Part - B

1 Define Group.

A non-empty set G together with the binary operation, i.e., (G,*) is called a group if
satisfies the following conditions.

(i) Closure: a * b ∈ G, for all a ,b ∈ G.

(ii) Associative : (a * b) * C = a* (b* c), for all a, b, c ∈ G.
(iii) Identity There exists an element e ∈ G called the identity element such that
a*e = e*a = a, for all a ∈ G.
(iv) Inverse: There exists an element a-1 ∈ G called the inverse of 'a’ such that
a * a-1 = a-1 * a =e, for all a ∈ G.

2 Define semi group.

If a non-empty set S together with the binary operation ‘*’ satisfying the following two
properties.

(a) a *b =b * a, a, b ∈ S (Closure property)

(b) (a*b)* c = a *(b * c), a, b, c ∈ S (Associative property)

then (S,*) is called a semigroup.

3 Define monoid.

A semigroup (S,*) with an identity element w.r.t ‘*’ is called Monoid.

It is denoted by (M,*)
In other words, a non-empty set ‘M’ with respect to * is said to be a monoid, if * satisfies
the following properties.

For a, b, c ∈ M

(a) a*b = b*a ( Closure property)

(b) (a*b)*c=a*(b*c) ( Associative property)
(c) a ∈ M, E e ∈ M such that a * e = e * a = a ( Identity property).
4 Define abelian group.

In a group (G, *), if a *b = b * a, for all a, b ∈ G, then the group (G,) is called an abelian
group

Ex: (Z, +) is an abelian group.

Otherwise (G, *) is called non-abelian group.

5 Give an example of a set which is semi group but not a monoid.

Let E = {2,4, 6, 8,...} be the set of all even numbers.

 (E, +) is a semigroup since it satisfies ( 1 ) Closure property

( 2 ) Associative property

 (E, +) is not a monoid since the additive identity element is 0 and 0 ∈ E.

6 Give an example of a set which is semi group but not a group.

Let N be the set of all natural numbers. Clearly it satisfies closure and associative
property under the usual addition as binary operation. 0 is the identity. But 0 ∈ N.
Moreover for a ∈ N, we have a – a = 0.

i.e., The inverse of a is -a ∈ N. Hence (N,+) is not a group.

7 Give an example of a set which is group but not a commutative group.

Let S = {a, b}. Show that (SS, 0) is a non-commutative semigroup.

Here S has two elements.

. : SS has four functions.

Let it be f1,f2,f3 and f4, where.

f1(a) = a f1(b) = b
f2(a) = a f2(b) = a
f3(a) = b f3(b) = b
f4(a) = b f4(b) = a

The composition of the function is given as follows:

f1 f2 f3 f4
f1 f1 f2 f3 f4
 f2 f2 f2 f2 f2
f3 f3 f3 f3 f3
f4 f4 f3 f2 f1

since the composition is associative, it follows that (SS,0) is a semigroup.

From the above table, we have

f2 o f3 = f2=f3 = f3 o f2
Hence it is not commutative.

8 Show that the identity element of a group is unique.

To show that the identity element in a group is unique:

Let ( e ) and ( e' ) be two identity elements in a group G . By the definition of the identity
element:

e . e' = e' (since e is an identity element),

e . e' = e (since e' is also an identity element).

Thus, e = e' . Therefore, the identity element in a group is unique.

9 Show that the inverse element of a group is unique.

To show that the inverse element in a group is unique:

Let a be an element of the group G, and let b and c be two inverses of a. By the definition
of the inverse element:
 a ⋅ b = e (where e is the identity element),
 c ⋅ a = e.

Now, consider b:
b = b ⋅ e = b ⋅ (c ⋅ a) = (b ⋅ c) ⋅a.
Since b ⋅ c=e, we have:
b = c.
Thus, the inverse element of a is unique.

10 Let (G, +) be a group, then prove that for each a ∈ G, (a-1 ) –1 = a

Let (G, *) be a group.

Let e be the identity element.
We know that,

a-1 * a = e = a * a-1, a ∈ G
 (a-1)-1 * (a-1 * a) = (a-1)-1 * e
= (a-1)-1 … (1)

But ((a-1)-1 * a-1) * a = e * a

=a …(2)

From (1) and (2), we get

(a-1)-1 = a
The above property is involution law.

