventurineGlaze
10%Ti+4%CuO Ti 6% + CuCO3 4% detail - ITC Spain
• Left, the variation effects of Titanium on a Copper glaze.
• Middle, micro crystal formation, trying a translation! of
@
a higher firing Glazy crystalline
studio moon
recipe in low fire range
tojinbo2020@insta
Tokuda Yasokichi III

GLAZE LAYERING
LOSS ON IGNITION
KILN WASH & DECALS
BASIC GLAZE CHEMISTRY
III III

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
Ancient Chinese three-color G l a z e
glazes are among the L ay e r i n g
earliest decorations with
multi layered glazes using
high Lead glazes. Typically
made of three colors:
green from Copper, brown
from Iron, and white from
a white engobe layer
containing Tin, or from
exposing the white body.
Occasionally, blue colors
from Cobalt and black were
also used in Sancai ware. 8th C., Sancai (3 colors) Kate Malone
Layering glazes is a common way of creating variation. The
possibility of diverse chemical reactions between the different
layers can lead to extreme complexities, which makes general
rules and categories relatively meaningless, and case by
case study necessary. What follows are some basic notes.
relative 2nd fluid non-fluid similar
melt 1st non-fluid fluid similar
fluidity at layer
a specific Running/ Blending/ Possible mixing
temp. Dripping Bleeding / no reaction
Studio Moon
Studio Arhoj

Fledgling Studios

@
Fe
studio moon Ca 5% in 1st layer
 Running/Dripping
Running glazes are made by deliberate decorative
use of glaze dripping defect when over fired.
When layering glazes to make dripping effects, the first layer
often needs to be less fluid and have a higher melting point in
order to prevent the layers from readily mixing, and also act as
a suitable background for the second layer’s movement.
As the first layer reaches its (higher) melting point,
the second layer, often containing additional flux,
starts dripping and running due to being over fired.
(Testing dripping glazes before use, and also using kiln cookies and kiln
wash are crucial to prevent damaging the kiln shelves with glaze drips.)
Robin’s Egg glaze
is a traditional
Chinese layered
glaze made by
blowing a fluid
turquoise glaze (Alk.+
Copper) on a Cobalt
blue base glaze.
China, 18th C. A Linthorpe Vase
A Japanese sancai antique
Flambe glaze Sarah Nikitopoulos

@
tojinbo2020@insta studio moon
 Blending
Layering a high surface tension, higher melt glaze
over a fluid, lower melt glaze that often has some
added flux creates dispersed patches of partially
melted second layer in a fluid pool of the first layer.
The second layer would benefit from a high surface tension
in order to pull together and randomly scatter on the first
layer and not readily mix with its fluid background. (i.e. an
Opaque frit works better than a fluid frit with some added Silica.)
75% Lead Frit + 1st
25% Pb +
5% CuO (<)
75% Lead Frit +
25% Baking Soda (Na)+
5% CuO (>)
3rd firing reduction Opaque Frit (<>) 2nd
Boron’s effects aka Brain Patterns

Top, effects of various fluxes in high Iron 1st layers on the 2nd layer
Top left, 2nd layer’s Copper turning blue from alk. fluxes in the 1st layer
Below, layering glazes can be a good way of mimicking nature.

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studio moon
 LOI
“‌ LOI short for “Loss on Ignition“ is a number
that appears on the data sheets of ceramic
materials. It refers to the amount of weight the
material loses as it decomposes to release water
vapor and various gases during firing.“ Digital Fire
When layering glazes, using high LOI materials in the first
layer, causes the release of a significant amount of gas
during firing. These escaping bubbles can create intriguing
patterns in the second layer. (i.e. Carbonates, Sulphates, etc.)
(partly similar to Iron’s bubbling in oilspot glazes)
I often add small amounts (~5%) of high LOI materials
like RIO (can affect the color) or CaCo3 (Whiting,
no color) to the first layer of a multiple glazes
... and in case, can add some more flux to cancel
their negative refractory effects on melt fluidity.
‌RIO’s LOI is ~30%. (not mentioned below)
Below, CAN, more info on LOI pages of Digital Fire and CAN
Left, 5% CaCO3 &
Right, 5% RIO in the
1st layer’s black glaze

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 Kiln Wash
Kiln wash is a protective coating brushed onto
kiln shelves to prevent damages from glaze drips.
• Areas of kiln wash that come into contact with
glaze drips can easily be removed along with
the pot. The bare area then can be painted with
kiln wash again, without any tedious grinding.
Kiln wash needs to have a very high melting point, in
order to avoid melting and fusing to the shelves.
A John Britt article on CAN explains the topic.
A recipe from the article: 50% Alumina + 50% EPK
Calcining half of the kaolin reduces early cracking and peeling.
(Calcination is heating a material to ~600-700C to break
down its larger particles and eliminate its impurities, etc.)
‌ iln cookies are small, thin, flat, clay circles (~10-
K
15cm diameter), often covered with kiln wash,
used under drip prone pieces for extra protection.
Kiln Cookie Rolling kiln wash results in
a more even application

Old Forge’s thrown cookies have an additional

shalow depth, partly similar to drip catchers,
that help an easier removal of @the piece. CAN
studio moon
 Triple Glazing
َ s Color theory suggests, Powerful Playful
A
relying solely on two colors
can lead to monotony.
Utilizing three or four colors
is a common strategy to
introduce visual variety. from Pantone’s
Communicating with Colors
In three-color combinations, one color
typically serves as the primary or
background. Another has a functional
relation to the first, and the third acts as
a spice to temper the mix with difference. Josef Albers
From one perspective these simple principles
also stand behind a wide range of commercial
glazes, and also a fascinating read about
layering three glazes by Dick Lehman
on CAN called “Chasing the Image”.
(Essentially similar studies are possible in low fire range.)
“Chasing The Image”, D. Lehman, CAN

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“I began (with 200) triple-glaze tests : three glazes
on each large test tile, beginning with the stable
micro crystalline glaze (Δ9-14), followed by a layer
of the cone-appropriate glaze, and finally a layer of
the Δ7 glaze.”...then fired to Δ9-10 (~1280-1300C).
[Link]
• The article thoroughly reviews the details of his
work, such as application thickness, drying time, etc.
Direct sifting of dry fluxes on some areas before
the drying of the third glaze is his fascinating
idea for greater melt in the desired areas.
For this, he has experienced this with different fluxes
like Boron, Lead, etc. or easy melting frits (i.e. 3134)
A brief review of his method (fired to Δ9-10~1300C)
• First Layer, a matte micro crystalline glaze for Δ9-14,
which does not fully melt at Δ9. (Δ14~1375C)
• Second, A glaze that fully melts at Δ9-10.
• And third, A mid-fire glaze for Δ7~1240C, that
would drip and run when fired to ~Δ9-10.
Triple Glazing, Dick Lehman

@
studio moon
 [Link]’s Oni-Glazing
Lehman’s website also features his fascinating
studies on layering up to ten layers of
glazes. A technique he dubs “Oni-Glazing”.
In Japanese, “Oni” means both “demon”
and “excessive.” And “Oni-Shino” glazes
refer to traditional Japanese crawling
shino glazes, that due to extremely
thick application would crawl like the devil! Oni-Shino

Tokuda Yasokichi III & IV

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studio moon
 Transfers
Transfers/Ceramic decals are stickers that are applied
on a fired glazed surface and adhere to it when
fired to the glaze’s softening temperature (~800C).
Ceramic Decals are often purchased ready-made. Can make
or order custom deisgns too. Also can purchase single-
color decal sheets and cut or laser cut the desired designs.
• If fired too high, the colors can change or burn.
• A runny glaze may bleed onto the decal, which
can be an issue or an effect as part of the design.
To attach a decal, it is placed in water for a few minutes to
loosen its gelatin cover, then placed on the piece.
Next, the cover is removed. The decal should
be stretched over the piece and pressed with a
soft object to be rid of air bubbles underneath,
and dried with a towel. Also, Soap can be applied
on the piece for easier movement of the decal.
• Can apply Lusters on decals and re-fire, better not to fire
simultaneously, as the colors can change or get dirty.
“Nowadays decals can be printed directly in an inkjet
printer (fitted with ceramic ink cartridges), a laser printer
(fitted with ceramic toner), or by silk screening (the
latter transitioning to the former in recent years). “(DF)

@
studio moon
UNDERGLAZE

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Painting on Ceramics
In most ceramic painting techniques, colors are made
by mixing stains / colorants with a small amount of
glaze. The glaze in this mix acts as a binder, fusing
the materials to the surface below. Main categories:
1. Painting with Stains, Oxides / Underglaze
2. Painting with Glazes / Overglaze + ...
Overglaze provides a much wider color palette than underglaze.
This is due to exposure of porcelain underglaze colors to much
higher temperatures than overglaze painting. In contrast, overglaze
painting typically only requires enough heat to soften the
underlying glaze, and melt the low fire glazes/overglaze colors.
Under Chinese Antiques Over

@
studio moon
13th C ., Iran, Persian Luster

Tomimoto Kenkichi, 20th C.

Since past, typically darker colors like Cobalt blue or black are applied
to bisqueware before glazing (/underglaze), and further decoration
with a wider color palette is added after glaze firing. (/overglaze)
Underglaze+Copper blue glaze Overglaze Gold, reduced luster

Imari Ware Top, ~13th C . , Iran - Below, ~18th C ., China & Japan(<) Yellow Enamel

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studio moon
 1. Underglaze Painting
(low fire ~ 950C & higher ranges ~ 1050C)
Stains / Colorants 70-80% + Clear Glaze 20-30%
Can paint on bone-dry, leather-hard, or bisqued
pottery, while painting on a bone-dry pot and
firing it with bisque firing is more common.
Bone dry: (+) less cracking and flaking, fewer
firings, easier painting and Sgraffito (scratching)
Leather-hard: (+) more brushable, (-) colors appear
different with the result due to surface moisture
Bisqueware: (+) not likely to cause damage and
deformation due to excessive moisture.
It is best to avoid simultaneous glaze and underglaze painting
firing, as the gases leaving the painting can cause issues for the
glaze. Thus, painting on raw pottery and firing it along with
bisque firing is the more common practice. And, It is best to fire
underglaze on bisqueware to ~950C-1050C prior to glazing.
Iranian Antiques << >Chinese & >> Japanese Antiques

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studio moon
 Underglaze painting does not require outlines, but
can add them using any underglaze color if preferred.
• T
‌ ypically, a clear glaze covers an underglaze.
Additionally, small amounts of stains or other
colorants can be added for subtle hues or textures.
• U
‌ nderglaze with an equal stain / glaze ratio can
be fired simultaneously with the covering glaze,
as more glaze enhances the bond to the glaze on top.
• A fired 50/50 ratio based underglaze will
not properly absorb a later glaze application
due to the formation of a thin glass layer.
• Understanding the right working thickness
needs trial and error with different dilutions.
[Link] Can purchase com-
mercial underglaze
or simply make it.
Various underglaze
techniques would
work with the men-
tioned 70/30 ratio.
i.e., bubbles effect,
etc. (YouTube, Insta)
Underglaze with other colorants instead of stains, such as RIO or ochre,
can create more variation, but testing is crucial to avoid potential issues.

Liner glazing, having different glazes / colors inside and outside,

requires skill and experience to avoid possible mixing. (more on DF)
A clean, easy, and common alternative approach is to
spray underglaze on the exterior @
of an unfired piece,
followed by applying a studio clear glaze after bisque firing.
moon
 Lubricants & Thickeners
When painting with underglaze or glaze on
bisqueware, any of the below lubricants
can be used to slow down bisqueware’s rapid
water absorption due to its porous nature, and
also to improve adhesion, and brush-ability.
CMC gum (common), Gum Arabic, Tragacanth, etc.

While quick drying is problematic on bisqueware,

similar to painting on glass, overglaze dries
too slowly. And Often, thickeners are utilized
to enhance pre-firing adhesion and thickness.
Sugar (common), Syrup (dates, corn, ...), etc.

• Dampening bisqueware prior to painting is

another way of delaying water absorption.
CMC gum (wallpaper glue) should be mixed with water
one day in advance. (1 tea spoon in a large glass of water)
It also must be sieved before use to be rid of any lumps.
• Typically, a few drops or a teaspoon of CMC
solution is enough for 100g of underglaze, etc.
• None of the above lubricants or thickeners
is added to a mixture in high amounts
(~1%), nor do they require high viscosity.
@
studio moon
 @ 13th C . Iran
studio moon
Transferring a design
• A printed design can be pierced with a needle, and
then transfered using charcoal (cleaner), or soot.
• Carbon paper’s greasy lines can repel the material
on top, an issue torching may partly solve.
• Can shade a printed design’s back, and then trace the design.
• Freehand pencil drawing is also always an option.
(Permanent: underglaze pencils, Temporary: ordinary pencil)
(Soft pencils (B6,...) may not burn in a firing, and requires testing.)
As always, test before trying anything new on a final piece.
Sgraffito
• Scratching underglaze, glaze, slip, overglaze, etc., of any
surface to create a design is called Sgraffito in ceramics.
• Sgraffito on bisqueware is more difficult than on
bone dry or leather hard pots. .
Watercolor painting
Excessively diluting underglaze can cause a watercolor like quality.
• Watercolor painting on bisqueware is easier, as without
skill, too much moisture may damage an unfired piece.
Watercolor underglaze Slip sgraffito Slip sgraffito

@
Meadow Ceramics Katherine Hackl
studio moon Jennifer Falter
 Kondō Yutaka Lee Kyu-tak

Woorim Ceramics , YouTube

The traditional practice Two contemporary approaches to the tradition

Korea’s 15-16C. Buncheong tradition, Sgraffito +.

“Buncheong is characterized by the use of dark, iron-bearing
clay covered in white slip and a clear glaze. Buncheong
incorporated carving and stamping as decorative elements,
slip inlay, sgraffito, brushwork, iron painting, and later
brushing and sipping pieces in white slip.” Wikipedia
(In+Lay involves the removal of a background material and filling
the resulting recesses with different colors. The removal method
can be scratching (sgraffito), using stamps or various objects, etc.)
Stamp + Inlay

@
studio moon
 Top, Left, Kamoda Shoji
Top, Right, Yagi Kazuo
Below, Wada Morihiro
Among the most
influential Japanese
ceramic artists of the
past century who
redefined form, func-
tion, proportion, and
an abstract relation-
ship with nature in
their works. The fading
of the potter / sculptor
boundary in their
view was a crucial
factor in the impos-
sible task of leaving
the shadow of long
standing Japanese
ceramic traditions.

