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Photodetectors integrating waveguides and

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Cite this: Nanoscale, 2024, 16, 5504

Xin-Xue Wang,a Guang Zeng,a Qiu-Jun Yu,a Lei Shen,a Cai-Yu Shia and
Hong-Liang Lu *a,b

Photodetectors integrating substrates and semiconductor materials are increasingly attractive for appli-
cations in optical communication, optical sensing, optical computing, and military owing to the unique
optoelectronic properties of semiconductor materials. However, it is still a challenge to realize high-per-
formance photodetectors by only integrating substrates and semiconductor materials because of the
limitation of incident light in contact with sensitive materials. In recent years, waveguides such as silicon
(Si) and silicon nitride (Si3N4) have attracted extensive attention owing to their unique optical properties.
Waveguides can be easily hetero-integrated with semiconductor materials, thus providing a promising
approach for realizing high-performance photodetectors. Herein, we review recent advances in photo-
detectors integrating waveguides in two parts. The first involves the waveguide types and semiconductor
materials commonly used to fabricate photodetectors, including Si, Si3N4, gallium nitride, organic wave-
Received 20th January 2024, guides, graphene, and MoTe2. The second involves the photodetectors of different wavelengths that inte-
Accepted 9th February 2024
grate waveguides, ranging from ultraviolet to infrared. These hybrid photodetectors integrating wave-
DOI: 10.1039/d4nr00305e guides and semiconductor materials provide an alternative way to realize multifunctional and high-
[Link]/nanoscale performance photonic integrated chips and circuits.

1. Introduction cated photodetectors based on monolayer tungsten trioxide

(WO3) have exhibited outstanding optoelectronic
Silicon (Si) photodetectors have become very popular in many properties.12,13 However, as the incident light enters a photo-
integrated photonics applications because of their mature detector from the outside of the photodetector, it is difficult to
CMOS compatibility, outstanding photoelectric characteristics, achieve on-chip integration for photodetectors that only inte-
and unique advantages of high integration density.1–3 grate Si and semiconductor materials. Thus, to achieve inte-
However, because of the inherent material properties of Si, it grated photoelectric chips, photodetectors integrating wave-
is very challenging to prepare active photodetectors. Thus, to guides and semiconductor materials have attracted increasing
improve the drawbacks of Si, introducing some other semi- attention as a promising solution.14–16 Fig. 1 shows an outline
conductor materials and integrating them with Si has attracted of this article, which mainly reviews the advanced work on
considerable attention as a promising solution.4,5 Based on photodetectors integrating waveguides and semiconductor
this strategy, in the past decade, researchers have attempted to materials, focusing on waveguide materials, waveguide types,
design and fabricate photodetectors integrating Si with semiconductor materials and integrated-waveguide photo-
different semiconductor materials, including III–V semi- detector types. Firstly, various waveguides and semiconductor
conductor materials,6,7 germanium,8 and two-dimensional materials are employed in the fabrication of integrated wave-
(2D) semiconductor materials.9,10 In addition, controlled by guide photodetectors, including Si, silicon nitride (Si3N4),
self-limiting surface reactions, the atomic layer deposition gallium nitride (GaN), organic waveguides, graphene,17–22
(ALD) method, a unique preparation process, can be employed MoTe2, black phosphorus (BP), carbon nanotubes, and palla-
to grow 2D semiconductors with high precision, wafer level, dium selenide (PdSe2).23–29 Secondly, the waveguide type is
and good uniformity and thus widely used in the fields of inte- further divided into end-coupled waveguide, grating coupled
grated circuits and optoelectronics.11 For example, ALD-fabri- waveguide, and ring waveguide.30–32 Thirdly, the reported
photodetectors with integrated waveguides mainly include
a
infrared (IR) photodetectors, visible (VIS) photodetectors, and
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, Shanghai Institute of Intelligent
ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors.33–38
Electronics & Systems, School of Microelectronics, Fudan University, Shanghai
200433, China. E-mail: honglianglu@[Link] Photodetectors integrating waveguides and semiconductor
b
Jiashan Fudan Institute, Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province 314100, China materials effectively extend the length of the interaction of

