Social Influence & Group Processes

Nature and Formation of Groups

Groups can be defined as two or more individuals interacting with each other, sharing a common identity, and having a common goal or purpose. These
groups can range from small, informal groups like a group of friends to larger, more formal groups like a corporation or government.

The formation of groups can occur for various reasons, including a shared interest, a common goal or objective, or even a sense of social identity. The
process of group formation typically involves several stages, including the forming stage, where members are getting to know each other, the storming
stage, where conflicts and disagreements may arise, the norming stage, where the group begins to establish its norms and expectations, and the
performing stage, where the group works together to achieve its goals.
Groups can have both positive and negative impacts on individuals, depending on the characteristics of the group and the goals it pursues. For example,
belonging to a supportive and cohesive group can provide individuals with a sense of social identity and support, whereas belonging to a group with a
negative
 goals or values can lead to harmful behaviors and attitudes.

Why do people join a group?

People join groups for a variety of reasons, including:
Social support and companionship: People may join groups to feel a sense of belonging and to build relationships with others who share similar interests
and experiences.
Shared interests and goals: Groups can provide a space for people who share common interests or goals to come together, pursue their interests, o,r work
towards achieving common goals.
Information and knowledge sharing: Groups can provide a platform for people to exchange ideas, knowledge, and information on a particular topic or
subject. Identity formation and validation: Joining a group can provide individuals with a sense of identity and validation, as they feel a sense of
belonging to a particular group that shares their values, beliefs, or identity.
Power and influence: Groups can also provide individuals with a sense of power and influence, as being part of a group can give them a stronger
voice in decision-making and help them achieve their goals more effectively.

Group Formation
Group formation is the process by which a group of individuals come together to form a cohesive unit. The process of group formation typically involves
several stages, which are:

Forming: In this stage, individuals come together and start to get to know each other. They are generally polite and friendly with each other, and they try to
establish their place in the group.
 Storming: In this stage, conflicts and disagreements may arise between individuals as they start to assert their opinions and ideas. This stage can be
challenging for group members, but the group must progress.
Norming: In this stage, the group begins to establish its norms and expectations. Members start to understand each other's roles and responsibilities and
work together to achieve the group's goals.
Performing: In this final stage, the group works together to achieve its goals. Members are committed to the group's objectives and work collaboratively
to achieve them.

Four important elements of group structure are:

Roles: Roles are expectations defining how individuals should behave in a given situation. They represent typical behaviors in a social context, like
being a son or daughter with specific expectations such as respecting elders and being responsible with studies.
Norms: Norms are standards of behavior and beliefs agreed upon by a group. They act as the unwritten rules guiding the behavior of members, reflecting
shared perspectives within a family or group.
Status: Status is the social position accorded to group members by others, either ascribed or achieved. Group membership confers a particular status, which
individuals seek based on prestige or favorability within and outside the group.
Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness refers to the unity and mutual attraction among group members. As cohesion increases, members identify more as a
collective entity rather than individuals, fostering a sense of belonging and togetherness within the group.
Highly cohesive groups exhibit strong team spirit and reluctance to leave the group, although excessive cohesion can lead to issues like groupthink, an
outcome of extreme unity.
 Types of Groups
There are various types of groups, including:
1. Primary Groups and Secondary Groups: Primary groups are small, intimate social groups composed of family members or close friends. These groups are
characterized by emotional intimacy, trust, and support, and they play a critical role in an individual's social and emotional development. Members of primary
groups share a deep sense of connection and commitment, and they typically interact regularly, often face-to-face. Members of primary groups often engage in
activities and rituals together, and they rely on each other for support during times of crisis or hardship. One of the key features of primary groups is the sense of
identity and belonging they provide. Members of primary groups often identify with the group and feel a sense of loyalty and obligation towards other members
Secondary groups are larger, more formal groups that assemble for a particular purpose or objective, like a work team, a school class, or a political party. These
groups are generally less personal and intimate than primary groups and often focus more on tasks. Unlike primary groups, secondary groups are usually temporary
and formed around specific goals or interests. Members of secondary groups may not engage with each other regularly, and their interactions may be more formal
and distant.
2.Formal and Informal Groups: These groups vary in how clearly and officially their functions are defined.
Formal Group: These groups are formed based on explicit rules or laws, with each member having designated roles. There exist established norms that
contribute to maintaining order. An example of a formal group would be a university.
Informal Group: In contrast, informal groups are not bound by rules or laws. Members share close relationships.