@
studio moon
Yabu Meizan

OVERGLAZE

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Painting with Glazes
I. On Bisqueware ∞ + Persian - Mina-i-Ware
II. On Unfired Glaze Majolica
III. On Fired Glaze Overglaze, China painting, Enamel
Painting with glazes is essentially similar to applying glaze using
a brush, but a bit more precisely! (Raw body ≠ Glaze application)
While particularly in China painting, numerous methods
and mediums of painting are used, the tradition of
overglaze painting with low fire lead glazes, prevented
adjacent glazes from fusing by first outlining the borders,
and then filling the divisions with different colored glazes.
I II III

@
studio moon
 Borders
70-80% Dark Stain + 20-30% Clear Glaze
... traditionally, MnO + some Syrup, or ready-made mixes, etc.

• M
‌ anganese Oxide’s problematic behaviors in low
fire glazes make it the suitable repellent material
to prevent colors/glazes from unwanted mixing.
This characteristic has made MnO the traditional
and a popular option for outlining borders.
• The Silica impurities of MnO improve adhesion
by fusing with the Silica from the surface below.
• The traditional practice uses MnO borders without any
added glaze/glue, which requires skill for very thin lines.
• MnO outlines are dark brown. (can use stain for black)
• Due to the coarse and uneven particle size of MnO,
it is often necessary to sift and/or grind it before use.
• Can use a calligraphy dip pen to draw elegant lines.
• W
‌ ax resist borders are also applicable to all painting
methods. As the small gap left after the wax burns off
can effectively prevent unwanted mixing of the colors.

Commercial products
for borders often
have various oils
and are used on
bisqueware, as in
overglaze painting
their oils and gums
can cause unwant-
@
ed delay in drying. studio moon 7 Color tile
 Painting with glazes on bisque-
ware is essentialy same as
glaze application with a brush. I. on Bisqueware
The term “Mina’i ware” in Farsi refers to Iran’s tradition of metal enamels on
copper plates. However, it can also refer to a pottery tradition of painting
with glazes, often on red clay bisqueware, that tries to create a rather
similar raised enamel effect by thick glaze application in small devisions.
(... in English, the term often refers to the Persian overglaze tradition.)

Some glaze in the mix for borders prevents the materials

from easily flaking off or being rubbed away after firing.
1. Lower firing at 950-70C , ~100C below low fire’s common 1050C
Low relief effect

2. Thick bumpy application

3. Application on bisqueware... unlike rather flat overglaze colors
that somewhat mix with the softened glaze underneath.
The low relief effect can only be achieved in small
divisions. Also, at such low temperatures, small divisions
of glaze do melt, while larger areas do not and turn matte.
• A pump and needle is commonly used to fill in the
small divisions after marking (often) MnO outlines.
• ‌Sieving the materials is necessary to prevent clogging.

Copper plate
• Minai’ware are often finished with spraying a thin layer
of clear glaze, which can also add color or texture (i.e. Fe).
Pottery

<Iran’s Mina’i Ware >

@
studio moon
 II. on Unfired Glaze (Majolica)
The lack of access to white bodies had driven ~8-9th C.
Middle Eastern potters to imitate early Chinese blue and white
ware by adding Cobalt decorations on raw Tin/Lead white glazes
on red earthenware bodies. Samples of their works were later
exported to Europe through Spain’s Majorca ports, and the
idea was developed to a fully fledged tradition in ~15thC. Italy.
(Majolica can refer to any painting on an unfired glaze using another.)

Italy, 20th C. Iraq, 9th C. Italy, 16th C.

Instead of a Tin glaze, today’s Majolicas use opaque frits, often opacified
with Zirconium or its mix with Tin. As Zr stiffens the melt, it also
provides a more stable base that helps the colors to not fade or run. (DF)
After painting on an unfired white glaze / canvas using
other glazes, both layers are fired at the same time.
... Often a usual colored glaze mix is used as the pigment
A Clear Glaze + 5-10% Colorants (often stains)
... If the colors move, run, fade, etc., can decrease
the glaze in the mix and use more stain, i.e. 70g/30s.
Thick application can cause bonding issues, similar to
using pure stains. (As the added glaze acts an adhisive.)
As painting on engobe is easier than on raw glaze, and on white
bisqueware easier than both, the@widespread availability of simpler
options marginalized the older methods largely to artistic use.
studio moon
 III. On Fired Glaze
Lead Glaze Overglaze & China Painting
Traditions of overglaze, i.e. Iran’s tradition of seven colors tiles,
often utilized low fire lead glazes to color outlined divisions.
Some syrup in the mix for borders prevents the materials
from easily being rubbed away while handling, before firing.
100% Clear Lead glaze + 5-10% Colorants
The chemistry of commercially available china paints
allows for highlights, removing the need for borders.
Can mix pigments, but china painters often prefer
commercial products due to their color consistency.
‌ hina painting is often fired to ~780-820C,
C
and a low fire lead glaze overglaze to ~950-970C.
• Depending on the preference, China paint can be diluted
with water, various oils i.e. turpentine, etc., or commercial
products. And, low fire lead glazes are often mixed with water.
• As painting on glass/glaze naturally takes time to dry,
can use a thicker mix, or use thickeners (i.e. syrup).
• Washing and torching the work first, can clean greasy marks.
Iran’s overglaze tradition of 7 colors tiles was a response to the increase in
demand, and the time consuming and difficult nature of breaking tiles for mosaic.
7 Colors tiles

@
Mosaic studio moon
Reduction Overglaze

Glaze Layering
Persian Luster Iraq< ~8thC.>China Sancai Glaze
Since the Achaemenids, the Cobalt mines of Kashan had enabled the
Persian potters to use it, and turned Kashan to a center of Cobalt export.
Cobalt quickly became popular among the Chinese potters, as
it was among the few that could stand the higher temperatures
of porcelain glaze firings. This is an early example of the silk road
connecting East and West Asia’s products, ideas, ... and also patterns.
Tang Sancai (3 colors) emerged in ~7-8th C. China, a
style of decoration with low fire lead glazes splashed
onto an earthenware body coated with a white slip. Due
to Lead’s toxicity, tomb figurines and other decorative
objects were the common uses of Sancai decoration.
Then, it was only a matter of time before high and low fire glazes
were combined, resulting in the first porcelain overglaze decorations
that used the much broader color palette of low fire glazes.
The first instances of overglaze decorations emerged in both China
and Iran around the early 13th C., coinciding with the start of the
Mongolian rule. However, it was until much later, around ~15th C.,
and nearing the end of their reign that overglaze developed more.
stoneware/white slip/clear glaze/enamel earthenware/Tin glaze (white)/enamel Abu Zayd Kashani

@
studio
China< moon
~12thC. >Iran
 19thC., Iran, Nasir Mosque
7 colors tiles
While often architecture showcases the most intricate traditional Middle
Eastern overglazes, East Asia’s craft was more focused on vessels.
Chinese overglaze developed painstakingly, and color by color,
through different styles until early 18th C., when the first European
porcelains were made (~800 years!). Soon, European enamels based
on Lead/Boron + Arsenic (later Tin) were introduced to China.
In a quest to recreate the new European colors, Chinese potters,
being unaware of Boron in Western pigments, continued to flux
theirs with Lead. However, upon learining about the Arsenic content
(opacifier) of European recipes, they developed new colors based on
Lead and Arsenic, marking their last major technical breakthrough.
Adding white (Arsenic) to other colors, created a style known as
“Famille Rose” (soft colors), which was made of pastel-like colors
with a low relief effect, that were not clear and brilliant like lead
glazes. Their opacity also enabled gradients and highlights, turning
outlining and stippling nonessential. Examples of changes of colors:
red > pink (also had a small amount of Gold) , blue > sapphire, etc.
Famille rose enamel

@
18thC., China studio moon
During the 18-19th C., China painting innovations changed from
technical to artistic, and its centers moved to Japan, Europe, and
later America. 19th C. artists of Japan, managed to redefine the
profession and draw a clear line between a potter and an artist/painter
on top of his craft and creative process. Later, the craft continued
to develop in the US and across the world mostly by independent
artists that new technologies were releasing from factories.
17-18th C., China’s temporary halt of export made Japan
one of the main global providers of porcelain. As a result,
several areas in Japan developed unique styles. And some of
most delicate and playful combinations of underglaze and
overglaze decorations in history were crafted to perfection.
Among the better known Japanese styles of 17-18th C. are
Imari ware (porcelain) and Satsuma ware (often earthenware),
the former often made up of an underglaze blue with overglaze
red and gold, and the latter often only made of underglazes, with
gold overglaze on a clear crackle glaze over a light colored body.
Ninsei was a late 17th C. Japanese ceramic artist, master of overglaze,
and father of Kyoto style, which is identified by playful and
colorful hand-painted enamels on stoneware and earthenware.
Ninsei developed a unique style of polychrome overglaze and gold
decoration on a crackle glaze on a light colored body, known as
Nishikite, that closely affected the emergence of Satsuma ware.
He was the first to use overglaze on stoneware, hire skilled painters,
and also to add the artist’s name to the kiln’s seal on his products.
Ninsei Nonomura , Japan ~late 17th C. France ~ 1800
USA, ~ 2000

@
Jean Jacques Dieu
studio moon Bridget C. Harper
 Imari ware Satsuma ware Miyagawa Kozan
>
>

Yabu Meizan

@
Cu-nyo studio moon Kakiemon ware
SLIPS & ENGOBES
CLAY COATINGS I

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Slips & Engobes
Slip (liquefied clay), in pottery decoration, is
commonly used on wet or leather-hard pots.
Engobe, (“slip” in French), is a mix of slip and glaze
(flux/adhesive), which can also be used on bisqueware.
• Prior to the widespread accessibility of white clay
bodies, potters used to utilize a layer of white
slip or engobe as a white canvas for painting.
Clay coatings, as a versatile decorative element in
ceramics, unlock a spectrum of creative options.
• A glaze’s structure is similar to a ceramic
body with excessive flux, and engobe
falls between the two, a clay body with
extra flux, or a glaze turning matte
with not nearly enough melting aid.

The historical practice of using white

engobe to conceal a red body and
imitate Chinese porcelain, flourished
during Iran’s Samanid period (9th
C., cover). However, the emergence
of white fritware/stone paste
bodies during Iran’s Seljuk period
(12th C.) temporarily marginalized
the use of white engobe until
they also later became obsolete
due to the difficulties of preparation. 15thC.,
@ Iran
studio moon
Adding 20-30% glaze/adhesive to 70-80% slip strengthens
body-slip/engobe bonding due to its flux content.

• The preference for making engobe from slip instead of

clay comes from the presence of deflocculants in slips
(Sodium Silicate, caustic soda). Deflocculants prevent
settling and disperse lumps by disrupting particle
charges, allowing for even suspension and thinning.
• Engobes, particularly with thick application, can peel and
flake off mainly due to incompatibilities of engobe
and the underlying clay body. An engobe and a body
made from the same clay/slip form the strongest bond.

Below, Fritware/Stone paste bodies, Co blue’s

tendency to run under an alkaline crackle glaze, in
contrast with the stable black color (from Mn, etc.)
often seen in Persian underglaze paintings, i.e.
black fish in a copper blue alkaline background.

@
studio moon 13th & 12th C., Iran
To prevent engobe’s peeling, can increase its glaze/
adhesive. Or, as engobe’s tendency to crawl and peel is
similar to that of an extremely matte glaze, which partly
happens due to high surface tension, can use alkaline
fluxes to reduce it and make the melt more fluid.
~140-160% Slip + ~20-30% Clear glaze +
for low fire range, Baking Soda (~5%) / other sources of Na
as some half of slip’s weight is water, the dry weight ratio is doubled.
A low melt fluid Clear glaze works better, compared to an opaque
glaze, which typically has a higher melting point and surface tension.
White slip or engobe decorations on red clay
bodies are more common, while can also use
the usual colorants to create colored slip
or engobe. (i.e. Iron or ochre can be used
to create red decorations on a white body.
Masayuki Miyajima Buncheong

@
studio moon
 Application
• D
‌ ipping and pouring, are among the most
common slip/Engobe application methods.
• Can also use a brush (even application requires skill
and experience), or create fun textures with hand, etc.
• Before the engobe/slip coating fully dries, can
smooth the bumps with a light touch under
low pressure water. (only on bisqueware)
When to apply :
Leather Hard: more common... chance of
peeling is low & the strongest slip-body bond...
requires skill as slip can easily move or slide...
also too much moisture can deform the body.
Bone Dry: a weaker slip-body bond... and
possible deformation due to too much moisture.
Bisqueware: The weakest slip-body bond and the
most tendency to peel... but easier application.

Fire and Earth Pottery Hakeme Brushing Elizabeth-Paley - Full article on CAN

@
studio
Alan Perillomoon
Unlike glaze, slip/engobe can be fired along with
bisque firing without posing any issues. This is
because slip and engobe’s are more similar to a clay
body, allowing them to absorb glaze after firing.
• To enhance slip-body bond, can spray water on a
bone dry pot... or briefly run water over bisqueware.

Nicholas Bernard Hamada Shoji

Onda Yaki, Chattering Decoration

@
studio moon
 “Icheon Ceramics” Video
Series on YouTube

Masayuki Miyajima Buncheong Kim Se-yong

@
Sgraffito studio moon Hannah Jensen
 Mikhail Sadovniko’s Dance on the circle, YouTube, Sand Art on
a potter’s wheel can also be an inspiration for slip decorations

Hyang Jin Cho M. Miyajima

Korea, 12th C. Buncheong

@
studio moon
 Colored slips and bodies are often colored with
“body stains”, stains with lower quality and therefore
price, mainly due to their clay impurities. These impurities
can cause problems for a glaze, but not for a body.
Efficiency in quality and price are crucial for body
stains, as slip is often used in much larger amounts
than glaze (several kg compared to a few hundred g).
Generally, Must avoid altering a clay body’s structure with
too much stain. Need to test different amounts and consult
the supplier. Often 5-10% stain to dry clay’s weight is used.
While white engobe is more commonly applied to dark/red
bodies, colored engobes can also be used on a white body.
i.e. Iron or Ochre, are commonly used to create red slip.

@
Kim Se-yong studio moon
 Kondō Yutaka Lee Kyu-tak

Woorim Ceramics , YouTube

The traditional practice Two contemporary approaches to the tradition

Korea’s 15-16C. Buncheong tradition, Sgraffito +.