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main waveguide materials, waveguide structure, and semi-

conductor materials for waveguide photodetectors are intro-
duced. In the third section, we review the recent progress on
photodetectors with integrated waveguide and semiconductor
materials for wavelength bands ranging from UV to IR. Finally,
we present conclusions and prospects on the future work
of integrated waveguide and semiconductor material
photodetectors.
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2. Waveguide types and

semiconductor materials used for
photodetectors
2.1 Waveguide materials and types commonly used for
photodetectors

Fig. 1 Schematic summary of waveguide materials (reproduced with With the development of highly integrated chips, photo-
permission from ref. 21 and 22. Copyright 2022 and 2015, Wiley-VCH detectors based on waveguides have been further investigated
and the American Chemical Society, respectively), semiconductor to achieve more compact circuits. Photodetectors integrating
materials (reproduced with permission from ref. 27 and 28. Copyright
waveguides can combine high operational speed and high
2016 and 2020, Wiley-VCH, respectively), waveguide types (reproduced
with permission from ref. 31 and 32. Copyright 2020 and 2023, De
quantum efficiency simultaneously. This is due to the longer
Gruyter and the American Chemical Society, respectively), and photo- optical absorption length of waveguide-integrated detectors. At
detector types of integrated waveguides (reproduced with permission this stage, silicon-based waveguides are significantly studied
from ref. 34–38. Copyright 2015, 2020, 2023, 2018, and 2022, Springer and used to achieve low-loss, low power consumption, small
Nature, Wiley-VCH, IEEE, and Elsevier, respectively).
size of the devices and high integrated circuits. Another com-
monly used waveguide material, Si3N4, is also widely used in
the field of photoelectric detection. Researchers have con-
light-sensitive materials. Thus, they are expected to achieve ducted some studies on the different structural types of the
many important and extensive applications in the fields of above-mentioned two commonly used waveguide materials.
optical communication,39 imaging,40 and sensing.41 In recent Schall et al.58 fabricated photodetectors with an integrated
years, it has been demonstrated that high-performance photo- Si waveguide and graphene, which were capable of operating
detectors integrating waveguides can achieve detection in the in the 1550 nm band. As shown in Fig. 2a, a 400 nm-wide
ultraviolet (UV) to infrared (IR) region.42–44 At present, the ridged Si waveguide was produced on 220 nm-thick silicon and
waveguide materials employed in the fabrication of photo- covered with a 3 μm buried oxide layer. The fiber loss in the
detectors are mainly Si, Si3N4, GaN, lithium cyanate (LN), and silicon waveguide was only 13.5 dB. The ridge waveguide is a
ZnO,45–49 which transmit IR, VIS, and UV light, respectively, common Si waveguide structure. Another structure of Si wave-
due to their inherent properties. Since the first successful exfo- guides, i.e., buried waveguide, has also been studied by
liation of graphene in 2004,50 two-dimensional (2D) semi- researchers. Shiue et al.59 prepared hBN/single layer graphene
conductor materials have attracted increasing attention in (SLG)/hBN photodetectors with an integrated buried Si wave-
photoelectric detection due to their unique structure and guide. As shown in Fig. 2b, the 520 nm-wide Si waveguide was
physical properties. Currently, some 2D materials have been buried among SOI wafers by a shallow channel isolation
used in the field of waveguide photodetectors, including gra- process. The buried waveguide enabled a flatter interface
phene,51 BP,52 MoTe2,53 and carbon nanotubes.54 Further, 2D between the planar waveguide and the 2D material because
materials can be conveniently transferred to the waveguide the SiO2 layer filling could be used in this structure.
substrate via the wet transfer or dry transfer process.55,56 In Another common material for waveguides, Si3N4, has been
this case, lattice matching can be easily achieved. However, used in studies with the two above-mentioned structures. A
due to the small band gap of 2D materials, there is no report ridge-based Si3N4 waveguide photodetector integrated with
on hybrid waveguide/2D material UV photodetectors. In con- graphene was prepared by Gao et al.,30 which could detect
trast, there have been reports on high-performance UV photo- 1550 nm IR light. The Si3N4 waveguide was obtained by chemi-
detectors integrating waveguides and 3D semiconductor cal vapor deposition (CVD). As shown in Fig. 2c, the raised
materials.57 Consequently, photodetectors integrating wave- spine portion of the Si3N4 waveguide is 450 μm long, 1.3 μm
guides and semiconductor materials are increasingly attractive wide, and 400 nm high. The SLG directly covers the Si3N4 wave-
for many applications. guide and the metal electrode, and the built-in electric field
Herein, we review photodetectors with integrating wave- between the metal–graphene junction is beneficial for the sep-
guide and semiconductor materials. In the second section, the aration and transport of photogenerated carriers, and the mul-