11 Let (G, +) be a group, then prove that for each a, b ∈ G, (a * b) –1 = b-1 * a-1

Let a, b ∈ G and a-1 , b-1 be their inverses respectively.

a * a-1 = e = a-1 * a
b * b-1 = e = b-1 * b
(a * b) * (b-1 * a-1) = a * [b * (b-1 * a-1)] (* is Associative)

= a * [ (b * b-1) * a-1]
= a * [ (b * b-1) * a-1]
= a * (e * a-1) [ b * b-1 = e]
= a * a-1
(a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1) = e …(1)

Similarly we can prove that

(b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e …(2)

From (1) and (2), we get,

(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
the inverse of (a * b) is b-1 * a-1 .

12 Define Subgroup.

Let (G, *) be a group. Then (H, *) is said to be subgroup of (G, *)

If H C G and (H, *) itself is a group under the operation * .

i.e., (H, *) is said to be a subgroup of (G, *) if

(i) e ∈ H, where e is the identity in G.
(ii) For any a ∈ H, a-1 ∈ H
(iii) For a, b ∈ H, a*b ∈ H.

Examples of subgroups.
 (1) (Q, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) and
(2) (R, +) is a subgroup of (C, +).

13 Prove that the intersection of any two subgroups of a group (G,*) is again a
subgroup of (G,*).

Let G be a group and H1 and H2 are subgroups of G. Then H1 ∩ H2 is also a subgroup of

G.
Proof:
Since H1 and H2 are subgroups of G,
∴ H1 ∩ H2 ≠ o
[ at least the identity element is present in H1 and H2]

Let, a, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2
a, b ∈ H1 and a, b ∈ H2
a * b-1 ∈ H1 and a * b-1 ∈ H2 [By above theorem]
a * b-1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2

For a, b-1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2, we have a * b-1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2.

∴ H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup.

14 Define Cyclic group.

Let G be a group. Let a ∈ G. Then H = {an/n ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. H is called the

cyclic subgroup of G generated by a and is denoted by < a >

Example:
1. In (Z, + ), <a>
2. In a group G = {1,i,-1,-i}.
<i> = {i,i2,i3,…….} = {1,i,-1,-i} = G

15 Prove that every cyclic group is an abelian group.

Let (G, *) be cyclic group with generator a ∈ G.

∴ For x, y ∈ G
∴ x = ak, y=at for integers k, t.
∴ x * y = ak * at = ak+t = at+k = at * ak = y * x
 ∴ x*y=y*x

∴ (G, *) is an abelian group.

16 Find the generators of Z8 under addition modulo 8.

17 If a is generator of a cyclic group G, then show that a-1 is also generator of G.

Now, (a-1) = {(a-1)n ; n ∈ z}

= {a-n; n ∈ z}
= {am; m ∈ z}
= (a)

∴ (a-1) = (a)

18 State Lagrange’s Theorem.

We know that either left or right cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.

Let G be a finite group of order ‘n’ and H be any subgroup of G. Then the order of H
divides the order of G.

i.e., O(H) / O(G)

19 State Cayley theorem on Finite Group.

Every finite group of order ‘n’ is Isomorphic to permutation group of degree ‘n’.

20 Let G = {1,a,a2,a3}(a4 = 1) be a group and H = {1,a2} is a subgroup of G under

multiplication. Find all the cosets of H.

The right cosets of H in G.

H . 1 = H * 1 = {1, a2} = H
H . a = H * a = {a, a3}
H . a2 = H * a2 = {a2, a4} = {a2, 1} = H
H . a3 = H * a3 = {a3, a5} = {a3, a} = H * a
∴ H * 1 = H = H * a2 = {1, a2}
 H * a = H * a3 = {a, a3} are two distinct right cosets of H in G.

In a similar manner, we can find the left cosets of H in G.

21 Define Normal Subgroup.

Let H be a subgroup of G under *.