“Buncheong is characterized by the use of dark, iron-bearing
clay covered in white slip and a clear glaze. Buncheong
incorporated carving and stamping as decorative elements,
slip inlay, sgraffito, brushwork, iron painting, and later
brushing and sipping pieces in white slip.” Wikipedia
(In+Lay involves the removal of a background material and filling
the resulting recesses with different colors. The removal method
can be scratching (sgraffito), using stamps or various objects, etc.)
Stamp + Inlay

@
studio moon
Marvin Blackmore

SLIP DECORATIONS
CLAY COATINGS II

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Slip Decorations
• Sgraffito
• Marble effect
• Feather/Comb effect
• Painting - Trailing
• Inlay
• Masking
• Mocha
• Creating texture, ... etc.
Due to too much material extrusion, painting with slip trailers
may be tricky at first, and smaller nozzles can be helpful.
Italy, A Copy of Taj Mahal Silver and Brass, India
Stone, Italy
Stone ,Taj Mahal

Inlay involves embedding materials of various colors into a carved

background. Metal inlay has a long history, and stone inlay, also known
@
as Pietra Dura, became especially
studio moon in 16th C. Italian architecture.
popular
Low surface tension and high fluidity make Alkaline glazes
prone to pool in recesses, which can be ideal for accentuating
raised slip decorations. Their usual cracking can be a part of the
design, or be mitigated with added Silica and Kaolin, etc.
Marbling on CAN Clive Bowen

Zara Gardner Trailing Sgrafitto

Renowned for
its intricate
underglazes of
South American
inspired patterns,
Mata Ortiz
is one of the
oldest centers of
Mexican pottery.
Abraham Rodriguez
CAN Old Forge Creations Kate!

@
Hand Texture studio moon Feathering
 Sylvian Meschia Hannah Jensen Jeff Bettle
Digital Fire Kowalski pottery

Mocha Technique: The difference in charges of electric

ions of an acidic solution and slip causes a design to spread
out like a capillary network when a diluted acidic solution
(with a contrasting color) is applied to the wet slip/engobe. (DF)
• Can use various acidic compounds such as cigarettes
(common), tobacco, coffee, vinegar, potato juice, etc.
• Can use colorants to change the color of the solution.
@
studio moon
 Bernard Leach

Tim Christensen
Cheryl Tall Katherine Hackl

~18th C.
England
(v) Effects like marbling
and feathering etc. were
at first made by mixing H. Billingham
[Link]
~11th China(Nerikomi, Casting the first color...
Neriage,...) and later cutting out the design...
simulated with silp. (^) applying other colors
v
with a brush, pouring, etc.
Brian Giniewski

Peter Pincus @
studio moon
 “It seems that the part that is invisible makes

Kitamura
Junko
the portion we can see all the more beautiful.”
Inlay
Red Iron Oxide paint- Lee Kyu-tak’s Buncheong and his Stamps
ing on a white Engobe

Rokubei VI

@
studio moon
 11th C. China
Sgraffitto of dark slip
Park Rae-heon on a white body
Young-bae Kwon
Tatsuzo Shimaoka, a Living National
Treasure of Japan, known for reviving
the ancient Japanese tradition of rope
decorations (Jomon period, 14000-300 B.C.),
by combining it with inlay from the
15th-C. Korean Buncheong tradition
(called Mishima ware in Japan). Cord
marking (using a rope as a stamp) is
among the earliest pottery traditions.
(Jōmon : rope pattern in Japanese)
In reversed inlay, the negative space of a design is carved and filled. Lee Kyu-tak

@
studio moon
 Woorim Studio Park Rae-heon Kim Seong Tae

Openwork + carving a body made of layered colored clays.

Can partly simulate the effect with dark inlay, and layered colored slip.
Lee, Yeounhyu

@
studio moon
Slip Stickers: the
design first is
made on a flat plas-
ter board... then
moved to ¼ cyl-
inder textured
molds... and lastly,
put together
to form a mug.
Raised effect with slip and underglaze,
freehand drawing + trailing + coloring

A. Blair Clemo, Slip Stickers,

on CAN’s YouTube

Ann Ruel , 10 Ways To Decorate With Slip, YouTube

From Paper to Clay: First, masking the flowers
with paper... painting slip on a textured paper
for the background... transfer... removing the
masks... lastly, painting and transfering the flowers.

@
studio moon Teresa Pietsch, Paper to pots, CAN
 Lana Wilson,
Vibrant Surfaces, Marvin Blackmore’s art is inspired by the native
CAN’s YouTube american Pueblo culture, and he is focused on creating
"the most complex intricate pottery" in the world.

Preston Singletary is New

a glass artist with native
American roots, his work
is inspired by Tlingit
culture and often formed
by carving multiple
layers of colored glass,
a process known as
Cameo Glass, partly, @
similar to slip sgraffito. studio moon Old
Maria Martinez

TERRA SIGILLATA
CLAY COATINGS III

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Burnishing
Burnishing is an ancient decoration technique that
imparts an exceptionally smooth finish to clay
surfaces. Coupled with a fine-grained slip coating
aka terra sigillata, and smoke firing, burnishing
can be used to achieve a shiny black finish.
Terra Sigillata (roughly sealed earth) originally described the Roman
Samian ware that had the makers stamp/seal at the bottom; mass-
produced, utilitarian vessels with a red terra sigillata coating and
molded decorations, fired in oxidation without making smoke.
Burnishing does not waterproof pottery, but still has
various applications, particularly before alternative firings.
“...to burnish (typically dry) pottery, a lubricant is needed. Water,
oil, a mix of the two, or terra sig can be used. Using water/oil
takes more time and burnishing (using a relatively hard tool),
whereas terra sig more readily creates a shiny surface with a
little polishing with plastic or cloth after rubbing with hands...
and, the parts covered with terra sig will turn black if smoke
is created in the kiln... Burnishing works based on moving the
hand in one direction, and aligning the plate-shaped particles
forming the clay, to reflect light evenly.”(~ S.v. Dassow, CAN)

The pottery wheel blog

Burnishing is done with
a very smooth object.
In past, river stones
were used. Smooth
plastic, leather, nylon,
@ spoon back, lamp, etc.
Greece South America China
studio moon can also be utilized.
“Burnishing and applying terra sigillata, considering their gloss
producing mechanisms, is often done at black hard stage, which is
after leather-hard stage and before fully drying. Alternatively, working
on a bone dry pot can result in a smoother finish, as it enables
sanding, done with a fine grit sandpaper, followed by dusting with
a damp sponge. (Excessive wiping removes the soft particles of clay, and
has a negative effect.)”(~CAN) Due to drying shrinkage, working on a
leather-hard pot involves more subtleties. These subtleties, along with
additional details about burnishing and the making and application of
terra sig, have been explained in several articles by the American potter
Sumi von Dassow on CAN, as well as in her book on the subject. Her
work is mostly focused on alternative firing methods, with inspirations
from Native American pottery, and shaped by organic designs with
terra sigillata after burnishing to create a “black on black” effect.

Sumi von Dassow

“Many potters use terra sigillata as a canvas for the fire to paint on,
either pit firing or saggar firing their burnished pots. However,
other potters like the satiny surface of terra sigillata as is, without
any special firing. You can also try using terra sigillata to partially
cover a surface... and have a multi-colored burnished pot.”(CAN)
Ancient Greeks first fully blackened
the vessels by creating smoke in the
kiln. Then, the kiln was opened to let
in Oxygen, which burned the carbon
deposit on the parts that were not
covered with terra sig, turning them red/
color
@ of the body again, while the parts
covered
studio with terra sig remained black.
moon
The Art Institute of Chicago

Ancient Greek “Black Figure Pottery” involved covering vessels with a

high-iron terra sig, except for a frame. They then painted designs within
that frame with terra sig, and added details through incision and sgraffito.
And lastly, Smoke firing turned the designs black. This was later
replaced by “Red Figure Pottery”, which somehow was its negative.

In ”Red Figure Pottery”, except the design, the entire vessel was first
covered with terra sig. And then, the details were painted using a
brush, which enabled much more precision. Lastly, the details and
the background covered in terra sig turned black after smoke firing,
while the characters and the design remained the clay body’s red color.
The Greeks also used Ochre to create a red/purple color mainly
used on details, such as hair color, etc. Moreover, they utilized
a white slip containing Kaolin for white color, used on women’s
bodies and other details. This white slip also marked their
final major innovation, known @ as “White Ground Pottery”,
which used a white slip background
studio moon as a canvas for painting.
Until the widespread use of glaze, burnishing continued in the Roman
Empire with Samian ware, utilitarian vessels characterized by features
suitable for mass production, such as molded relief patterns and
oxidation firing without altering the clay’s color. However, a blend
of their beautiful relief patterns with the detailed Greek coloring
had to wait until the Neoclassical period and the 18th century.

The Portland Vase (2) is a rare sample of Cameo Glass from the
Roman Empire. This delicate glass decoration is crafted by
carving layered multicolored glass, or glass slip sgraffito!
Upon arrival to the British museum, the Portland vase attracted
a creative European ceramic artist, Josiah Wedgwood. Invention
and mass production of Cream-ware (earthenware), Black Basalt
stoneware and Jasperware (still in production), are some of his notable
innovations. Jasperware is made by combining classical molded
decorations with unglazed stoneware bodies. At first, colors were
mixed with the clay body, and later with a layer of colored engobe.
(4: Wedgwood blue) His copy of the Portland vase (3) exemplifies
his elegant craftsmanship. Interestingly, he also mass-produced
what may be the first advertising @ button in the fight against
slavery, with the inscription “AM I NOT
studio A MAN AND A BROTHER?”(5)
moon
 Terra sig is simply a mix of clay and water , and a
clay with the finest possible particle size suits it best,
and so are Ball-Clays that are often used to make it.
Terra sig, like any slip, benefits from a deflocculant (sodium
silicate, caustic soda, etc.) to disperse clay particles by weakening
the electrical attraction between them, acting as a thinning agent.

• From [Link]’s video on CAN’s Youtube:

2100g Water + 1000g Ball Clay+ 25g Sodium Silicate
• or another source:
80%Water+20%BallClay+0.5-1%SodiumSilicate(other~2%)

The above mix is shaken well, preferably in a transparent plastic

container. Then, in order to allow the coarser particles to settle, it is
left for 1-24 hours (different sources). Lastly, from the visible three
layers, the middle layer is Terra Sigillata. First, the top layer, which
is mostly water, is removed, whether siphoned using a tube
or through a hole in the container, and then the middle layer.
• Terra sig is typically a watery mix, with a specific
gravity between 1.15-1.20 .
• If too thin, can leave the mix until the extra water
evaporates... or slowly heat it on a low flame.
Marcia Selsor

[Link]
CAN

@
When Terra sig loses its shine, butstudio
beforemoon
fully drying is the time for burnishing.
 Using the same clay for both the body and terra sig by the Greeks, created a
strong bond between the two, which was a key characteristic of their work.

Ox 750C 1050C • Terra sig can be colored with

colorants. (Sieving and grinding
the stain/Oxide, etc. is necessary.)
• Introducing small amounts of
RIO or red ochre can enhance the
RFe 0 2.5% gloss and impart a reddish hue.
A burnished pot is often fired to 700-1000C (different sources). While
higher temperatures result in increased strength, they also alter the
color response and, most importantly, reduce the shine, as the clay
particles lose the structure created by burnishing during higher firings.
• Can first bisque fire to fix the results of burnishing, before smoke firing.
• Often 1-3 coats terra sig are applied. (thinner: -less effect, +less peeling)
• A burnished pot is often left for 24 hours to dry before firing.
• In case of peeling, CMC gum etc. can help... and also a slower firing.
James Watkins Low fire glaze dots Jody Folwell Micaousous clay
on a burnished pot.

Magdalene
A design O d u n d o
masked with Mica causing thermal shock resistance
tape... one and the golden tone + "fire clouds"
coat terra sig... @ decoration, a Pueblo tradition of
Saggar fired. using flames to create decoration.
Ricky Maldonado studio moon
Native American cultures have been burnishing pottery and creating
unique styles for millennia. The pottery traditions of the Pueblo tribes
of the US and their contemporary revival are an interesting example ...
`(Pueblo: Spanish for "city", referring to adobe settlements of Native
Americans. Pueblo culture includes the indigenous people of the south and
southwest of the US ~New Mexico and Arizona, ~20 different settlements)
... Burnished pots, detailed paintings with natural dyes, interest in nature,
animals, and geometric patterns, etc., are some of the characteristics
of their traditional art. Traditions that have gained a new life by a few
generations of contemporary artists. Maria Martinez (d.1980), among
the main forces of this revival, was a local artist known for her high
skill and speed in making very thin vessels and burnishing them using
traditional methods in San Ildefonso Pueblo. Her work, combined
with her husband’s designs based on his archaeological studies,
featured a major departure from their traditions, while inspired by
old methods of firing and use of materials. Native American pottery
often features black designs on a burnished white background,
known as “Black on White” pottery. However, Maria Martinez and her
husband created the first “Black on Black” pottery, made of a balanced
subtle contrast between matte and glossy black. The couple’s use of
traditional elements in modern ways, created an updated translation
of Pueblo pottery that appealed to the market’s taste. High demand
soon led many workshops in the region to make similar vessels.
And, through a few generations, with designs and techniques becoming
more complex, finding depth with relief, etc., the contemporary Pueblo
artists have crafted some of the most exquisite burnished pottery.
Maria
Martinez

@
studio moon
Martinez coated matte areas of a burnished pot with an oil
from the local Guaco plant. And then smoke firing created
the black finish. Later, she lowered firing temperature to
enhance the shine, sacrificing strength and water resistance
for a more decorative appeal, which the market preferred.
Maria
Martinez

Radiating Feathers Pattern

on ancient Pueblo Pottery

To replicate Martinez’s visual effect without Guaco oil, different

sources test with various methods, adding ground RIO to
terra sig, painting with terra sig without polishing it, painting
with other slips, or masking (J. Watkin's example before), etc.

C. Youngblood Jody Folwell Ancient Pueblo Pottery(^) & Architecture(v)

v
Jacob Koopee

@
studio moon
 Mata Ortiz farmer Juan
YouTube Quezada, inspired by local
Pre-Columbian pottery finds,
revived the traditional
methods, laying the ground-
work for Mata Ortiz's astonish-
ing contemporary pottery.