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Fig. 2 Waveguide materials and types commonly used in integrated waveguide photodetectors. (a) Photodetector with integrated ridge Si wave-
guide. Reproduced with permission from ref. 58. Copyright 2014, the American Chemical Society. (b) Photodetector with integrated buried Si wave-
guide. Reproduced with permission from ref. 59. Copyright 2015, the American Chemical Society. (c) Photodetector with integrated ridge Si3N4
waveguide. Reproduced with permission from ref. 30. Copyright 2018, the Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Photodetector with integrated buried
Si3N4 waveguide. Reproduced with permission from ref. 64. Copyright 2020, the American Chemical Society. (e) Photodetector with integrated chal-
cogenide glass waveguide. Reproduced with permission from ref. 66. Copyright 2018, Optical Society of America. (f ) Photodetector with integrated
InGaN/GaN waveguide. Reproduced with permission from ref. 67. Copyright 2016, Optical Society of America.

tiple metal contacts shorten the transmission distance and detectors were highly responsive to VIS light at 401 and
time of photogenerated carriers. Wang et al.64 integrated a 435 nm at different voltages, respectively. These results provide
buried Si3N4 waveguide with PtSe2 photodetector, as shown in a hopeful approach for the development of suspended wave-
Fig. 2d. The use of a ridge waveguide has the tendency to guide photodetectors for various applications in the visible
break the 2D material and the deformation at the ridge edges region. To strengthen the comparison between different types
reduces its carrier mobility. Alternatively, buried waveguides of waveguides, we organized a figure of merit table, as shown
can effectively avoid this problem, and thus avoid degrading in Table 1, comparing some parameters such as band gap,
the properties of the material. refractive index, transmission band, and loss. Waveguide loss
In addition to the common Si and Si3N4 waveguides, Li is defined as the optical power lost during the transmission of
et al.66 investigated a flexible photodetector based on a chalco- light waves within a waveguide, which has a significant impact
genide glass waveguide, as shown in Fig. 2e. The presence of on the application of waveguide materials.64,68 It imposes
the flexible waveguide enhances the interaction between limitations on the transmission distance of light within the
matter and light. At 1530 nm, the device has a noise equivalent waveguide. Additionally, waveguide loss results in energy
power of only 0.02 pW Hz1/2 and responsivity of 0.35 A W−1, wastage, thereby diminishing the overall efficiency of wave-
achieving an external quantum efficiency of 28%. As shown in guide-based optical communication and sensing systems.
Fig. 2f, a suspended waveguide photodetector with InGaN/GaN According to Table 1, the characteristics of each waveguide
multiple quantum wells was fabricated.67 The prepared photo- material can be clearly distinguished.

Table 1 Comparison of figure of merit of different waveguide materials

Waveguide Bandgap (eV) Effective refractive index Transmission band Loss Ref.
−1
Si ∼1.1 ∼3.0 (channel waveguides), IR (1.3–1.6 µm) ∼3.6 dB cm 60–63
∼2.0 (ridge waveguides)
−1
Si3N4 ∼5–6 ∼2.0 UV-IR ∼4.5 dB cm 64, 65
Chalcogenide glass — — IR (1–3.0 µm) — 66
InGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells ∼2.5–3.5 ∼2.5 UV-blue light — 67