Then H is said to be a normal subgroup of G, for every x G and for h ∈ H,
If x * h * x-1 ∈ H
x * H * x-1 ∈ H

Alternatively, a subgroup H of G is called a normal subgroup of G if

x * h = h * x for all x ∈ G.
 Part - C

1 If is a binary operation on the set R of all real number defined by a * b = a + b + 2ab.

(i) Prove that (R, *) is a semi group.
(ii) Find the identity element if it exists.
(iii) Which elements have inverses and what are they?

(i) A semigroup requires the binary operation to be associative,

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) ∀a,b,c ∈ R

Proof:

1. Compute (a ∗ b) ∗ c : Using the binary operation a ∗ b = a + b + 2ab,

(a * b) = a + b + 2ab

So,
(a * b) * c = ( a + b + 2ab) * c = (a + b + 2ab) + c + 2(a + b + 2ab)c

Expanding and simplifying:

(a * b) * c = a + b + c + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc + 4abc

2. Compute a * (b*c): Calculate (b * c) = b + c + 2bc. So,

a * ( b * c ) = a + (b + c + 2bc) + 2a(b + c + 2bc)

Expanding and simplifying:

a * (b * c) = a + b + c + 2bc + 2ab + 2ac + 4abc

3. Compare (a * b) * c and a * (b * c): Both expressions simplify to:

a + b + c + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc + 4abc

Therefore, (a * b) * c = a * ( b * c ), and the operation is associative.

Since the operation is associative, (R, *) is a semigroup.

(ii) An identity element e ∈ R satisfies:

a∗e=e∗a=a ∀a ∈ R
 Proof:
Substitute e into the binary operation:

a * e = a + e + 2ae

For e to be the identity, a * e = a. Thus,

a + e + 2ae = a
e + 2ae = 0

Factorize:
e (1 + 2a) = 0

 If e = 0, substitute into a * e:
a * 0 = a + 0 + 2a(0) = a
similarly,
0 * a = 0 + a + 2(0)a = a

So, e = 0 satisfies the identity condition.

Thus, the identity element is e = 0.

(iii) An element a ∈ R has an inverse b ∈ R if:

a*b=b*a=e
Using the identity e = 0, this becomes:
a * b = a + b + 2ab = 0

Proof:
Rearrange the equation:
a + b + 2ab = 0
Factorize:
b(1 + 2a) = -a
Solve for b:

b = -a / 1 + 2a , provided 1 + 2a ≠ 0

If 1 + 2a = 0, then a = -1/2, and no inverse exists in this case (division by zero).

 For a ≠ -1/2, the inverse of a is:

b = -a / 1 + 2a

(i) (R, *) is a semigroup since the operation is associative

(ii) The identity element is e = 0
(iii) An element a has an inverse a ≠ -1/2, and the inverse is b = -a/1 + 2a.

2 If * is the operation defined on S = Q x Q where Q is the set of all rational numbers

and given by (a, b) * (x, y) = (ax, ay +b) , then show that (S,*) is a semigroup. Is it
commutative? Also find the identity element of S

(i) (1) Closure property:

Obviously * satisfies closure property.

(2) Associative property:

Consider,
[(a, b) * (x, y)] * (c, d)
= [ (a x, a y + b) * (c, d)]
= [ a x c, a x d + (a y + b )]
= [ a c x, a d x + a y + b] … (1)
Now
(a, b) * [(x, y) * (c, d)]
= (a, b) * [ x c, x d + y]
= [ a x c, a ( x d + y) + b]
= [ a x c, a x d + a y + b]
= [ a c x, a d x + a y + b] …(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
[(a, b) * (x, y)] * (c, d)
= (a, b) * [(x, y) * (c, d)]
‘*’ is associative
(S, *) is semigroup.

(3) Commutative property:

 (a, b) * (x, y) = (a x, a y + b) …(3)
(x, y) * (a, b) = ( x a, x b + y)
= (a x, b x + y) …(4)

From (3) & (4)

(a, b) * (x, y) ≠ (x, y) * (a, b)
(S,*) is not commutative.