Virgil Ortiz The works of cont-

emporary artists with
Native American
roots serve as a
reminder of the
brutalities inflicted
by white colonizers
upon their people.
D. Romero

>
>
>
to create his black pigment.
way of boiling wild spinach
V. Ortiz uses the traditional

Tammy Garcia
P r e st o n + Jody Naranjo
Singletary
a reknown glass
artist with Native
American roots
who collaborates
with ceramists on
D. Romero, self described
sgraffito glass/ a “chronologist on the
@
Camoe glass. studio moon absurdity of human nature”
OIL DRUM GAS KILN
nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Raku/Barrel/Gas Kiln
• Many Online DIYs are available for gas kilns.
‌ orced air burners are often used for
F
reduction with gas as the reducing agent.
• Don’t have to use a barrel. Can build a container
in any size with some L section profiles and
sheet metal, with rather similar instructions.
However, one drawback of rectangular kilns
can be the trapping of smoke in their corners.
• A
‌ barrel must be turned upside down
in order to get rid of all the stuff on its
top, as a flat surface is needed for the lid.
• Better to get the gas from an outlet with a higher
pressure like the main gas line of a building, to avoid
insufficient pressure, especially above ~1000C.

Forced Air Burner Venturi Burner

@
studio moon
 1200C, 20CM Ceramic Sheath Thermocouple
ingre- for ~1100C max firing temperature +
dients! approximately 3 meters of extension
cable. An excessively long cable may
cause display errors on the thermometer.

30-35 Ceramic
buttons made Ceramic Fiber Blanket with min.
from white clay 128 density... often 60cm wide...
for ~100C higher than max. temp.
Toggle latches to
shut the lid and the
burner’s port tightly

1m threaded rods 12-20m heating

x 2, for the handles. element wire
@
studio moon
 2
Damper: Cut a sim-
3 The lid: Cut the
barrel ~6cm from
the top ... then place
ilar opening to the the lid on the blan-
burner’s port on the kets and cut 4 cir-
lid for the damper. cles the same size
(~60cm diameter)
5
Handles: Cut the
plus a smaller one
(~55cm diameter).
1m long ~0.8 cm 3 of these circles are
threaded rods in for the lid and the
half and fold each rest are placed un-
50cm to have a der the floor shelf.
~20-25cm middle
section (using pipes)
... and fix them
4
Thermocouple inlet:
with nuts from
the both sides. Drill a hole ~⅓ dis-
tance from the
top, after cutting
Burner’s Port: Cut a the lid... this must
12cm diameter cir- be perpendicular to
cle or a 10cm square the burner’s port.
with a 6 cm distance
from the bottom.
This empty space Floor Blankets: First
will be filled with the last 60cm circle
the floor blanket is placed... then the
layers and shelf. first wall layer...then
the smaller circle on
At last, a refractory th floor... and finally
brick must be placed the wall’s next lay-
on the opposite er... similar to the di-
side of the burn- agram... this way the
er’s port in order to
scatter the flame. 1 @
studio moon 6 layers will interlock
and insulate better.
Wall insulation: Cut
the blanket~the same
length as the circum-
7 Can use 20cm
wide ribbons
from the wastes to
9
ference of the barrel fully seal the top...
... the second layer the lid’s weight will
would require less. keep them fixed.
... and cut the extra
on top, leaving some ...if making a cus-
~4cm, which will tom kiln the lid
settle after a while. can be slightly big-
ger than walls so the

60 cm ~ blanket width
8
two would interlock.

Fixing the blankets: The first shelf should

use the ceramic but- be placed ~30-35
tons and 0.6-0.8 ele- cm above the floor
ment wire to fix them. to provide enough
6 buttons in levels room for the firebox.
that fix the edges.
Will need some 12-
*
30-35 cm

20m element wire.

• Note that a margin

10
around the edge is
needed when fixing
the lid’s blankets, so it
can be shut properly. • Lastly, install the shelves and the thermocouple.
• At last, cut the top • Can use kiln posts or bricks. Temp. will increase
and bottom open- too fast in a kiln as small as a barrel. Using bricks
ings from the blankets as posts can help with controlling the temp.
using a sharp knife.
• Based on what you do, better to use refractory
• Floor blankets do bricks around the firebox as normal bricks
not need fixing, and may start to melt at readings above ~900C.
the kiln furniture will
@
keep them in place. studio moon
A small port for
introducing wood

To prevent backfiring, the

burner should be tilted
slightly upwards. I use a
brick to increase the angle.

@
studio moon
A “T“ fitting enables using city gas and the propane tank
simultaneously, I rarely use the tank (~20%) and the blower
(~20-30%) + city gas (~60-70%) for intense reduction of Silver
... and just city gas (~70-90%) for a regular reduction.
A thicker hose
for the city
gas would
help an eas- High pressure
ier rise ~2-3 gas regulator
cm diameter
Propane tank
entry
City gas entry
a small blower

The burner’s The burner’s

lighter entry main entry

Even a small blower is too

strong for a barrel size
kiln... if connected directly
to the burner, even with
fully shut air entry, too
much Oxygen would make
reduction impossible, and Heat Tape
the temp. will rise quickly.
I use different tricks to
decrease the air entry. @
studio moon
 [Link]

@
studio moon
 A kiln used just for raku firing is essentially a lid,
so the pieces can be taken out of the kiln easier.
Supplier’s website(<>)

@
studio moon
 Pigment/Persian luster reduction kiln

@
studio moon
William De Morgan (1218-1295)
SAGGAR FIRING
THERMAL SHOCK
PIT FIRING
ALTERNATIVE FIRINGS I

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Thermal Shock
Some decorations involve the removal of a hot pot from (often) a
gas kiln at high temperatures ~700-1000C. This extreme thermal
shock can break a standard clay body. Therefore, materials that
make clay porous are added to clay for thermal shock resistance.
1. Combustible materials 2. non- Combustible materials
1. Paper pulp (~5%), bulrush pulp, goat hair, Polystyrene, sawdust, etc.
2. Grog (15-30%), Refractory/Fire clay, Talc, sand (w effects on color), etc.

• Grog/Chamotte(French) is crushed bisqueware, that unlike raw

clay, no longer absorbs water and swell. (often recycled brick)
• P
‌ aper and Grog are more commonly used. A Fine-grained
white grog is a popular choice for a rather smooth white finish.
The above materials can be mixed with clay by wedging, or for better
consistency, they can be added to the clay that has been soaked in water
and blended into a slurry. The excess water is removed with a cloth, and
the remaining moisture is dried on a plasterboard with another cloth.
Digital Fire<<< Grog Jody Folwell

Thermal Paper Clay

Shock test 25% Grog Mica Clay Ellis Moseley
The Northern Pueblo tribes of the US have used mica in
their pottery for centuries due to their proximity to mica
Robert Vigil

mines. Mica adds shock resistance and a golden tone

to pottery. And, The only decoration on their vessels is
often the effects @the flames known as “Fire Clouds”.
of
studio moon
“Grogs are added to bodies to reduce drying shrinkage, firing
shrinkage and thermal expansion; increase stability during firing, and
add texture. Grogs can have particles that fall within a narrow range
of sizes or a wide range of sizes. Generally, wide ranges impart density
and faster drying but cut plasticity while narrow ranges preserve
plasticity and dry strength while improving drying performance.“(DF)
Digital Fire > ... adding interest to sculpture bodies. Thrown with gloves on
> >

Katerina Syriou
The reduced shrinkage of groged bodies is not the only reason they
are less likely to crack. The resulting porosity also creates a pathway
for water to move to the surface. i.e., storing water in a container with
higher porosity will gradually lead to more water loss, which also cools
the water more due to evaporative cooling. In tropical regions, this
phenomenon is used to cool food in containers with various names.

Louise Solecki Weir

“Sculpture bodies are known for their high grog content, 20-30%
is typical but much more is possible if the base body is super
plastic and the grog asserts a low surface area... for grogged
bodies on the potter’s wheel, the grog is of smaller sizes, particles
have a flatter or angular shape,@
the grog content is below
20%... the body base is fine and
studio highly plastic and soft.”(DF)
moon
 Many sources discuss various benefits of paper pulp on clay. Paper
as a reinforcement makes clay less likely to crack. Thus, paper clay
is a good choice for extremely thin or large pieces. It can be used
as a glue to repair broken bisqueware, and also offers additional
advantages like increased flexibility and reduced weight, etc.
Choices vary, newspaper, egg cartons, paper towel, toilet paper, etc.
To make paper clay, i.e. egg cartoons that are soaked in water are
blended to a slurry. To prevent mold growth, a little bleach can
be added. After removing the excess water and squeezing, the
resulting paper pulp is ready to be used or frozen as thin sheets.

~5% Paper Pulp (dry weight) , is enough to provide shock resistance

2kg slip or ~1kg dry clay (~20% of clay:water) + 50g paper towel
• can use a mix of different materials, i.e. 70-80% dry clay+ ...
20% grog ... or 15% talc + 15% fire clay ... or 15% grog + 10% sand, etc.
• The texture, color, and amount of any additive requires testing.
• Fire clay, being a type of clay itself, bonds well with a ceramic body.
Mica Jody Folwell

Paper Barbro Aberg Twin Earth Ceramics Grog

Shock-resistant clays typically have a rough texture. When slip
casting, the side in contact with the mold acquires a smooth
finish from the mold itself. However, the opposite side retains
its rough, bumpy texture. And typically removing shock-
resistant slip from the mold after casting can be more difficult.
“High grog can give rough surfaces@
on the exposed clay of a
foot, a solution is terra sigstudio
mademoon
from the base clay body.”(DF)
“Saggars have been used to protect ware from open
flame, smoke, gases and kiln debris....The manufacturer
of saggars in the ~15th C. China occupied a large
proportion of space, labor and material (fuel & clay) at the
imperial manufactury, and more kilns were devoted to
creating them than to firing the final product.” (Wikipedia)
... but today’s saggars essentially do the opposite, &
are used to create a confined atmosphere in the kiln.
~700-950C
Saggar Firing
Firing pottery in any container, a pit, a barrel, Aluminum foil, factory
made saggars, etc. is called Saggar Firing. (often done in a gas kiln)
Hong Seongil

For a black finish in saggar firing, a pot burnished with terra sigillata
is placed in a container along with combustibles. This envelopes
the pot with intense smoke during firing, which blackens it
with the carbon deposit on the surface. (like a pot on fire)
• A sealed container, can be fired in both, a gas kiln or an electric kiln.
• Throwing some wood into a gas kiln at high temperatures,
can help the process, and keep the kiln smoky while cooling.
• Saggars of similar size and shape to the pot will give better results.
can use Tin cans of different sizes as a saggar, or...
The Pottery Wheel blog

... can wrap Aluminum foil around the pot (evp. ~ 750C),
... can wrap a Paper clay sheet around the pot, which easily
comes off later. (clay sheets w/o paper crack during the firing),
... can use a bigger bisque fired @
pot and block it with
another upside down pot, or a clay
studio moonsheet... and so on.
 Fuming is a versatile (and dangerous) process, in which, (often)
Chloride salts of various metals are introduced to the kiln at high
temperatures (or sprayed on the hot glaze). As the salts vaporize and
release deadly Chlorine gas, on their way out, they leave a layer
of metal with irregular patterns on the pots, known as ”Flashings”.
In saggar firing, lighter colors can be achieved with fewer
combustibles, typically accompanied by the use of salts from
various metals to create colored flashings. (Similar to fuming)
various salts Steel/Copper wire

L. & C. Riggs - CAN 20 min hold ~870C

Some notes from L. & C. Riggs’s post on CAN about their work:
• Thrown 3-6mm thick saggars with grogged clay (cracks : kiln cement)
• As a burnished pot, chronicles fingerprints, uneven terra sig,
scratches, etc., they handle their work carefully with clean latex
gloves when loading the kiln, and prefer to spray terra sig.
• Their bisque firing temperature is ~850-952C. Firing too
low results in no fuming and a darker color (similar to high
combustibles), and firing too high would burn the color and Carbon.
• They often finish with a ~20 min hold at 870C. A longer hold may
burn off Carbon/soot and Color, and less can darken the result.
• They often fill ⅓ of a Saggar with wood shavings, and spread
various salts around the perimeter. The pot is then placed on
the shavings (or a broken shelf piece). Lastly, Copper wire and
steel wool are wrapped around the pot for more distinct effects.
• For a brighter finish, they leave a small gap for air flow(4).
• After cleaning, the pot is polished, and sealed with waxes/fixatives.
Saggar firing is used on unglazed @ pieces. However, can glaze the
inside of a pot and to protect studio
it, place the pot upside down in a saggar.
moon
 NaCl The Pottery Wheel Blog

Ferric Chloride Copper

w/o a final soak Face mask for S u l p h a t e crinkled up foil & seaweed salt infused twine
Chlorine gas

~750C
• Can brush, pour, or spray Ferric/Iron Chloride for an orange tone.
• Ferric Chloride is a metal corrosive substance with various
uses in industries. In ceramics it often is used in alternative
firings and fuming. Due to its corrosive nature, an inexpensive
spray gun is often assigned to it. (must wash quickly)
• Various salts used in fuming, such as Sodium Chloride, Copper
Chloride, etc., can also be used for similar effects in saggar firing.
Chlorine salts are among the most toxic common ceramic materials.
when Saggar firing with a gas kiln, that requires operating...
or when spraying them... or in any exposure to Chlorine gas...
MUST WEAR A FACE COVERING MULTI-FILTERED MASK,
GLOVES, LONG-SLEEVED SHIRT & EXERCISE EXTREME CAUTION.
• Can spread various salts in the saggar along with wood shavings.
• Can apply the salt water mix on a piece of cloth or newspaper,
and wrap it around the work, and continue to build layers
with various salts... also possible with paper clay sheets.
• Can create more distinct patterns with steel or copper wire wrap.
Can try different combustibles and @
temperatures... direct application
of salts... or placing cotton balls
studiosoaked
moon in metal salts on the pot.
 an excerpt from S.v. Dassow’s book on Edgeworth Barnes process on CAN:
“Barnes uses one part each of Copper Sulfate, fine sea salt, cottonseed
meal, baking soda, and 1/2 part each Copper Carbonate and Titanium
dioxide in his saggars. For larger pots he mixes these materials with water
to create an evil looking bubbling liquid he calls “swamp juice” and brushes
this juice directly onto the saggar to avoid having all the chemicals
concentrated only near the bottom of the pot. He also uses coarse steel
wool, copper wire and seaweed... He punches holes in the (thrown) rims
of his saggars to allow airflow, and fires to 1600F (870C) in about an hour.
(shock resistant clay in Saggar firing is needed only when fast firing.)
... Barnes now prefers an Aluminum foil saggar... (first,) he paints each pot with
ferric chloride using a cheap foam brush... then mixes up the same swamp
juice in a shallow bowl with just enough water to make the mixture froth...
and he touches the pot to the bubbling mass... Or it can also be brushed
or splashed onto the pot... He scatters a little coarse steel wool, raw cotton
and wood chips on the foil that has been crinkled up and then spread back
out. Next he places moistened seaweed over these materials. Copper wire
or pieces of copper dish scrubber can also be added to the mix. Next the
pot is placed, usually top down, onto all these items... More (of the same
materials) are then placed over the pot. Finally, the foil is wrapped around
to cover the pot and pressed into close contact. “A little” of each of these
materials – too much combustibles can result in solid black pots if the foil
doesn’t burn away. The pots are tumble-stacked in a kiln and fired to 1260F
(680C ~cone 017), at which point much of the foil will have vaporized.”
!!! It is important to do this outside & away from people and homes !!!
Canton Clay Works Edge Barnes James Watkins MarciaSelsor,CAN

@ cotton balls infused

studio moon with various salts
 Pit Firing
A pit in the ground covered with sheets of metal, a brick
container, or a barrel, etc., all can function like a saggar.
When filled with combustibles and fired slowly, the
carbon deposit and various salts can produce a range
of intriguing effects, rather similar to saggar firing.
• Generally, moving away from highly controlled firings
in electric kilns makes slow heating more crucial and
challenging in order to avoid cracks from thermal
shock. Alternatively, shock-resistant clays can be used.
• Can finish the surface with natural oils or fixatives.
(Additionally, burnishing terra sigillata more and using
a lower firing temperature can intensify the shine.)