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2.2 Semiconductor materials for photodetectors with spectrum includes multiple intervals in the UV, visible, short-
integrated waveguides wave IR, near-IR, mid-IR, far-IR, and terahertz region. 2D
Since the discovery of graphene in 2004, 2D materials have materials, including graphene, BP, and tungsten disulfide
gradually entered the field of research, opening up new possi- (WS2), can be seamlessly integrated with waveguides without
bilities for the development of high-performance photo- significantly affecting the mode fields.51,52,69 Moreover, gra-
detectors. Compared to bulk materials, 2D materials with phene materials can be transferred to any substrate without
atomically thin limiting thicknesses are capable of enormous considering lattice mismatch.70 Simultaneously, the transferred
quantum effects, which endow them with unique structures graphene can maintain its excellent electron transport pro-
perties. In 2013, Englund et al.71 demonstrated for the first time
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and many excellent capabilities, especially in terms of elec-

tronic and optoelectronic properties.9 2D materials have high a photodetector with integrated waveguide and SLG, as shown
Open Access Article. Published on 09 February 2024. Downloaded on 6/10/2025 [Link] PM.

mechanical strength and good flexibility, can be adapted to a in Fig. 4a. This photodetector exhibited a response rate of more
wide range of substrate materials, and are well suited for than 20 GHz and 12 Gbit per s at zero bias. Schall et al.72
mature CMOS processing, enabling the large-scale integration designed and fabricated a photodetector integrating silicon
of silicon photonic structures. Alternatively, 2D materials have waveguides and multilayer graphene, which showed good
high carrier mobility and no dangling bonds, which can very responsivity of 0.18 A W−1 to IR light at 1550 nm, as shown in
effectively suppress the dark current of photodetectors and Fig. 4b. Besides pure graphene materials, a very effective modifi-
realize room temperature detection with high sensitivity and cation is to use graphene as a tunable electrode and transition
high-speed photoelectric response.24 Fig. 3 displays the metal sulfide as a photosensitive material, which can exhibit
relationship between 2D materials and the corresponding strong light–matter interactions and photon absorption. Based
detection bands.69 According to Fig. 3, it is obvious that some on this property, heterojunction stacks and hybrid devices of
2D materials have an extremely small intrinsic band gap, such graphene and other 2D semiconductors can further enable mul-
as BP and graphene. In addition, photodetectors integrating tifunctional, high-performance photodetectors.
these materials are capable of reaching an extremely wide 2.2.2 Black phosphorus. Among the 2D materials, BP has
detection spectral range, up to the mid-infrared and even tera- attracted increasing attention due to its advantages such as a
hertz bands. Thus, the use of 2D materials to achieve a broad- layered structure with adjustable band gap, better absorption
spectrum photoelectric response is very beneficial for the of mid-wave infrared light, and good thermal stability.
application of these types of photodetectors. However, BP still faces oxidation problems in the air and stabi-
2.2.1 Graphene. The integration of 2D materials onto wave- lity issues. Recently, BP has been rediscovered and there has
guides is one of the strategies to achieve strong optical inter- been some research on black phosphorus-based photo-
action. The emergence of 2D materials provides a new option detectors. BP has a very narrow direct bandgap structure and it
and opportunity to realize high-performance and low-cost has an anisotropic in-plane laminar lattice structure. These
broadband photodetectors. The interaction of 2D materials unique advantages give it superior broadband detection
with waveguides results in a higher absorption per unit length characteristics and polarization sensitivity.19,24 Besides, BP can
than that of the normal incident structure. As a typical repre- be integrated on different substrate materials, which makes it
sentative of 2D materials, the classical graphene has a zero- quite feasible to fabricate photodetectors with integrated wave-
bandgap, which can generate a large number of carriers guides and BP. In addition to studies on graphene, photo-
through light absorption in a very broad spectrum. This broad detectors integrating waveguides and BP materials have also
been investigated. As shown in Fig. 4d, Lee et al.73 designed
the photodetector integrating an Si waveguide and BP to
achieve a photoresponse in the wavelength range of 3.68 to
4.03 μm.
2.2.3 Other 2D semiconductor materials. Compared with
graphene and BP materials, transition metal sulfides also have
advantages such as excellent optoelectronic properties, struc-
ture tunability depending on film thickness, chemical compo-
sition and structural diversity. Transition metal dichalcogen-
ides have the additional advantage of being suitable to be
used in devices that require electroluminescence. Moreover,
the energy band structures of transition metal sulfides vary
with the number of layers in the material, thus enabling light
detection at different wavelengths. For example, in transition
metal sulfides, the transition from an indirect band gap to a
direct band gap can be observed by reducing their size from
Fig. 3 Relationship between 2D materials and the corresponding
bulk material to the monolayer limit. In addition, 2D carbon
detection bands. Reproduced with permission from ref. 69. Copyright nanotubes are often used to prepare photodetectors due to
2021, Wiley-VCH. their excellent optoelectronic properties, good thermal conduc-