3. In-Groups and Out-Groups: In-groups and out-groups are social groups that individuals use to categorize and evaluate themselves and others.
In-groups are groups that individuals belong to and identify with, while out-groups are groups that individuals do not belong to and may view negatively.
In-groups often provide a sense of identity and belonging for their members, who may share common characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, or
hobbies. Members of in-groups may have a sense of loyalty and obligation towards other members, and they may work to protect the interests of the group.
Out-groups, on the other hand, are often viewed as "other" or "different" and may be subject to negative stereotypes or prejudices. Members of out-groups
may be viewed as less trustworthy or competent.
Then, members of in-groups may be excluded or discriminated against. In-group and out-group distinctions can lead to ingroup bias, which is the tendency
for individuals to favor members of their group over members of other groups. This bias can lead to discrimination and prejudice, and it can reinforce social
inequality.
The Minimal Group Paradigm
Definition: The minimal group paradigm is a research technique used to study the psychological processes involved in group formation and intergroup
relations.

Key Points:
Groups are created based on arbitrary or trivial criteria, like the color of a participant's shirt.
Participants exhibit ingroup favoritism, preferring members of their group over others, even without direct interaction.
Studies show that resources are often allocated more to in-group members, indicating the influence of group membership on behavior.
Research using this paradigm explores social identity theory, intergroup conflict, and prejudice.
Significance: The minimal group paradigm aids in understanding group behavior basics, group formation influences, and factors contributing to
intergroup conflict and prejudice.

Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour

The influence of groups on individual behavior is a key topic in social psychology. Groups can have a powerful impact on the attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors of their members, and understanding these processes is important for understanding a wide range of social phenomena.
Groups can influence individual behavior in several ways. One of the most basic ways is through social norms, which are the unwritten rules and
expectations that guide behavior in a group. By conforming to these norms, individuals can gain acceptance and approval from other group members, and
avoid social disapproval or rejection.
Groups can also influence individual behavior through social influence processes, such as conformity, obedience, and persuasion. Conformity refers to the
tendency of individuals to adopt the beliefs or behaviors of the group, even if they conflict with their own beliefs or values. Obedience refers to the tendency
to comply with the demands of authority figures or those in positions of power. Persuasion involves the use of communication and information to influence
the attitudes and beliefs of individuals.
In addition to these processes, groups can also influence individual behavior through social identity processes, such as social comparison and social
categorization. Social comparison involves comparing oneself to others in the group, while social categorization involves dividing the world into "us"
(the ingroup) and "them" (the outgroup), and attributing positive qualities to the ingroup and negative qualities to the outgroup.
The influence of groups on individual behavior is a complex and multifaceted topic, and researchers continue to explore the various processes and
mechanisms involved. By understanding how groups influence individual behavior, we can gain insights into a wide range of social phenomena, from
conformity and obedience to social change and social conflict.
Social Loafing
 Social facilitation research suggests that the presence of others can lead to arousal and motivate individuals to improve their performance, especially if
they are already proficient in a task. This improvement is most noticeable when a person's efforts are individually assessed.
When an individual's efforts are combined with a group's performance, a phenomenon known as social loafing emerges. Social loafing refers to a decrease in
an individual's effort when working on a collective task where outcomes are pooled together with others.
An illustrative example of social loafing can be seen in activities like tug-of-war, where it's challenging to determine each member's contribution. This
ambiguity often leads to some members exerting less effort, taking advantage of the group's collective output.
Research by Latane and his colleagues demonstrated social loafing by conducting experiments involving group tasks like clapping or cheering. They
observed that as group size increased, the total output increased, but individual effort decreased. This pattern indicates that as the group gets larger,
participants tend to exert less effort.
Several explanations have been proposed for social loafing, including a diminished sense of responsibility towards the task, decreased motivation due to
the lack of individual evaluation, absence of inter-group comparisons, lack of coordination among members, and a weak sense of belonging to the group.
Strategies to mitigate social loafing include making each person's efforts identifiable, increasing the pressure to perform well, emphasizing the task's
importance, highlighting the significance of individual contributions, and fostering group cohesion to enhance motivation for achieving collective goals.