Jane White

Except in reduction, colorants@produce their usual colors in

alternative firings as well... Iron:
studio~brown,
moon Cobalt: blue, and so on.
 Alex Mandli
Jolanda van de Grint

[Link]

awesome! [Link] Canton Clay Works Pamela Summers Dan Ishler

article on CAN

@
studio moon
Steven Forbes

RAKU FIRING
ALTERNATIVE FIRINGS II

nightcermaics
@
studio moon
 Raku vs. raku
raku firing refers to creating a reduction environment outside
a kiln, that like other alternative firings creates post-firing
decorations often on unglazed pots burnished with terra sig.
raku process involves the removal of a thermal shock resistant
clay body from a kiln at high temperatures, and placing
it in a lidded metal container filled with combustible
materials (sawdust, paper, etc.) that ignite upon contact
with the hot pot. As a result, irregular, random patterns are
developed on the surface of the pot due to the unpredictable
movements of the flames and random reduction intensity.
Different [Link] Hair 4. Naked
BSQ
types of 2. Copper Matte 5. Obvara
raku 3. White Crackle 6. Luster Glaze Glaze

Creative Arts Studio blog

Raku (~enjoyment) is originally the last name of a Japanese family of potters,

whose ancestor earned the name during the 16thC. for making tea bowls
(cover) that were in harmony with the Japanese philosophy of Wabi-sabi.
(the appreciation of the beauty of imperfection and impermanence)
Japanese Raku mainly refers to this family’s
@ work and style, which does not
involve the post-firing reduction studio
of Western
moonraku after removal from the kiln.
 Horse Hair Raku
Horse hair raku is done by removing a hot pot
from the kiln at ~700-850C, and gently placing
animal hair or bird feathers on the piece.
(Thick and strong lines produced by horse hair,
make it a common choice in this type of raku.)
• Hair preferably is placed in a few strands and
not bundles, while being pulled from both sides.
• Lastly, the piece is cleaned, finely sanded, and
sealed with fixatives or natural oils. (Vaseline, etc.)
• ‌Slow cooling of larger pieces provides more time.
• C
‌ an glaze the inside or some parts of a pot,
and apply the technique to unglazed parts.
Mary Holmes Barbara Jensen Phyllis Roderer A. Rollins

“Wabi may be translated as "subdued, austere beauty," while Sabi

means "rustic patina". Wabi-sabi is derived from the Buddhist
teachings, of appreciating beauty that is "imperfect, impermanent,
and incomplete" in nature, and also desolation and solitude.
Characteristics of wabi-sabi aesthetics and principles include asymmetry,
roughness, simplicity, economy, austerity, modesty, intimacy, and the
appreciation of both natural objects@and the forces of nature.” Wikipedia
studio moon
 Copper Matte Raku
For Copper matte raku, a pot covered with a mix of Copper
and a small amount of glaze (as an adhesive) is removed
from the kiln at ~850-900C, and placed in combustibles.
As a result, the unpredictable interplay of flames creates
a random variation in the Copper coating’s reduction. i.e.:
80% CuO+ 20% Clear Alkaline Glaze
• An alkaline glaze promotes the process. i.e.:
10% B. Soda + 10% clear glaze, or 20% Alk. Frit,
or even, 90% Cu + 10% B. Soda, etc.
• Better to spray this mix. Can first mask patterns,
with tape, wax, etc., or can just cover some parts.
• Copper matte raku often produces richer colors
on red bodies, as the clay body’s RIO can react
with Copper to create more vibrant effects.
The cover/lid needs to be briefly removed a few times, to introduce
fresh air, which ignites and intensifies the flames, and wild patterning.

Shaun Hall Sara Wevill raaquu ceramics

Copper oxide is key to Copper matte’s

@
characteristic iridescence, while other
Copper compounds may also appear
studioin recipes found on various resources.
moon
The Pottery Wheel

Alcohol Spray Glo Coalson M. Baghaeian

Better to have the top layer of combustibles that comes

in contact with the work from fresh sawdust, and place
the old half-burnt residue from older firings below.
Can create similar effects by spraying alcohol. (YouTube & CAN)
The Glaze in a Copper matte mix acts as an adhesive, and
not a glass former, and the result is a matte rough finish.

Don Ellis

@
Braden
studio moon Gabriel
 White Crackle Raku
For crackle raku, a pot glazed with a crackle glaze is removed
from the kiln and placed in combustibles after a short soak
at ~1000-1050C once the glaze has fully matured. Through
raku process, smoke passes the cracks in the glaze, (which
are also intensified by the glaze’s quicker cooling compared
to the body’s), and leaves a black mark on the clay body.
• For increased crackle density and visual variation,
high-pressure air can be blown onto the desired
areas (more common), or water can be sprayed.
• For crackle raku, often a white glaze or a clear
glaze on a white body are used to achieve black
and white contrast, while can use colorants as well.
• Crackle glazes have high Alkaline fluxes. i.e.:
70% Clear or Opaque frit + 30% Baking Soda
... or 50% Opaque frit +50% Alk. frit, etc.
Vicente 's YouTube channel & Insta have through videos of the process. Jeannine
Garcia Hannum

Tin Roof Pottery Jane Murray Smith

@
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 Naked Raku
Naked raku shares similarities with crackle glaze raku.
However, instead of a glaze, a layer of slip or engobe is
applied to the pot. The thermal shock from removing the
hot pot from the kiln at ~1000C causes the engobe layer
to crack. And similar to crackle raku, the smoke passing
through these cracks leaves a black mark on the clay body.
After firing, the slip layer, traumatized! by this shocking
process! easily peels off, revealing a black crackle
pattern contrasting with often a white clay body.
• The slip layer due to its temporary task is also
called the sacrificial slip/layer.
Unlike slip decorations, the slip coating in naked
raku doesn’t require a strong bond with the body.
In contrast, strategies that weaken this bond and
prevent any fusion are needed. Therefore, the slip
should have a very high melting temperature,
eliminating the need for added glaze/adhesive.
50% Kaolin + 50% Silica
Alistair Danhieux Wally Asselberghs Galigalidis Art Kris Paul

@
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Thick slip application can cause pinholes that turn into black dots
after raku firing. It can also lead to unpredictable peeling,
which again results in unwanted black areas. Both of these
may distort the design or can be used as design elements.

For easier slip removal in Naked Raku, applying slip on

bisqueware is preferred over leather hard or bone dry
pots, as it creates a weaker slip/body bond. Burnishing can
also weaken this bond. Additionally, spraying a very thin
layer of clear glaze can cause the entire slip layer to peel
off at once after firing. Pouring water on the hot pot after
removing it from the sawdust can achieve the same effect.
David Roberts
Simcha Even-Chen

While crackle glaze raku relies primarily on crackle

density for variation, naked raku allows for the use of
diverse slip decoration techniques, such as painting,
masking, Sgraffito, and partial application, etc. (As
the mask burns off during firing, similar to bare areas,
the masked parts also turn black.) Thus, naked raku
enables a much wider range of design possibilities and
a more controlled black-and-white
@
contrast compared
to crackle glaze raku, leading to its greater popularity.
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 Obvara Raku
A quote from Marcia Selsore’s website on CAN
“(The brew) is mixed three days in advance of firing. Pieces are
made and bisqued before the final firing. Using a raku kiln,
fire a batch of pots to 1650F(900C). Pieces are removed one at
time, dunked into the brew and then quickly into water. Then
they air cool. The brew burns quickly on the surface of the
piece before going into the water. The water stops the burning
and color change. The obvara firing technique is a technique
originally used to seal low fire pottery. It is believed to have
originated in Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. There is
a revival of the process underway in Ukraine and the Baltics. It
is nicknamed “Baltic Raku.” The solution which I call the “brew”
is a mixture of flour, yeast, and water. If the kiln gets below
1500F(815C) before all the pots are processed, turn the kiln
back on and take it back to 1650F. It the piece is too cool the
obvara firing process doesn’t work and makes a slimy mess.“
Marcia
Selsore

The crackle effect seen here comes from the application

of Sodium Silicate on a freshly thrown pot. (YouTube)
These cracks have provided
@ an excellent base
that brings out the beauty
studio moonof this type of Raku.
 Luster Glaze
The randomness of raku reduction
outside a kiln during the post-firing
reduction of luster glazes (containing
Silver, Copper, etc.) produces more
unpredictable results compared to a
standard reduction. After firing a luster
glaze, the pot is removed from the
kiln at ~700-1000C while it is cooling
and placed in combustibles, causing
a metallic surface to develop on
the glaze through raku reduction. Steven Forbes, abraded
(different temperatures need testing.) with a hand grinder
Can combine different Raku or Saggar techniques...
can put some metallic salts on a foil under a
piece that is going through raku process to get
saggar firing’s fuming effects... or drop a piece
of salt infused cloth on the pot before raku, etc.
Middle! Adding some Copper to a crackle raku & reduction of
Copper... or iow, mixing crackle and luster glaze raku! ... it’s all fun!
Nancy Pene Pam Summers
Anita Feng

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artstudios 2 studio moon
Yabu Meizan

RESIN LUSTERS
OXIDATION FIRED LUSTERS

nightcermaics
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 Lusters
Lusters are metallic compounds applied to a
fired glaze, that after a third firing (following
bisque and glaze firings) develop a metallic
finish and iridescence on the underlying glaze.
‌‌Greg Daly’s “Lustre” (2012) book is a
good source for experimenting with lusters.
‌Alan Caiger-Smith’s “Lustre Pottery“ (1985) is among
the
• few sources focused on pigment/Persian lusters.
TYPES OF LUSTERS:
OXIDATION FIRED LUSTERS:
1. Resin Lusters 2. Fuming
REDUCTION FIRED LUSTERS:
3. Luster Glazes 4. Pigment Lusters
•R
‌ esin lusters (aka commercial lusters) are often
purchased ready made, and brushed on a fired glaze.
•F
‌ uming involves introducing salts of various
metals into a kiln at high temperatures... (or direct
spray on a hot glaze)... As these salts vaporize and
decompose, often releasing deadly Chlorine gas,
on their way out, their metals leave random patterns
of a thin metallic film on glazes, known as “Flashings”.
Fuming with Chlorine salts is extremely dangerous due to the release
of toxic Chlorine gas. (pouring into a kiln, spraying onto a hot glaze, etc.)
Proper ventilation and safety equipment, including a multi filtered face
mask, gloves, and other protective@gear, are absolutely essential for it.
! In fact, glaze forums often strongly advise against trying it altogether !
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 Resin Lusters
Resin lusters are first diluted with a solvent
(often petrol) before commonly being brushed
on fired glazes, and then are fired to ~700-800C.
Some lusters produce a solid color, and cover the surface
below, which are suitable for painting. Others are
partly transparent, and allow the glaze below to partly
be visible through the resulting iridescent metallic layer.
When firing resin lusters, the burning of
the resin reduces the metal salts in the
luster, creating a metallic film on the glaze.
Thus, there is no need for reduction firing;
in fact, they often turn dark if reduced.
The firing temperature for luster must be high
enough to soften the base glaze for proper fusion.
Colored Lusters: Gold and Platinum,etc. 750C
Colorless Lusters: Mother of Pearl, etc. 680-700C
Greg Daly, Mother of Pearl luster on gold luster Tomimoto Kenkichi, Gold luster

@
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 Gold Luster
• Despite its high price due to containing actual
gold, gold luster is the most common colored lusters.
• Gold lusters must be diluted with its own special
and rather expensive solvent.
• Can paint with gold luster on any glaze. (clear, opaque,...)
There are various shades and types of gold luster, matte, etc.
TThe main constraint with gold luster is that correcting a mistake
can leave a stain. While re-firing can often fix this with most types of
lusters, including pigment lusters, it may not be effective for gold luster.
This also means, unlike other overglaze materials like pigment lusters,
decorating with Sgraffito is almost impossible with gold luster.
Alan Peascod, Gold luster sgraffito with Acid Etching, Greg Daly, Acrylic Paint
a dangerous process that requires skill and experiment. masking before luster

Due to the high cost of trial and error in mastering gold

luster, it’s better to start @ simple and first develop an
understanding of the correct thickness
studio moon and application process.
Working With Gold Luster
Start by drawing lines with varying
luster thickness on a tile with a fired
regular glaze. After luster firing,
compare the results to understand
the appropriate workable thickness.
Begin with a higher thickness, then
gradually dilute the mixture step by
step, drawing lines while recording
the
• amount of added solvent.
• If gold luster’s mix is too thin, the result will be a
pink/purple color, and gold color will not develop.
• If gold luster’s mix is too thick, the resulting gold
color will get a cloudy and dusty appearance.
Johanna DeMaine

@
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If luster can be rubbed away after firing, the firing
temperature has been too low and the underlying glaze
has not softened enough. Can increase the luster firing‘s
temperature, or add more flux to the underlying glaze.
• After firing, you can reapply the areas with thin
application or insufficient material and then re-fire.
(The two notes above also apply to colorless lusters.)
• It is better to paint with a high-viscosity gold
luster mix to minimize the risk of dripping.
Yabu Meizan

@
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 Colorless Lusters
Colorless Lusters are commonly used to add a
metallic sheen and iridescence to various glazes.
Mother of pearl luster (from Bismuth
salts) is the most used colorless luster.
• Colorless lusters can be diluted with their
special solvent, petrol, etc. While, petrol is a
common and affordable choice.
Colorless lusters often start to change color
and then burn if fired higher than ~700-800C.
• In a luster firing, a final soak at ~700C often is
not required, and can finish after reaching 700C.
• If fired too low or applied too thickly, the
luster layer can be rubbed away after firing.
Can double check the result by firmly
rubbing the luster with a piece of cloth.