(ii) Identity property:

Let (e1, e2) be the identity element of (S, *)

Then for any (a, b) ∈ S,
(a, b) * (e1, e2) = (a, b)
(a e1, a e2 + b) = (a, b)

a e1 = a and a e2 + b = b

e1 = 1 and e2 = b – b/a = 0, (a ≠ 0)

The identity element = (e1, e2)

= (1, 0)

3 Show that the set of all non – zero real number is an abelian group under the
operation  defined by a * b = ab/2.

To prove that (R*, *) is a abelian group,

(i) Closure property:

For a, b _ R*, we compute a * b = ab/2.

Since a, b are non-zero numbers, their product ab is also non-zero, and
dividing by 2 results in another non-zero real number. Hence, a * b ∈ R*.

(ii) Associative property:

 We need to show that for all a, b, c ∈ R*, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).

Compute (a * b) * c:
a * b = ab / 2, (a * b) * c = (ab/2) c = abc.
2 4
Compute a * (b * c):

b * c = bc / 2, a * (b * c) = a(bc/2) = abc.
2 4
Since (a * b) * c = a * (b * c), * is associative.

(iii) Identity:

We need an element e ∈ R* such that a * e = e * a = a for all a ∈ R*.

 Let e = 2. Then:

a * e = a . 2 = a, e * a = 2 . a = a.
2 2

Thus, e = 2 is the identity element.

(iv) Inverse:

We need an inverse a’ ∈ R* for each a ∈ R* such that a * a’ = a’ * a = e,

where e = 2.

 Solve a * a’ = e:

a . a’ = 2 => a . a’ = 4 => a’ = 4.
2 a

Thus, the inverse of a is a’ = 4 , which is in R* since a ≠ 0.

a’

(v) Commutative property:

We need to show that for all a, b ∈ R*, a * b = b * a.

 Compute a * b and b * a:

a * b = ab/2, b * a = ba/2.
 Since ab = ba, a * b = b * a.
The operation * is commutative.

Since (R*, *) satisfies closure, associative, identity, inverse and commutative, it is an

abelian group.

4 Show that the set Q+ of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under
the operation * defined by , a * b = ab/2, a, b ∈ Q +

Here Q + is the set of all positive rational numbers.

(1) Closure property: Clearly a * b = ab ∈ Q +

2
(2) Associative property:

(a * b) * c = ab * c = abc/2
2 2

= abc
4

a * (b * c) = a * bc = abc/2
2 2
= abc/4

From (A) and (B), we get

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) for all a, b c ∈ Q

(3) Identity: Let ‘e’ be the identity element.

Then, a*e=a
ae/2 = a
e=2

Identity element is e = 2 ∈ Q+

(4) Inverse: Let a-1 be the inverse of a.

 Then, a * a-1 = 2 (Identity)
a a-1 = 2
2

a-1 = 4/a ∈ Q+
Inverse of a is a-1 = 4 ∈ Q+
a

(5) Commutative:

Now a * b = ab
2

b * a = ba = ab
2 2

a*b=b*a for all a, b ∈ Q+

(Q+, *) is an abelian group.

Solution:

To prove G is a group, check the four group axioms:

(i) Closure:

Compute the product of every pair of matrices in G.

( ) .( ) = ( )
0 1 0 1 0 1

Verify all combinations, the result is always in G, so closure is satisfied.

(ii) Associativity:

Matrix multiplication is associative,

 i.e., for any matrices a, b, c ∈ G:
(a . b) . c = a . (b . c)

Since associativity holds for all matrices, this property is satisfied.

(iii) Identity:

The matrix (0 1) acts as the identity element because:

( ) 0 1 .
a=a. ( ) 0 1 =a ∀a∈𝐺

(iv) Inverse:

Each matrix in G has an inverse in G. For instance:

Inverse of ( 0 1 ) is itself: ( 0 1 )
Thus, G satisfies all group axioms and is a group under matrix multiplication.
6 If G is a group such that (a * b)2 = a2 * b2 for all a, b, c ∈ G, then prove that G is
abelian.