Group Polarisation
We have observed that in group decision-making, there is a concern about groupthink, a phenomenon where unanimity in a group leads to flawed decisions.
Another tendency in group dynamics is known as group polarization. This suggests that groups tend to make more extreme decisions compared to
individuals acting alone.
For instance, when a group is tasked with determining the appropriate punishment for an employee caught in unethical behavior like accepting bribes, the
group may lean towards extreme decisions like letting the individual off without consequences or opting for severe actions like termination.
During group discussions, initial stances often solidify and intensify, a process known as group polarization. This can result in groups adopting very
strong positions, moving from initially weak inclinations to extreme decisions.
The occurrence of group polarization can be explained by considering scenarios such as debates on the existence of capital punishment. If an individual
supports capital punishment for severe crimes and engages in discussions with like-minded individuals, their views may become more resolute.
There are three main reasons behind the strengthening of views due to group interaction:
 Exposure to reinforcing arguments: Being around individuals who share similar opinions can expose one to additional arguments in favor of their
viewpoint, leading to increased support for their stance.
Validation through agreement: Agreement from others can make one believe that their perspective is widely accepted, creating a sense of validation
akin to a bandwagon effect.
Formation of group identity: Identifying with a group of like-minded individuals can foster conformity and solidarity, reinforcing one's own beliefs in
the process.

Revision Notes (Part - 2) Social Influence and Group Processes

Compliance

Compliance can be influenced by various factors, including the nature of the request, the social context in which the request is made, and the characteristics of
the person making the request.
There are several techniques that people may use to increase compliance with their requests. These include:
Foot-in-the-door technique: This involves making a small request first, and then following up with a larger request. The idea is that people are more likely
to comply with the larger request if they have already agreed to the smaller one.
 Door-in-the-face technique: This involves making a very large request first, which is likely to be rejected, and then following up with a smaller, more
reasonable request. The idea is that people are more likely to comply with the smaller request if they feel that they have already rejected a larger one.
Lowballing: This involves making an attractive offer at first, but then changing the terms of the offer after the person has already committed to it. The
idea is that people are more likely to comply with the changed terms because they have already committed to the initial offer.
Social proof: This involves providing evidence that other people have already complied with the request. The idea is that people are more likely to
comply if they see that others have already done so.
Authority: This involves appealing to a person's respect for authority or expertise. The idea is that people are more likely to comply if they feel that the
person making the request has legitimate authority or expertise.

Compliance can have both positive and negative effects, depending on the nature of the request and the context in which it is made. Compliance can be a
useful tool for achieving social goals, such as promoting health behaviors or reducing prejudice. However, compliance can also be used to perpetuate harmful
behaviors or attitudes, such as conformity to oppressive social norms.
Obedience
Obedience refers to the act of following the instructions or orders of someone perceived as an authority figure. This can involve complying with demands
that are unethical, immoral, or in violation of one's personal beliefs or values.
The most famous study of obedience is the Milgram experiment, conducted in the early 1960s by psychologist Stanley Milgram. In the study, participants
were asked to administer electric shocks to a "learner" in another room whenever they made a mistake on a memory task. The shocks were not real, but the
participants did not know this. The "learner" was an actor who would scream and protest as the shocks increased in intensity. Despite this, many participants
continued to administer shocks, even when the "learner" begged them to stop.
Milgram's study demonstrated the power of authority figures to influence people's behavior, even in situations where that behavior goes against their moral
beliefs. The study has been criticized for ethical reasons, as it involved deception and the potential for psychological harm to participants.
 Other research has shown that obedience can be influenced by factors such as the perceived legitimacy of the authority figure, the immediacy of the
consequences of disobedience, and the presence of others who are also obeying.
Obedience can have both positive and negative effects. On the one hand, obedience can help to maintain social order and facilitate cooperation within
groups. On the other hand, blind obedience to authority can lead to unethical or harmful behavior, such as the perpetuation of unjust laws or the
participation in acts of violence or oppression.
Obedience is a complex phenomenon that has been studied extensively in psychology. While obedience can be a useful tool for achieving social goals, it
can also have negative consequences when it leads to the perpetuation of harmful behaviors or attitudes.

Co-operation and Competition

Cooperation and competition are two important concepts that describe how individuals interact with each other in social situations.
Cooperation refers to the act of working together towards a common goal or objective. In cooperative situations, individuals may share resources,
knowledge, or skills to achieve a mutually beneficial outcome. Cooperation can foster positive relationships, build trust, and promote social cohesion.
Competition, on the other hand, refers to the act of striving against others to achieve a desired outcome. In competitive situations, individuals may
engage in behaviors such as strategic thinking, self-promotion, or aggression to gain an advantage over others. Competition can lead to feelings of
rivalry, hostility, and mistrust.
Cooperation and competition can coexist in many social situations. For example, in team sports, players may compete against each other to win a game
but also cooperate to achieve that goal. In business, companies may compete with each other for customers and profits, but may also cooperate on joint
ventures or initiatives that benefit both parties.
Research has shown that cooperation and competition can have both positive and negative effects on individuals and society. Cooperation can lead to
greater social harmony, trust, and well-being, while competition can lead to stress, anxiety, and inequality. Both cooperation and competition can also
influence the development of social norms, values, and identities.
Cooperation and competition are two important concepts in psychology that describe how individuals interact with each other in social
situations. While both cooperation and competition can have positive and negative effects, they can also coexist and complement each other in
many situations.
Social Identity
Social identity refers to the part of an individual's self-concept that is derived from their membership in various social groups. Social identity is based on
shared characteristics or experiences that define a particular group, such as race, ethnicity, gender, religion, nationality, or occupation.