@
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 Colorless lusters on a crackle glaze, especially
when applied thickly, would gather in the
corners of the cracks, causing a particular effect.
For luster application, I place a tall kiln post (etc.)
on a banding wheel, and then place the upside
down i.e mug on the post. As the luster would take
some 30 minutes to dry and cannot be touched.
On a vertical surface, luster’s running and dripping
can be problematic, even when applied thickly.
By elevating the work as shown in the image
below, the running material will gather on the
rim, which is perpendicular to the main surface
and therefore can be easily cleaned without
worrying about touching/smearing the adjacent
areas. Lastly, can reapply luster on the rim.

Mother of pearl on Blue

Right, Mother of pearl luster applied on a reduced luster glaze,

interestingly, the reduced glaze does not reoxidize in a
luster firing schedule due to the lack of time and also being
covered by the luster, resulting
@ in a stunning layered finish.
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 Colorless lusters are more visible and therefore
more common on dark colors, while the
pearl-like finish of mother of pearl luster
on a white glaze has its own subtle beauty.
• Mixing colorless lusters, and layering them (after
drying) can be used to gain more variation.
Luster application can be done through various methods, such as
spraying, airbrushing, creating texture with paper towels, etc.
• Freshly laid luster will level itself after a while.
• While lusters are often Food Safe (consult
the supplier), due to their high cost, they
often are only used on exterior surfaces.
• Many examples on Youtube and Instagram.
Mother of Pearl luster, Galaxy Clay

The best results with mother of pearl luster are achieved

by creating randomness and variation through a
swirling motion of the hand/brush. The softness or
@
roughness of the brush can also affect the outcome.
studio moon
 Although commercial resin lusters are more common,
Greg Daly’s book also explains how to simply make
them in detail. Some basic notes from his book:
“The colored lusters are based on Gold, Cobalt, Platinum,
Iron, Uranium, Chrome, Nickel, Manganese and Copper,
while colorless lusters are based on Bismuth, Silver,
Lead, Zinc, Alumnia, and Stannous(tin), for example.
All the metals used in resin lusters are Nitrate,
Acetate, Sulphate or Chloride forms of the metals.
They need to be soluble in water (Carbonates
and Oxides are not.) Being water soluble, such
salts can easily be absorbed into the skin, so it
is imperative that you use protective gloves.
A luster from metal salts and resin will rob straight
off after the firing. A low temperature flux
needs to be included in the mix, which in most
cases is Bismuth, though Lead can also be used.
i.e. Bismuth alone can create a faint mother of pearl luster.
When combined with Zn and Pb the result will be stronger.
Pine Resin 10g + Lead Acetate 2g + Zinc Acetate 2g + Bismuth Nitrate 2g
In colored lusters: Gold is used for reds, pink, and
purples, Palladium for silver, Uranium for a greenish-
yellow, Chrome for yellow, Cobalt for brown
to gunmetal, Nickel for light brown, Manganese
for brown, Iron for light brown to orange, Copper
for brown to red + blue and gold. And a small
amount of Bismuth with gold luster gives a Copper
sheen, while more Bismuth can create a blue shade.
i.e. this is a silvery gunmetal colored luster:
Pine Resin 10g + Cobalt Nitrate
@ 3g + Bismuth Nitrate 2g
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REDUCTION FIRING

nightcermaics
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 Reduction Firing
A reduction atmosphere in a kiln is characterized by
reduced Oxygen levels and an excess of fuel. This results in
incomplete combustion and the release of Carbon Monoxide
gas, which then steals loosely bonded Oxygen from other
materials, converting into more stable CO₂ . This process,
known as reduction of glaze, luster, etc., is achieved by
introducing excessive fuel into the kiln while limiting air entry.
Elements commonly used in reduction firing, aka reduction materials,
include Iron, Copper, Silver, Bismuth, Tin, etc.
“Reduction Firing” can refer to two different processes:
1. Creating a reducing atmosphere in the kiln while heating
the kiln, and as a glaze is melted to maturing temperature
2. Creating a reducing atmosphere in the kiln as a glaze is
cooling after a complete firing, or by reheating it afterwards.

• T
‌ he first process is often used on Iron glazes; as
in a reducing atmosphere, Iron loses its Oxygen
and changes from a refractory to a flux. This
Iron in reduction
necessitates continuing the firing after reduction.
Digital Fire

• This first process, is described throughly in

L. Arbuckle's free Online PDF, "Reduction Firing".

@
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 Reduction during cooling after glaze firing,
or after reheating a fired luster glaze (glazes
containing Copper, Silver, etc.) is used to alter
color and appearance of reduction materials.
• Luster glazes can be fired in a gas kiln with
sufficient Oxygen, then reduced when kiln
reached ~650-800C range while cooling.
• As glaze firing in oxidation is easier
and more reliable in electric kilns, an
initial glaze firing in an electric kiln,
followed by reheating the fired glaze
in a gas kiln for a so-called third firing
reduction, is the more common practice.

3CuOx+1Ag+4Bis @
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 Materials in Reduction
In reduction of luster glazes and pigment lusters...
Copper’s green in oxidation changes to various
shades of red or takes on a metallic copper
sheen, depending on the reduction conditions.
Silver, which is colorless in oxidation, can
produce iridescence and a wide range of colors
in reduction, from gold with a light reduction
at lower temperatures to electric blue with
heavier reduction at higher temperatures.
Bismuth, which is also colorless in oxidation,
is commonly used with Silver or Copper
to enhance their effects and iridescence,
and has fewer uses on its own.
Silver glaze in an intense reduction

Persian/pigment Luster, reduction @

of raw Silver and Copper overglazestudio moon
Reduction’s incomplete combustion causes a temperature drop.
However, especially with gas, maintaining or even increasing
the temperature with a lighter reduction or in a neutral
environment (not oxidation, but not enough reduction for
any changes) is possible and used for Iron reduction glazes.
In reduction of Iron glazes...
Reduction firing of mid/high fire iron glazes utilizes iron’s
transformation into a flux during reduction by continuing
and completing the glaze firing after reducing Iron....
Also adding Iron to low fire luster glazes
typically introduces more variation and depth.
Celadons Tenmoku Teadust

Iron on Digital Fire

• Iron’s weak bond with Oxygen, causes it to readily
bond with Oxygen (rusting) or to lose it (reduction).
So it can easily be reduced with a light reduction.
• Reduction of Iron turns Fe2O3 of RIO to FeO or Black Iron Oxide.
(different from Fe3O4 of the mineral form of Black Iron Oxide)
• While Iron is a strong refractory in Oxidation, FeO is a powerful
flux, active in mid or high fire ranges, similar to Alkaline Earth
Metals. Thus, Iron’s behaviors @
in reduction and (low fire)
oxidation environments studio
can moon
be seen as nearly opposite.
 Temperature & Reduction Intensity
Luster glazes can be reduced within the ~650-850C range.
At lower temperatures, the glaze has not softened enough
to allow CO gas to penetrate its structure. And while above
~850C may work for some higher-melt glazes, a common low-
fire earthenware glaze that melts in the ~1025-1075C range
becomes too fluid, preventing gases from easily entering its
structure. Additionally, the results can re-oxidize during cooling.
Reduction at lower temperatures (~700-730C) produces brighter
and more lustrous results, while reducing higher (~750-800C)
leads to deeper, darker and metallic results with more variation.
(Reducing too low (~65C0) can muddy and darken the outcome.)
...& also altering reduction intensity has relatively similar effects.
Left, Silver in a light reduction in ~650-730C
Right, Silver in a heavier reduction in ~700-780C

This is a clear glaze with 2% Silver + 4% Bismuth w/o any colorants.

Understanding the effects of reduction intensity and

temperature requires some trial
@ and error to find a process
that can be repeated based
studioon the outcomes one prefers.
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Creating a Reduction Atmosphere in a Kiln
A Reduction atmosphere is created by restricting
the amount of air/Oxygen entering the kiln while
also introducing excessive solid fuels or gas.
(Reduction firing is often done in a gas kiln.)
First, the kiln is heated to the desired temperature
within the range of 650-800C. To ensure even
temperature distribution throughout the kiln
and allow the pieces to absorb the heatwork (the
combined effect of temperature and time), the kiln
is then soaked for 15-20 minutes before reduction.
I often heat up my kiln at a ~200-250C per hour rate,
and reach reduction temperature in ~3-4 hours.
The temperature difference between top and
bottom shelves is often estimated to be around
one cone (~25C). To compensate for this, the kiln
can be soaked at a slightly higher temperature than the
reduction temperature before reduction. Additionally,
especially with solid fuels, a more significant drop
occurs at the start of reduction due to the influx of fuel.
...Alternatively, for even heat distribution, the kiln temperature
can first be raised to ~50C above the reduction temperature,
and after a 15-20 minute soak, the kiln can be shut off
and allowed to cool slowly to the desired temperature.
Especially in DIY kilns, even slight variations in the placement
of the thermocouple may affect the pyrometer reading.
Therefore, it is crucial to focus on
@
fine-tuning your process based
on your kiln conditions and studiodesired
moon results through testing.
 Reduction with Solid Fuels
Once the kiln has reached the desired temperature, combustible
materials are introduced through the burner’s port. Then,
the lower opening is shut, followed by the top opening.
• Various combustibles can be used for reduction,
i.e., wood (more common), sugar, various oils, etc.
• F
‌ inding the right amount of fuel takes some testing.
Start with a few small pieces of wood, a cup of sugar
cubes, or a mix of both... then try more. A few test firings
can provide a basic understanding of the process.
Can carefully open the kiln and observe the degree of reduction.
(The changes from reduction do not get undone quickly)
Excessive fuel results in cloudy and dark outcomes,
while insufficient fuel produces pale and light results.
Generally, types of wood that burn
quickly are preferred, something that
would burn fast and produce a lot of
smoke (like sugar), rather than large
chunks of wood. i.e. wood shavings,
pallet wood, small MDF pieces, etc.

Since an amount of wood similar to the image fully burns in

~3-5 min, for a heavier reduction, can throw a few more
pieces into the kiln after a while, and repeat before excessive
temperature drop. (Caution is required when opening a kiln
as a@moon
in reduction with wood, studio ball of flame may push out.)
 Reduction with Gas
Gas reduction often delivers more uniform results
compared to solid fuels due to the inability to
control the smoke path with solid fuels. In contrast,
reduction with gas transforms the entire
kiln into a combustion chamber filled with
gas, creating a much more even atmosphere.
For reduction with gas, the air entries are blocked, and the
flue is partially blocked with broken kiln shelves to about 95%.
Then, the gas input is significantly increased, and after some
30 seconds, the gas exiting the top is lit with a long lighter.
The flame above the flue serves as the primary
indicator of the conditions in the kiln. A yellow,
soft, and tall (~20 cm) flame signifies reducing
conditions within the kiln, while a blue, short,
and strong flame indicates oxidizing conditions.

Reduction Firing, CAN

It is essential to note that the AUTOIGNITION temperature of

gas is approximately ~550-600C. Therefore, for safety reasons,
SHOULD NOT REDUCE WITH GAS AT TEMPERATURES BELOW ~600C,
as there is a risk of unburnt gas
@
accumulating inside the kiln,
which could then lead tostudio
an moon
explosion when it is opened.
Blocking the flue too much can lead to back pressure, forcing gas
back through the burner’s port and creating a flame near the port.
(This flame can be extinguished by wind, etc., yet back pressure may
still persist.) As a general safety rule, it’s better to prevent this from
happening. However, can carefully adjust the gas input and the top
opening to maintain a whiff of flame near the burner’s port. This
can be a sign of adequate pressure distribution throughout the kiln.
Can use city gas (cheaper) or a propane tank for reduction with gas:
The liquid content of a propane tank provides higher pressure,
and is therefore suitable for a heavier reduction. Approximately
10-15 minutes of reduction with a propane tank can be sufficient.
City gas’s lower pressure works better for lighter reduction,
and reduction with it takes longer, ~30 minutes or more for me.
For a lighter reduction (Silver > Gold), I typically only open
the city gas valve to around 75-100%. And for a more
intense reduction (Silver > Blue), I mix both using a T fitting:
~20% P. Tank + 60-70% City gas + 10-20% of the Blower’s output

The crucial factor in reduction is the pressure in the kiln, not necessarily
the amount of fuel. Therefore, there is no need to wastefully use the
full output of the propane tank. Instead,
@ you can utilize a blower to
achieve optimal pressure within themoon
studio kiln and use gas more efficiently.
Greg Daly

LUSTER GLAZES
REDUCTION FIRED LUSTERS I

nightcermaics
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 Reduction Lusters
Greg Daly’s “Lustre” (2012) book is a
good source for experimenting with lusters.
‌Alan Caiger-Smith’s “Lustre Pottery“ (1985) is among
the few sources focused on pigment/Persian lusters.
1. Luster Glazes 2. Pigment/Persian Lusters
• Luster glazes are made by adding reduction materials,
such as Silver, Bismuth, or Copper, etc. to a glaze.
• Pigment lusters, are made by the application
of raw reduction materials on a fired glaze.
.A key distinction between the two lies in the complete melt
of luster glazes during their glaze firing, which transforms
materials into the finest possible particle size. In pigment lusters
(essentially overglazes with raw ground reduction materials)
materials are ground to reduce their particle size; however,
this does not achieve the same level of fineness as firing.
Consequently, luster glazes are reduced more readily than pigment
lusters, which require a more delicate and complex reduction process.
Medieval Egypt

@
Greg Daly studio
Lustermoon
Glaze Pigment Luster
 [Link] Glazes
Reduction of a luster glaze, .only reduces a thin layer
on the surface of the glaze, and not the glaze itself.
• This differs from reduction as the glaze is
melted to its maturing temperature, in which
the color changes are locked within the glass matrix.
Considering the above notes, unsatisfactory reduction
results of luster glazes can be re-oxidized and
returned to their original state by re-firing.
(remixing of reduced metals with Oxygen)
Practically, it is often not even necessary to fully
melt the glaze. I often reset/wash! my unwanted
reduction results with heating the kiln up to ~900C
and a 30-45 min hold. As, from a glaze chemistry
perspective, even the reduction temperature
should be sufficient to undo the changes, but this would
simply be too time-consuming in practice. (This can
also work on bad pigment luster results to an extent.)
Jacques Sicard

Clément Massier

@
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 Base Glaze & Temperature
• Adding Silver, Bismuth, and Copper to any
base glaze, including commercial ones, will cause
changes to the glaze during the reduction process.
• Adding a small amount of flux makes the base glaze
more fluid and, therefore, more sensitive to
reduction in the ~650-850C range. Glazes that soften
and change with reduction in this range have a fluid
melt and often mature in the ~1000-1075C range.
• A
‌ lkaline fluxes are commonly used in luster glazes,
as they often yield better results in reduction.
• Can use alkaline frits or feldspars. And in low fire
range, baking soda is the common alkaline flux.
Greg Daly’s method to avoid cracks caused
by alkaline fluxes is to dry-mix 4 parts Silica and
6 parts Kaolin, and add 15, 10, or 5 grams of this
mixture to several tests and observe the results.
Luster glazes can be reduced within the ~650-850 C range. At
lower temperatures, the glaze has not softened enough to allow
CO gas to penetrate its structure. While temperatures above
~850 C may work for some higher-melt glazes, a common low-
fire earthenware glaze that melts in the ~1025-1075 C range
becomes too fluid, preventing gases from easily entering its
structure. Additionally, the results can re-oxidize during cooling.
@
studio moon
 Reduction at lower temperatures (~700-730C) produces brighter
and more lustrous results, while reducing higher (~750-800C)
leads to deeper, darker and metallic results with more variation.
(Reducing too low (~65C0) can muddy and darken the outcome.)
...& also altering reduction intensity has relatively similar effects.