Assume that G is abelian.

a * b = b * a, a, b ∈ G. …(1)
a2 * b2 = (a * a) * (b * b)
= a * [a * (b * b)] (* Associative)
= a * [(a * b) * b] (* Associative)
= a * [(b * a) * b] (By(1))
= (a * b) * (a * b) (* Associative)
= (a * b)2
∴ (a * b)2 = a2 * b2

Conversely, assume that

(a * b)2 = a2 * b2
(a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a) * (b * b)
a * [b * (a * b)] = a * [a * (b * b)] (* Associative)
b * (a * b) = a * (b * b) [Left cancellation law]
(b * a) * b = (a * b) * b
b*a=a*b [Right cancellation law]
∴ G is abelian.

7 Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for a nonempty subset H of a group
(G, *) to be a subgroup is a, b ∈ H => ab-1 ∈ H

Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself is a group, we have for a, b ∈ H =>
a * b ∈ H (closure).

Since b ∈ H => b-1 ∈ H (∴ H is a subgroup)

For a, b ∈ H => a, b-1 ∈ H
 a * b-1 ∈ H (∴ H is a subgroup )

Sufficient condition:
 Let a * b-1 ∈ H, for a, b ∈ H.
Now we have to prove that H is a subgroup of G.

(i) Identity:

Let a∈H
 a-1 ∈ H
 a * a-1 ∈ H
 e∈H
Hence the identity element ‘e’ ∈ H.

(ii) Inverse:

Let a, e ∈ H
 e * a-1 ∈ H
 a-1 ∈ H
Every element ‘a’ of H has its inverse a-1 is in H.

(iii) Closure:

Let b ∈ H => b-1 ∈ H

For a, b ∈ H => a, b-1 ∈ H
 a * (b-1)-1 ∈ H => a * b ∈ H

∴ H is closed.
∴ H is a subgroup of G.

8 Show that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is group under addition module 6

To prove G is a group, check the four group axioms:

(i) Closure:

Add any two elements and take modulo 6. For example:

 2 + 4 ≡ 0 (mod 6), 3 + 5 ≡ 2 (mod 6)
The result is always an element in G, so closure holds.

(ii) Associative:

Addition modulo 6 is associative. For any a, b, c ∈ G:

(a + b) + c ≡ a + (b + c) (mod 6)

(iii) Identity:

The identity element is 0 because,

a+0≡0+a≡a (mod 6) ∀a∈G

(iv) Inverse:

Every element has an additive inverse in G. For example:

2 + 4 ≡ 0 (mod 6), 3 + 3 ≡ 0 (mod 6)

Thus, G satisfies all group axioms and forms a group under addition modulo 6.

9 State and prove Lagrange’s theorem on finite Group

Let G be a finite group of order ‘n’ and H be any subgroup of G. Then the order of H
divides the order of G.
i.e., O(H)/O(G)

(or)

The order of each subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group.

Proof:

Let (G,*) be a group whose order is n.

O(G) = n

Let (H,*) be a subgroup of G whose order is m.

O(H) = m
 Let h1, h2, h3, …….., hm be the ‘m’ different elements of H.
The right coset H * a of H in G is defined by
H * a = {h1 * a, h2 * a, …., hm * a}, a ∈ G.

Since there is a one-one correspondence between the elements of H and H * a, the elements
of H * a are distinct.

Hence each right coset of H in G has m distinct elements.

We know that any right cosets of H in G are either disjoint or identical.

The number of distinct right cosets of H in G is finite (say K).

[∴ G is finite ]

The union of these K distinct cosets of H in G is equal to G.

Let these K distinct right cosets be
H * a1, H * a2, H * a3, ……, H * ak
Then G = (H * a1) U (H * a2) U, ………, U (H * ak)
∴ O(G) = O(H * a1) + (H * a2) + ,……..,+ O(H * ak)
n = m + m + …. + m (k times)
n=km
k = n/m i.e., n/m = k i.e., O(G)/O(m) = k

Since k is an integer (time), m is a divisor of n.

 O(H) is a divisor of O(G).
 O(H) divides O(G).

This proves the Lagrange’s theorem.

10 Prove that “Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic”

Let G(a) is a cyclic group generated by ‘a’ and H be its subgroup.

If H = G or H = {e}, the obviously H is cyclic.
Let H be a proper subgroup of G.
∴ The elements of H are integral powers of a.
 If as ∈ H, then its inverse a-s ∈ H.
Let m be the least positive integer such that am ∈ H. Then we shall prove that (H = am) is a
cyclic group generated by am.