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Fig. 4 Semiconductor materials commonly used for integrated waveguide photodetectors. (a) Integrated waveguide photodetector with SLG.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 71. Copyright 2013, Springer Nature. (b) Integrated waveguide photodetector with multilayer graphene.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 72. Copyright 2018, Optical Society of America. (c) Integrated waveguide photodetector with the graphene/
MoTe2 heterojunction. Reproduced with permission from ref. 74. Copyright 2019, Optical Society of America. (d) Integrated waveguide photo-
detector with BP. Reproduced with permission from ref. 73. Copyright 2018, the American Chemical Society. (e) Integrated waveguide photodetector
with carbon nanotubes. Reproduced with permission from ref. 75. Copyright 2020, the American Chemical Society. (f ) Integrated waveguide photo-
detector with Bi2O2Se. Reproduced with permission from ref. 76. Copyright 2021, the American Chemical Society.

tivity, and chemical stability. Recently, 2D multicomponent and transition metal sulfides such as molybdenum sulfide
compounds, such as Bi2O2Se material, have also been used to (MoS2), MoTe2, tungsten sulfide (WS2), and boron nitride
prepare photodetectors with integrated waveguides. Novotny (BN).23–25 However, due to the small bandgap of 2D materials,
et al.74 designed a vertically stacked IR photodetector with inte- there have been no reports on UV photodetectors integrating
grated Si waveguide and graphene/MoTe2 heterojunction, as waveguides and 2D materials. In contrast, UV photodetectors
shown in Fig. 4c. The photodetectors were obtained by a simple integrating waveguides and 3D or 1D semiconductor materials,
method of mechanical exfoliation and transfer alignment, such as AlxGa1−xN and ZnO nanowires, have been
which can absorb light in the near-IR wavelength range and be reported.57,77 The reason why AlxGa1−xN and ZnO can achieve
applied for photoelectric detection in the telecommunication UV detection is because their bandgaps (∼3.5 eV) are relatively
band. Peng et al.75 investigated a photodetector based on the large. These wide-bandgap semiconductors can absorb UV
integration of carbon nanotubes and waveguides, as shown in light, enabling UV detection.
Fig. 4e. Carbon nanotubes are very promising materials that are
effectively compatible with silicon photonic platforms and other
materials. Also, as a direct band gap material, carbon nano- 3. Waveguide-integrated photo-
tubes are capable of achieving high absorption coefficients over detectors for different wavelengths
a wide spectral range for fiber optic communication. Based on
their ultra-high mobility (100 000 cm2 V−1 s−1) and intrinsic Since the emergence of 2D materials, 2D materials represented
optical response time at room temperature, carbon nanotubes by graphene have been increasingly studied in various fields,
can be used in a wide range of high-speed electronic and opto- including gas sensing,78 medicine,79 optoelectronics,80 and
electronic devices, including photodetectors. As shown in composite materials.81 Especially, 2D materials have received
Fig. 4f, Lin et al. designed and fabricated photodetectors inte- extensive attention in the field of photodetection in recent
grating waveguides and Bi2O2Se.76 Bi2O2Se was first grown on years due to their unique properties. A photodetector is a light
mica by CVD, and then well integrated with the Si waveguide sensor that can convert absorbed light signals into electrical
via the transfer method. Meanwhile, the narrow band gap of signals and is widely used in optoelectronic systems,82 com-
Bi2O2Se can be used in the study of high-performance near-IR munications,83 aerospace,84 medical sterilization,85 fire preven-
photodetectors. tion,86 the military,87 and other fields. At present, photo-
2.2.4 3D semiconductor materials. The common 2D detectors corresponding to different wavelengths play an
materials integrated with waveguides are mainly graphene, BP, important role in optical systems in various fields. Therefore,