• L
‌ ead can also be used as a flux in luster glazes.
It can be part of a lead frit, or its compounds can
be added to a glaze in small amounts (~5-10%).”
• L
‌ ead increases glaze shininess by enhancing its
refractive index and light refraction. But, it can be
easily reduced, resulting in a cloudy, dark finish.
Alkaline fluxes can prevent results from turning
dark due to lead reduction. (i.e. Baking soda ~5-10%)
• To ensure food safety, I typically do not add
raw lead to glazes used inside tableware.
The clear base I often use:
.~70% Boron/Alkaline Frit+ .~30% Lead Frit +
.~5% Lead + 5-10% Baking Soda(Sodium).
Left, Silver & Bismuth (+Copper<<) in a light reduction in ~650-730C
Right, Silver & Bismuth (+Copper>>) in a heavier reduction in ~700-780C

@
Middle two, a clear glaze with 2% Silver
studio + 4% Bismuth, W/O any colorants
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 Reduction Materials
Copper’s green in oxidation changes
to various shades of red or takes on
a metallic copper sheen, depending
on the reduction conditions.
Silver, which is colorless in oxidation,
can produce iridescence and a
wide range of colors in reduction,
from gold with a light reduction at lower
temperatures to electric blue with heavier
reduction at higher temperatures.
Bismuth, which is also colorless in
oxidation, is commonly used with Silver
or Copper to enhance their effects and
iridescence, and has fewer uses on its own.
Iron’s drastic changes in higher ranges are not
applicable in low fire luster glazes. However, it
is not without effect due to its easy reduction.
Iron in luster glazes adds depth and
Fe + Cu

variety to the color response, i.e. turning

copper’s red into a darker, richer shade.
Ferenc Halmos

@
studio moon
 Zsolnay, Eosin glazes

Silver undergoes the most drastic color changes

during reduction, producing a wide range of colors,
which makes it the magic ingredient in luster glazes.
Silver is typically used at ~2% or less. Its high cost limits its uses
in higher percentages to more experimental applications.
Bismuth is often used in small amounts ~4% or less.
Higher amounts are also practical due to its affordability.
Colorants are often added to create subtle
variations to the effects of Silver and Bismuth in reduction.
Copper’s exhibits the most dramatic transformations
among colorants during reduction, making it a common
component in many luster glaze and pigment recipes.
Other materials may cause interesting effects in reduction, i.e.
different amounts of Tin (Sn), Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), etc.
The use of raw materials in pigment lusters rather necessitates the use
of Copper salts (e.g., Sulphate), which have a finer particle size than
its Oxide and Carbonate forms. However, the melting of luster glazes
eliminates the need for Copper salts, and slight variations caused by
different compounds can justify their use. I typically use Copper Oxide
in luster glazes, as it provides a uniform
@ result without the need for
grinding, unlike its carbonate, studio
and itmoon
also is the least expensive option.
 Colors in Reduction
The effects of colorants in reduction are not necessarily
linear, and depending on the reduction conditions,
Silver and Bismuth can fully mask their effects.
Cobalt, due to its stronger color response, is
more commonly used in luster glazes than other
colorants, creating a range of colors from silver to blue.
Chrome, or stains, and various decorative techniques,
such as layering glazes, Majolica, etc. can be used in
combination with Silver and Bismuth to enhance variation.
Copper, alongside Silver and Bismuth, produces gold
in small amounts, a coppery luster in moderate
amounts (also on its own, Bismuth can help too),
and shifts towards purple in higher percentages.

~70% Boron/Alkaline Frit + ~30% Lead Frit +

~5% Lead + ~5-10% Baking Soda(Sodium)
+2%Silver +4% Bismuth+
...Colorants:
0.6-1% Cu Ox (background 0.6%)
or 2-4% CuCO3
or 1% Cobalt Silicate, etc.
@
studio moon
 Glaze Application
• G
‌ laze application thickness can significantly
impact the results, and enhance variation.
• Another method for achieving variation is layering
a luster glaze over another glaze. The effects of
fluxes in the first layer on the reduction results of
the second layer present an interesting area for
experimentation, as highlighted in Daly’s book.
Daly’s book also explores the application (painting,
spraying, etc.) of a mixture of reduction materials
and water on a raw glaze for more playful effects
with luster glazes. (~Majolica in reduction)
Daly provides a few examples that typically
add similar amounts of reduction material
used in luster glazes to 50 ml of water. i.e:
“6g Copper Sulphate, or 4g Bismuth, or 4g Silver, or 2g Silver
and 2g Cobalt or Copper, or 1g Bismuth and 1g Cobalt or
Copper, or varying amounts of Copper Carbonate”, etc.

Zsolnay, Eosin glazes

@
studio moon
 Reduction Firing
The reduction conditions of luster glazes are perhaps
the most decisive factor in shaping the outcome.
Controlling the firing requires fine-tuning through
trial and error, as explained in the reduction section.
Luster glazes are more commonly first fired in an
electric kiln, and then reduced in a third firing using
a gas kiln after reheating. While firing and reduction
during cooling in a gas kiln are also possible, third firing
reduction is more common due to the convenience
and reliability of glaze firing in an electric kiln, and also the
greater control over reduction conditions in a gas kiln.
Solid fuels and gas can act as reducing agents,
with gas yielding more reliable and uniform results.
For a lighter reduction (Silver > Gold), I typically reduce
using 75-100% of the city gas output for ~30 minutes. For a
more intense reduction (Silver > Blue), I mix city gas and propane
from a tank using a T-fitting and reduce for ~15 minutes as follows:
~20% P. Tank + ~60-70% City gas + ~10-20% of a Blower’s output.
Greg Daly

@
studio moon
 PERSIAN LUSTERS
REDUCTION FIRED LUSTERS II

nightcermaics
@
studio moon

12thC., Iran, Kashan Style

 Reduction Lusters
Greg Daly’s “Lustre” (2012) book is a
good source for experimenting with lusters.
‌Alan Caiger-Smith’s “Lustre Pottery“ (1985) is among
the few sources focused on pigment/Persian lusters.
1. Luster Glazes 2. Pigment/Persian Lusters
• Luster glazes are made by adding reduction materials,
such as Silver, Bismuth, or Copper, etc. to a glaze.
• Pigment lusters, are made by the application
of raw reduction materials on a fired glaze.
.A key distinction between the two lies in the complete melt
of luster glazes during their glaze firing, which transforms
materials into the finest possible particle size. In pigment lusters
(essentially overglazes with raw ground reduction materials)
materials are ground to reduce their particle size; however,
this does not achieve the same level of fineness as firing.
Consequently, luster glazes are reduced more readily than pigment
lusters, which require a more delicate and complex reduction process.
Medieval Egypt

@
Greg Daly studio
Lustermoon
Glaze Pigment Luster
 Pigment / Persian Lusters
Among the earliest surviving overglaze decorations is the work
mentioned in the overglaze section by Abu Zayd Kashani (12th C.).
However, the oldest pigment luster finds (overglaze with raw
reduction materials) date back to the 8th C. in Egypt (Abbasid
Caliphate). Although later Muslim potters introduced the technique
to early Renaissance Europe (~14th century), the rather sophisticated
preparation and reduction process of pigment lusters kept them
largely exclusive to Muslim potters for a long time (practically, a few
families of potters). Thus, perhapsthe exclusivity of this method to
the Middle East can be compared, in a different sense, to the past
exclusivity of porcelain to China, though on a much more limited
scale and more as a cultural distinction. In any case, due to the
emergence of the peak refinement of the technique in 12th C.
Iran before the Mongol invasion, through the style known as the
‘Kashan style,’ pigment lusters are also referred to as Persian Lusters.
(Pigment, Persian, Arabian, Smoked, and Transmutation Lusters)

Persian Luster Mihrab, @

Iran, Kashan, 13th C. studio moon
Pigment lusters, also known as Clay Paste lusters are simply
overglaze with ground raw reduction materials, often on
low fire earthenware glazes, traditionally fluxed with Lead.
Adding clay to Silver and Copper, makes them workable,
disperses them on the surface with a better concentration
for luster development, and prevents them from creating
a halo in reduction. The clay part of the resulting
pigment is referred to as the “carrier”, as it has minimal
impact on the outcome (though not entirely without effect),
and is washed away after reduction. This leaves a
thin metallic layer of Copper and Silver on the glaze.
The carrier is typically a high Iron clay. One reason for this is that
Iron can prevent the luster from re-oxidizing during cooling,
as it readily reacts with Oxygen. Ochre, Red Iron Oxide, or .

. .their mix with Kaolin are often used as the carrier. .

.

Pigments that require reduction at higher temperatures often

contain Kaolin in their carrier, as without Kaolin, the carrier tends
to easily stick to the glaze below and ruin the result when reduced.

Carrier, RIO
More than painting, I am particularly fascinated by the remarkably
efficient use of Silver in pigment lusters compared to luster glazes for
developing a lustrous metallic finish. This efficiency has historically
made them ideal for architectural applications. Aside from their different
mechanisms of luster development, it is worth noting that a glaze
typically requires some six layers of@spraying, while even a slightly thick
spray of a single layer of pigment luster can ruin and dull the result.
studio moon
Pigment lusters are highly sensitive to reduction temperature,
as excessively high temperatures can cause the carrier
to adhere to the overly softened glaze, and ruin the result.
Traditionally, pigment lusters are reduced using wood
over a longer time frame compared to luster glazes.
The gold luster from pigment lusters has a distinct quality
from luster glazes or resin gold lusters. And unlike resin gold
luster, its metallic shine is only visible from certain angles.
Additionally, aside from chemistry, the subtle variations from
wood firing and the luster’s sensitivity to different temperatures
in various parts of a kiln impart a unique character to the result.
The high price of resin gold lusters due to their gold content,
and the high silver content in luster glazes makes pigment
lusters one of the most cost-effective metallic luster finishes.

Tile Panel, Iran, 13th C.

@
studio moon
 (Line Blend)
A line blend in ceramics is a common way of
testing the effects of various ratios of multiple
colorants, glazes, etc. in relation to one another.

A 100 75 50 25 0 A
a biaxial line blend
B 0 25 50 75 100 B

a triaxial line blend

A
0
0
100

B 25
0
0
25

C
75 75
50 25 0
0 25 50
50 50 50
75 50 25 0
0 25 50 75
25 25 25 25
100 75 50 25 0
0 25 50 75 100
0 0 0 0 0

@
studio moon
 Pigment Mix
Alan Caiger-Smith’s 14 pigments in his “Lustre Pottery” book
perhaps are the most famous existing pigment luster formulas.
He divides them into active and passive pigments; a small
amount of flux in active pigments helps them adhere to the
glaze more easily and enables reduction at lower temperatures.
Caiger-Smith’s pigments often have a structure based
on 60% carrier + 40% reduction materials & etc.
Daly’s book is more recent, and focuses more on
experimenting with pigments using various line blends.

Testing 8 pigments from C. Smith’s recipes

While some pigments can seem complex and contain

various materials (Tin, Bismuth, etc.), Practically, they all
essentially involve painting with a mix of Copper and Silver
on a glaze. From one perspective, different formulas can be
viewed as variations within a Copper-Silver line blend. As
Silver increases, the color transitions towards gold, while
more Copper adds more red @ to the yellow/gold from Silver,
creating various shades from
studiosoft
moonoranges to coppery reds.
 Materials
Copper is often sourced from Copper salts in
pigment lusters. Occasionally, Copper Carbonate
can also be seen in various pigments. The finer
particle size of Copper salts and their water
solubility are the main reasons for their preference.
Other Copper compounds can also be utilized.
Copper Sulphate Has the most common
application in various pigments, followed
by Copper Nitrate and Copper Carbonate.
Copper Sulphate can typically make up 3-15%
(Daly) or up to 20-30% ([Link]) of a pigment.
Copper Carbonate is often used in higher
amounts, with C. Smith’s pigments using
~30-40% of it... or, “It can sometimes
make up to 70% of the pigment” (Daly).
Calcination is heating materials to ~550-650C, which
burns off impurities and results in finer particles.
Silver: Silver Nitrate (AgNO₃) is the common source of
Silver in reduction lusters. Generally, it is often used in
small amounts of 1-5% of the pigment mix. However, in
more experimental uses, different pigments may include
higher amounts of Silver, such as 20-30% or even up to 40%.
Silver Nitrate’s water solubility makes calcination unnecessary.
@
studio moon
 Tin has uses in various reduction firing techniques like raku,
as it can both aid the process, and also enhance iridescence.
Tin may occasionally appear at all stages of pigment luster
preparation on various resources: ~5-10% in the base glaze,
~2-4% in the carrier, and ~5-10% in the pigment mix.
Bismuth has less common use than Copper and Silver.
In higher amounts, its fluxing properties are more active,
a characteristic used in some of C. Smith’s active pigments.
(Other materials may also appear in various pigments, and
the above mentioned are simply more commonly used.)
Vinegar is traditionally the preferred mixing medium for
pigment lusters. “Vinegar gives the pigment body,
and unlike water, it doesn’t easily run. Additionally,
it dissolves certain salts, forming their acetates,
which decompose during firing, releasing CO2
gas that contributes to localized reduction.” (Daly)
As a rough estimate, 100g of a luster glaze that contains 2g Silver can be
enough for a mug’s exterior. In contrast, 50g of pigment luster
containing 4% Silver, which also has 2g of
Silver, can be enough to cover
~10 mugs or more.