Since at be any arbitrary element of H. By division algorithm, there exists integers q and r.
Such that t = mq + r, where 0 < r < m.
∴ at = amq + r = amq * ar
ar = at * a-mq = at – mq

Since am ∈ H => amq ∈ H => a-mq ∈ H.

∴ at, a-mq ∈ H
 at – mq ∈ H
 ar ∈ H

Since m is the least positive integers such that am ∈ H and 0 < r < m.
Therefore r = 0.

Hence t = mq
at = amq = (am)q

∴ Every element at ∈ H can be expressed as integral powers of am.

∴ H = (am) is a cyclic group generated by am.

11 Prove that G = {1, -1, i, -i} is a cyclic group. Also find it’s generators and order of each
element. If (G,*) is a cyclic group generated by a, then prove that a-1 is also a
generator.

Take a = i as a candidate generator. Compute powers of i:

1. i1 = i,
2. i2 = -1,
3. i3 = -i,
4. i4 = 1 (returns to identity).

Thus, starting from i, all elements of G can be generated: G = {1, -1, i, -i}. Therefore G is a
cyclic group.
 (i) A generator a of G satisfies the condition that an produces all elements of G.
 i is a generator of G.
 -i is also a generator, since (-i)1 = -i, (-i)2 = -1, (-i)3 = i, (-i)4 =
1.
Thus, the generators of G are i and -i.

(ii) Identity:

The order of an element g ∈ G is the smallest positive integer n such

n
that g = 1.

1. For 1 : 11 = 1, so the order is 1.

2. For -1 : (-1)2 = 1, so the order is 2.
3. For i : i4 = 1, so the order is 4.
4. For -i: (-i)4 = 1, so the order is 4.

(iii) Inverse:

Let (G,*) be a cyclic group generator by a. To prove that a-1(inverse of a)

isa also generator:

- Since a generates G, every element g ∈ G can be written as g = an for some

n.
- The inverse a-1 satisfies a-1 = a|G| - 1, where |G| is the order of the group.
- For all g ∈ G, g = an = (a-1)-n.

Thus, a-1 can also generate G, proving that it is a generator.

Hence,

 G = {1, -1, i, -i} is a cyclic group.

 The generators of G are i and -i.
 The orders of the elements are: 1(1), 2(-1), 4(i), 4(-i).
 If G is cyclic and generated by a, then a-1 is also a generator.


12 State and prove that Cayley theorem on Finite Group

We shall prove this theorem in 3 steps.

Step-1: We shall first find a set G' of Permutation.

Step-2: We prove G' is a group.
Step-3: Exhibit an Isomorphism Φ : G-> G.

Step -1:

Let G be finite group of order n.

Let a ∈ G.
Define fa : G → G by fa (x) = ax
Since fa (x) = fa (y) => ax = ay => x = y
fa is 1 -1
Since, if y ∈ G, then fa (a-1y) = aa-1y = y
fa is onto.
Thus, fa is a bijection.
Since G has ‘n’ elements, fa is just permutation on ‘n’ symbols.
Let G’ = {fa / a ∈ G}

Step – 2:

G’ is a group.
Let fa, fb ∈ G’
fa o fb (x) = fa(fb(x)) = fa(bx) = abx = fab(x)
Hence fa o fb = fab.
Hence G’ is closed
f = G’ is the identity element

The inverse of fa in G’ is f-1a.

∴ G’ is a group.

Step – 3:

We prove G and G’ are Isomorphic.

Define Φ : G → G’ by Φ (a) = fa
Φ (a) = Φ (b) => fa = fb => fa(x) = fb(x)
 ax = bx => a = b

Hence Φ is 1 -1.
 Also Φ (ab) = fab = fa o fb = Φ (a) o Φ (b)
∴ Φ : G → G’ is an Isomorphism.
∴ G ≈ G’

Hence proved.

13 If S = {1, 2, 3} then prove that permutation group (S3, ∘) is a non-abelian group.

Where ∘ is a composition of function.