Social identity can have a powerful influence on an individual's attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. When people identify strongly with a particular group, they
may experience a sense of belonging, pride, and loyalty towards that group. This can lead to positive outcomes such as increased self-esteem, social support,
and a sense of purpose or meaning in life.
However, social identity can also lead to negative outcomes such as prejudice, discrimination, and conflict between groups. This occurs when
individuals see their group as superior to others and engage in behaviors that undermine or exclude members of other groups. Such negative outcomes
can have serious consequences for both the individuals involved and society as a whole.
Research has shown that social identity can be influenced by a range of factors, including individual differences such as personality traits and cognitive
processes, as well as social and cultural factors such as social norms and media representations. Social identity can also change over time, as individuals
move in and out of different groups or as the characteristics of the group itself change.
 Social identity is an important concept in psychology that describes how an individual's self-concept is shaped by their membership in social groups.
Social identity can have both positive and negative effects on individuals and society, and understanding the factors that influence social identity can help
to promote greater understanding and acceptance between different groups.

Intergroup Conflict: Nature and Causes

Intergroup conflict refers to conflicts that occur between different groups of people, based on factors such as race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, or political
ideology. Intergroup conflict can have serious consequences for individuals and society, including discrimination, violence, and social polarization.
Many factors can contribute to intergroup conflict. One important factor is social identity, which refers to how an individual's self-concept is shaped by
their membership in social groups. When individuals identify strongly with a particular group, they may perceive members of other groups as a threat to
their own group's interests and engage in behaviors that reinforce their group's superiority. This can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict
between groups.
Another factor that can contribute to intergroup conflict is perceived threat. When members of a group perceive a threat to their own group's interests,
such as economic or political competition, they may respond with hostility towards members of other groups. This can lead to a spiral of escalating
conflict, as each group perceives the other as a greater threat and responds with increasingly aggressive behaviors.
Cognitive factors can also contribute to intergroup conflict. For example, people tend to form stereotypes about members of other groups, which can lead to
negative attitudes and behaviors towards those individuals. This can also lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where members of the stereotyped group respond
to negative treatment with further negative behaviors, reinforcing the stereotype.
Social and cultural factors, such as social norms, media representations, and historical events, can also contribute to intergroup conflict. For example,
when certain groups are portrayed in a negative light in the media or when historical events create long-standing tensions between groups, this can
reinforce negative attitudes and behaviors towards those groups.
Intergroup conflict is a complex phenomenon that is influenced by a range of factors, including social identity, perceived threat, cognitive biases, and social
and cultural factors. Understanding the causes of intergroup conflict can help to promote greater understanding and cooperation between different groups,
and ultimately reduce the negative consequences of intergroup conflict for individuals and society.
Conflict Resolution Strategies
Conflict resolution strategies refer to the various methods and techniques that can be used to manage and resolve conflicts between individuals or groups.
Conflict resolution strategies can be used in a wide range of contexts, including personal relationships, work environments, and social and political conflicts.
Here are some common conflict resolution strategies:
Compromise: This strategy involves finding a middle ground where both parties can compromise on their needs and interests. This can involve each
party giving up something to reach a mutually acceptable solution.
Collaboration: This strategy involves working together to find a solution that satisfies the needs and interests of both parties. This can involve
brainstorming and problem-solving together to find a win-win solution.
Accommodation: This strategy involves one party making concessions or accommodations to the other to resolve the conflict. This can be effective
when one party has more power or when the conflict is relatively minor.
Avoidance: This strategy involves avoiding the conflict altogether, either by walking away from the situation or by delaying the conflict until a later time
when emotions may have cooled down.
Competition: This strategy involves attempting to win the conflict at all costs, often by using aggressive or confrontational tactics. This strategy can be
effective in situations where there is a clear winner and loser, but it can also escalate the conflict and damage relationships.
Mediation: This strategy involves bringing in a neutral third party to help facilitate communication and negotiation between the parties. This can be
effective when the parties are unable to resolve the conflict on their own.

Conflict resolution strategies are an important tool for managing and resolving conflicts between individuals or groups. By understanding and using these
strategies effectively, individuals can improve their communication and negotiation skills and promote greater understanding and cooperation between different
parties.