Exploring luster’s behaviors on intricate contemporary forms can be seen

as an updated translation of the artistic complexities found in molding
traditional Mihrabs. Unlike the 2D surface
@ of a tile, luster’s shimmer reflecting
off multi-faceted protrusions canstudio
moremoon
effectively reveal its inherent beauty.
 @
Iran, 13th C., Tile Panel,studio
Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abi Tahir
moon
 PERSIAN LUSTERS
REDUCTION FIRED LUSTERS III

nightcermaics
@
studio moon

Iran,Kashan,13thC.
 Temperature
Pigment lusters are typically reduced within 600-700C range.
With reduction at temperatures closer to 600C, gold color
from Silver plays a more prominent role in the result.
In temperatures closer to 700C, Copper particles become
more active, shifting the color from gold to reddish-brown.
This makes temperature a determining factor in the outcome.
Due to the effects of temperature, reduction is typically
done within a limited active window in 600-700C range,
and excessive temperature fluctuations are avoided.
Larger kilns intensify the effects of temperature differences
between shelves. C. Smith’s videos provide some descriptions
of how the hotter shelves in his kiln are more suitable for
high copper pigments, while the cooler sections are better
for others. This resulting temperature variation contributes to
the visual diversity of historical lusterware, which was fired in
larger kilns where reduction firing often lasted for several days.

panel,
Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abi Tahir
13th C., Tile

@
Iran,

studio moon
 Base Glaze
• The base glaze for pigment lusters must have a fluid melt
to be soft enough within the 600-700C range so
the luster layer can bond and adhere to it properly.
(I typically fire the base glaze at ~1025-1050C.)
• Small amounts of fluxes such as Sodium (baking soda) and
Lead (~5–10%) can be added to improve glaze fluidity.
• ‌Alkaline fluxes generally yield better results in reduction.
• L
‌ ead increases glaze’s refractive index and light refraction, resulting
in a more brilliant finish. It also improves luster’s adhesion to
the underlying glaze. However, in heavy reduction, reduced
Lead’s dark color can potentially darken the outcome.
• ‌Alkaline fluxes can also help prevent darkening
of the results from reduction of Lead due to
“the great strength of their oxide bond“ ([Link]).
• Some base glazes from various sources may include
small amounts (~5-10%) of Tin, Zinc, etc., which can
be explored further after primary experimentations.
For white, I often mix 50-70% of an opaque frit with a Lead frit.
And for a clear base to be mixed with colored stains,
I mix 50-70% of a clear Boron frit with the same Lead frit.
50-70% Op. Frit / Clear Boron Frit + 30-50% Lead Frit
+5-10% Baking Soda (Sodium) + 5-10% Lead +
... (5-10% SnO, ZnO, etc.) + ... Colorants
Gold pigment on white (left) and black glazes (right),
The lustre layer is partly transparent, and the
underlying color can affect @the final outcome.
studio moon
 Mixing the Pigment
Finer particles resulting from heating raw materials up to
~600C aka “calcination” are more sensitive to reduction.
(can calcine materials in an unglazed, glazed, or metal container.)
A pigment can be calcined either before or after being mixed.
C. Smith’s book provides detailed explanations of the effects of
calcination and how it can help reduction at lower temperatures.
Calcining also depends on the preferences of different workshops.
Gold pigments can produce results more readily and without
calcination, but it can be necessary for more sensitive pigments.
I typically calcine the carrier and copper compounds separately.
Also as various recipes may be based on the weights of raw
materials, I weigh the materials before and after calcination to
keep track of the weight of impurities that were burned off.
To mix the pigment, I first briefly grind the dry ingredients.
Next, I sieve the carrier and copper with some vinegar separately.
I then mix them with more vinegar and any other ingredients,
grinding everything in a mortar and pestle for about 5-10 minutes.
I typically add 120-130g vinegar to 100g of dry materials.
Finally, I add pre-ground dry Silver Nitrate to the mix and
continue grinding everything together for a few more minutes
until a smooth, uniform, and rather fluid paste is formed.

100gof...aftercalcination@~650Cchangesto~...
Copper Copper Copper
Sulphate Nitrate Carbonate RIO Kaolin Tin Oxide
65g 35g 70g@ 100g 90g 65g
studio moon
 Application
Luster layer’s thickness can significantly impact the outcome.
Excessive viscosity or thick application can easily dull the result,
while insufficient material application produces a pale appearance.‌
While pigment lusters are technically more of a method of
painting with reduction materials using a brush, they can
also be applied using other methods, such as spraying, etc.
‌ ypically, spraying the pigment yields more uniform results.
T
A single thin layer of spray can be enough for a metallic outcome.
Various masking techniques can be employed before the
application of pigment to create decorative patterns.
When applying pigments to larger areas, it is often
beneficial to slightly thin the luster with water to avoid
excessive thickness. Conversely, a thicker consistency
can help avoid dripping when painting smaller details.
Unlike resin gold lusters, sgraffito (scratching) is a
prominent decorative possibility of pigment lusters
that has historically embellished traditional works with
playful interactions between positive and negative spaces.

@
studio moon Iran,Kashan,13thC.
 Color
Some trial end error can form a basic understanding of color
development process in pigment lusters.
The type and the amount of Copper compounds in a pigment
are typically the most decisive factors in the color outcome.
Copper Sulphate, in higher amounts, tends to shift
Copper’s common red towards a purplish hue.
Copper Nitrate, can produce a range
of colors from bright orange/red
to crimson in different amounts.
Copper Carbonate can produce red,
and a C. Smith recipe mixes it with
Bismuth for a bronzed metallic finish.
Tin Oxide typically brightens
the color and intensifies the
iridescence of the final outcome.
Silver typically produces gold,
and increasing it can enhance the iridescence effect.

Thicknesses test, this tile partly demonstrates

Silver’s role in the color response. Applying
two layers of luster has intensified the
golden tone, while thinner areas with only
one layer reveal a stronger red/Copper
influence. Simply put, creating thickness
and allowing layers of Silver particles to
accumulate seem to intensify its effect
and promote
@ gold, while a thin application
allows the copper’s impact to predominate.
studio moon
Masterpiece of Abu Zayd Kashani and Abu Tahir Kashani, in the shrine of the 8th Imam,
Iran, 13th C. They are among the most prominent figures in Iranian ceramics, with their
unwavering pursuit of miniature precision @
being a key force behind the Kashan style.
studio moon
 PERSIAN LUSTERS
REDUCTION FIRED LUSTERS III.I

nightcermaics
@
studio moon

Iran,Kashan,13thC.
 Firing
Pigment lusters are traditionally reduced with wood,
however now some also use gas as the reducing agent.
Unlike luster glazes, pigment lusters require cycles of
alternation between spasms of reduction and oxidation.
Each cycle involves a few minutes of reduction,
followed by a brief oxidation period to clear the
kiln and restore temperature loss from reduction.
This cycle is then repeated again several times.
Reducing pigment lusters often is more time
consuming and labor intensive than a regular reduction.
Even small amounts of Silver in a pigment can produce
a golden metallic finish under relatively mild reduction
conditions at lower temperatures (3-4 cycles, ~600C).
High-copper pigments require stronger, longer reduction, at
higher temperatures (5-6 cycles or more, ~650C or higher).
These pigments are also more sensitive to reduction
conditions, making them prone to dulling if fired incorrectly.

Iran,Kashan,13thC. @
studio moon
[Link] explains two methods for reduction of pigment lusters (p. 208):
REDUCTION WITH RISING TEMPERATURE,
Reduction with rising temperature follows naturally from
firing a kiln with brushwood, as was probably done by most
of the early lustre-makers. The kiln is stoked intermittently,
new batches of fuel being added as the previous fuel burns
down. Once the chamber of the kiln begins to glow with heat,
the fire is stoked more heavily so that a smoky, reducing
atmosphere occurs. After a few minutes the fire becomes clear
again and the temperature begins to rise. The fire is heavily
restoked and once more becomes smoky, and the process is
repeated. The heat increases slowly and is judged by the colour
of the chamber. Trials are taken out as the firing proceeds
and once they show a good lustre the firing ends. The firebox
is sealed to prevent air from reoxidising the lustre. This
method involves a natural alternation between oxidation and
reduction and its efficacy was recognised long before potters
were able to explain what was happening in chemical terms.

REDUCTION WITH STEADY AND FALLING TEMPERATURE,

Reduction with steady and falling temperature follows from the
use of gas or oil, in which case the kiln is heated continuously.
The temperature is allowed to rise steadily until the softening
point of the glaze is reached. Then the air supply is restricted,
causing reduction, and the temperature falls slightly because
the combustion is incomplete. After a few minutes air is again
introduced, providing complete combustion with an oxidising
atmosphere. The temperature steadies and may even rise again.
Then reduction begins once more and the temperature stops
rising. Spasms of reduction and oxidation continue until the
trials show a good deposit of lustre. Then the kiln is allowed
to cool quickly and is sealed to prevent the entry of air. This method
was used by De Morgan and Franchet and was followed at the
Royal Lancastrian Pottery, and most potters who have attempted
lustre in recent times have regarded
@ it as normal. ([Link])
studio moon
The samples removed from the kiln are typically ring shaped,
making them easier to handle with tongs. They are immediately
placed in water to prevent the luster from reoxidizing.
While the final results are slightly more reduced during cooling,
this method helps monitor the development of the luster
layer and ensures the reduction process is not insufficient.

[Link] at it!

Reduction with “Rising Temperature” often involves burning more wood.

Since the kiln is partially open, allowing Oxygen to enter, maintaining
a rather strong flow of smoke is essential to sustain a reducing
environment. Small, thin pieces of wood or wood shavings, etc.,
which burn quickly and produce significant smoke, are often used
to prevent sudden and extreme temperature spikes. This helps
keep the kiln’s temperature within the desired range until sufficient
reduction is achieved. Adjusting the kiln openings is the primary
method for maintaining a reducing atmosphere and preventing
excessive temperature fluctuations during reduction or oxidation.
Reduction with “Steady or Falling Temperature” can utilize gas, wood,
or other fuels as the reducing agent. This method typically involves first
raising the temperature to the upper limit of the desired active window.
Reduction then begins, using either gas or wood, causing the
temperature to gradually drop. After the required reduction phase, the
temperature is returned to its initial level during the oxidation period.
This approach ensures that reduction occurs over an extended time
within a controlled temperature range. The kiln’s natural tendency to
cool during reduction and heat up when Oxygen is reintroduced during
oxidation makes temperature regulation
@
easier with this method.
studio moon
Different workshops employ techniques with varying
details for the reduction process. For instance, some may
use gas, extend the reduction window, or combine several
cycles of reduction using both gas and wood, and so on.
Likely due to the influence of variables such as kiln size
and other factors, Caiger Smith’s book does not specify a
precise timing. However, he is said to have used ~6 cycles
of 5 minute reduction followed by 1 minute oxidation.
Greg Daly’s book uses a different timing which
involves cycles of 10 minutes of reduction

~20-25cm
with wood while the kiln is shut, followed by
5 minutes of oxidation. During the reduction
period, every 3 minutes, 2-3 small pieces of wood
(right) are added to the kiln. He recommends
3-4 reduction/oxidation cycles for gold, and for pigments
with high copper content, 5-6 reduction/oxidation cycles.
Testing varying durations of oxidation and reduction, as well as
the intensities of reduction (wood weight, gas pressure, etc.),
and observing their effects on different pigments in different
temperatures is essential for fine-tuning the results from a kiln.
The wood must be dry and clean, as vapors from water or chemicals
like paint can have negative effects on the result. It also must ignite
and burn quickly in order to leave minimal unburned residue left
in the kiln after the reduction period, i.e wood shavings (sawdawst
can smolder and not burn), or other very thin waste wood, or
pine/pallet scraps, etc. (unlike walnut, oak, and similar woods).

In my tests, although a longer oxidation period can be

beneficial and even nessecary for some pigments like gold,
other may show better results @
with a shorter oxidation period.
studio moon
The amount of wood and the duration of the reduction phase should
be adjusted so that, ideally, minimal unburned residue remains
when the kiln is opened. This ensures that the kiln atmosphere
quickly transitions to an oxidizing state as the vents are opened.
Results of reducing with gas often shinier and more uniform.
The order of examining the variables is a key point also discussed in Daly’s
book, as i.e. incorrect reduction at different temperatures is pointless.

To prevent ambiguity,
it is best to change
only one parameter
in different test kilns.
Excessively prolonged firing can also dull or darken the luster.

Since the ideal temperature for reducing one pigment

may cause another to dull or stick to the underlying
glaze, achieving good results with multiple pigments in a
single firing requires careful experimentation and fine-tuning.
Iran, 12th C. William De Morgan Syria, 14th C.

@
studio moon
 Luster Kiln
A key point in luster firing is to prevent any contact between
the flames and the luster. When flames touch the luster, they
can vaporize some of its ingredients, creating halos around
it. To address this, pieces in a luster kiln are protected from
flames using various methods and types of saggars. Air bricks
provide a cost-effective alternative to factory-made saggars.
By using solid shelves and covering the pieces with another shelf,
a defined path for the flames can be created around the pieces.
Reduction occurs due to incomplete combustion in an oxygen-
deprived environment and by the produced carbon monoxide,
rather than from direct contact of luster with the flames.

Other kiln interior arrangements can be found in various sources, all

adhering to the main strategy of minimizing contact between the
flames and the pieces while maximizing their exposure to smoke.

Cipriano Piccolpasso,@16th C. Italian potter Opening for samples

studio moon
 Iran,Kashan,13thC.

@
studio moon