Step – 1:

The group S3consists of all permutations (rearrangements) of the set S={1,2,3}. There are
3! = 6 elements in S3:

1. e: Identity permutation.
2. (12): Swaps 1 and 2, leaves 3 unchanged.
3. (13): Swaps 1 and 3, leaves 2 unchanged.
4. (23): Swaps 2 and 3, leaves 1 unchanged.
5. (123): Cyclic permutation (1 → 2 → 3 → 1).
6. (132): Cyclic permutation (1 → 3 → 2 → 1).

The operation ∘ is function composition: applying one permutation after another.

Step – 2:

A group is abelian if, for all a, b ∈ G, we have a ∘ b = b ∘ a. To check if S3 is abelian, we

get whether a ∘ b = b ∘ a for some a, b ∈ S3.

Step – 3:

Let a = (12) and b = (13).

(i) Compute a ∘ b = (12) ∘ (13):

1. Start with b = (13): Swap 1 and 3 → 1 ⟷ 3, 2 remains unchanged.
2. Now apply a = (12): Swap 1 and 2 → 1 ⟷ 2, 3 remains unchanged,
Result: (123).
(ii) Compute b ∘ a = (13) ∘ (12):
 1. Start with a = (12): Swap 1 and 2 → 1 ⟷ 2, 3 remains unchanged.
2. Now apply b = (13): Swap 1 and 3 → 1 ⟷ 3, 2 remains unchanged,
Result (132).

Step – 4:

We find:

 a ∘ b = (123),
 b ∘ a = (132).
Since a ∘ b ≠ b ∘ a, the group S3 is not commutative.

Step – 5:

The permutation group (S3, ∘) is a non-abelian group because commutativity does not
hold for all its elements.

14 Show that the intersection of two normal subgroups of a group G is also a normal
subgroup of G.

Let G be a group, and let N1 and N2 be normal subgroups of G. Prove that N1 ∩ N2, the
intersection of N1 and N2, is also a normal subgroup of G.

Proof:

(i) N1 ∩ N2 is a subgroup of G:

To prove that N1 ∩ N2 is a subgroup, we use the subgroup criterion:

1. Identity:
Since e (the identity element) belongs to both N1 and N2 (as both are
subgroups), it follows that e ∈ N1 ∩ N2.

2. Closure:
If a, b ∈ N1 ∩ N2, then a, b ∈ N1 and a, b ∈ N2. Since N1 and N2 are
subgroups, their operations are closed, so a, b ∈ N1 and a, b ∈ N2. Hence, a, b ∈
N 1 ∩ N2 .

3. Inverse:
 If a ∈ N1 ∩ N2, then a ∈ N1 and a ∈ N2. Since both N1 and N2 contain
inverses, a-1 ∈ N1 and a-1 ∈ N2. Thus, a-1 ∈ N1 ∩ N2.

Therefore, N1 ∩ N2 is a subgroup of G.

(ii) N1 ∩ N2 is normal in G:

To prove normality, we show that:

g(N1 ∩ N2)g-1 ⊆ (N1 ∩ N2) ∀g ∈ G

Let x ∈ N1 ∩ N2. By definition, x ∈ N and x ∈ N2. Since N1 and N2 are normal
subgroups:

gxg-1 ∈ N1 and gxg-1 ∈ N2 ∀g ∈ G

Thus, gxg-1 ∈ N1 ∩ N2.

Hence,
g(N1 ∩ N2)g-1 ⊆ (N1 ∩ N2)

This proves that N1 ∩ N2 is normal in G.

Since N1 ∩ N2 is a subgroup of G and is normal in G, it follows that N1 ∩ N2 is a normal

subgroup of G.

15 If H is a subgroup of a group G and K is a normal subgroup of G, Show that H ∩ K is

a normal subgroup of H.

Given H and K are normal subgroups.

 H and K are subgroups of G.
 H intersection K is a subgroup of G. (Already proved refer book)

Now we have to prove that H intersection k is normal.

Let x ∈ G and h ∈ H intersection K

x ∈ G and h ∈ H and h ∈ K

x * h * x-1 ∈ H intersection K
 H intersection K is a normal subgroup of G.