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the development of high-performance photodetectors has increases due to the photogenerated carriers generated by illu-
received increasing attention. Compared with traditional mination.95 The principles of photodetectors corresponding to
photodetectors based on 3D semiconductor materials, such as different 2D materials and different device structures are often
silicon,88 germanium,89 and III–V semiconductor materials,90 not single, but one or several combinations. In addition, from
photodetectors based on 2D materials are ultra-thin and have the perspective of the structure of photodetectors, photo-
high response, outstanding photo-dark current ratio, ultra- detectors based on 2D materials can be divided into two cat-
high electronic mobility and other advantages. These photo- egories. One is a photodetector with 2D materials combined
detectors can be classified into UV, visible, and IR photo- with substrates such as Si, sapphire, and silicon carbide, and
detectors in terms of their detection wavelength. Further, UV the other is a photodetector with 2D materials combined with
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photodetectors are divided into near UV (UVC), far UV (UVB), substrates such as Si, Si3N4, and GaN waveguides. Currently,
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ultra-short UV (UVA), deep UV (DUV), and extreme UV (EUV) some researchers reviewed the first class of photodetectors.96
photodetectors according to the wavelength range. Similarly, However, it is well known that for 2D materials, taking gra-
IR photodetectors can be classified into near-IR (NIR), mid-IR phene as an example, it is difficult to achieve high photo-
(MIR), and far-IR (FIR) photodetectors according to the wave- responsivity due to its low absorptivity to incident light
length. Alternatively, from the perspective of typical detection (∼2.3%). Under this premise, the performance of the first type
principles,91 photodetectors for 2D materials can be classified of photodetectors with the hetero-combination of 2D materials
into photo-bolometric (PB) effect, photothermoelectric (PTE) and substrates needs to be further improved due to the limited
effect, photovoltaic (PV) effect, and photoconductive (PC) interaction length between 2D materials and light. As an
effect. In the case of the PTE effect, the photocurrent is gener- alternative, the second type of photodetectors integrating 2D
ated by photon-induced temperature changes in a 2D material. materials and waveguides will overcome the above-mentioned
The PB effect refers to the mechanism by which the tempera- problem. In addition, because 2D materials are relatively thin,
ture of the 2D material changes due to light illumination, they can be employed in the evanescent field of waveguide
thereby causing the resistance of the material to change.92 transmission light, and thus the absorption of the incident
Regarding the PTE effect, it is a mechanism by which light- light by the 2D material can be enhanced, and thus the per-
induced temperature gradients generate photocurrents.93 The formance of the photodetector can be improved. In the follow-
PV effect is a mechanism by which a 2D material generates ing part, we review photodetectors for different wavelengths.
additional electron–hole pairs separated by a built-in electric Furthermore, the parameters corresponding to the photo-
field due to illumination.94 The PC effect refers to the mecha- detectors integrating waveguides and semiconductors are sum-
nism by which the electrical conductivity of a 2D material marized in Table 2.

Table 2 Summary of photodetectors integrating waveguides with semiconductor materials

Materials Waveguide Wavelength (μm) Photodetector type Bias (V) Responsivity (A W−1) Bandwidth (GHz) Ref.

Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 1 0.108 >20 71

Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 0 6 × 10−3 41 58
Graphene Si 1.31–1.65 MSM 0 0.03 18 105
Graphene Si VIS-2.75 Graphene–Si −1.5 0.13 — 116
Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 0.4 0.057 7.7 149
Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 1.2 0.36 42 59
Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 0 0.035 65 150
Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 1 1 × 10−3 76 151
Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 2 0.273 — 104
Graphene Si 1.55 MSM 2.2 0.36 110 152
Graphene Si 6.3–7.1 MSM 0 8 × 10−3 — 106
Graphene Si 1.55 FET −0.3 0.4 40 108
BP Si 1.55 MSM 0.4 0.135 3 153
BP Si 2 MSM 0.4 0.307 1.33 154
MoTe2 Si 1.1–1.2 p–n junction 0 1 × 10−3 — 107
MoTe2 Si 1.3 Graphene–MoTe2 −0.6 0.14 25 60
Graphene Si3N4 1.55 MSM 0 0.015 30 113
Graphene Si3N4 1.55 MSM 1 2.36 33 114
Graphene Si3N4 1.55 p–n junction 0 12.2 (V W−1) 42 117
Graphene Si3N4 1.55 p–n junction 0 6 (V W−1) 67 118
PtSe2 Si3N4 1.55 MSM 8 12 35 120
InAlAs/InGaAs Glass 1.53 MSM — 0.25 1.4 131
MoS2 Si3N4 0.532 FET 30 0.44 — 123
Si Si3N4 0.85 p–i–n 20 0.1 — 124
MoS2 Si3N4 0.647 FET 1 1000 — 127
MoSe2 Si3N4 0.78 MoSe2–WS2 2 1 — 128
ZnO ZnO 0.3–0.7 — 1 — – 148
AlxGa1−xN AlxGa1−xN 0.28 p–n junction — 0.3 — 33

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3.1 Waveguide-integrated IR photodetectors MSM structure detector, the silicon slot waveguide structure
can enhance the light intensity and reduce the mode con-
IR photodetectors are very important photodetectors, which finement of the transmitted light, which increases the inter-
have been widely used in various fields of human life, includ- action between graphene and incident light. Simultaneously,
ing the military,97 optical communication,98 night vision,99 efficient electron cooling and phonon scattering are lacking
imaging,100 thermal imaging cameras,101 medical treat- in suspended graphene. Consequently, the waveguide
ment,102 and environmental monitoring.103 Therefore, 2D achieved an absorption of 0.935 dB μm−1 at 1550 nm and a
materials and waveguide-integrated IR photodetectors have maximum responsivity of 0.273 A W−1 in the communi-
attracted increasing attention in the past decade. In 2013, Kurz cation band. Considering a single-communication-band
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et al. designed and fabricated a metal–semiconductor–metal photodetector, Pospischil et al. demonstrated an ultra-wide-
Open Access Article. Published on 09 February 2024. Downloaded on 6/10/2025 [Link] PM.

(MSM) IR photodetector integrating a waveguide and SLG,58 as band complementary metal–oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-
shown in Fig. 2a. This IR photodetector is the first reported compatible IR photodetector based on graphene and Si
photodetector integrating waveguides and 2D materials waveguide,105 as depicted in Fig. 5b. This photodetector
according to our Web of Science search. The described photo- could detect almost all fiber optic telecommunication bands
detector with a good responsivity of 0.1 A W−1 and 3 dB and carry a multi-gigahertz operation. Subsequently, Ma
bandwidth of >20 GHz can be a promising candidate in the et al. designed an MSM photodetector integrating graphene
field of optical communication (1550 nm). Then, in 2014, and Si waveguides with a CaF2 substrate as the waveguide
another MSM-structured photodetector integrating a wave- cladding,106 as shown in Fig. 5c. Compared with other wave-
guide and CVD-grown graphene was reported by Schall guide cladding materials, although the photon energy of
et al.,72 as shown in Fig. 4b. The IR photodetector long-wave infrared (LWIR) is very low, the transmission loss
(1550 nm) has a −3 dB bandwidth of 41 GHz and can of the Si waveguide based on the CaF2 cladding for LWIR is
detect data signals up to 50 Gbit per s. Two years later, very low. Therefore, this photodetector showed low loss over
Wang et al. reported the fabrication of an MSM photo- a broad LWIR wavelength range of 6.3–7.1 μm. In addition,
detector (1550 nm) based on graphene and silicon slot wave- the photodetector also achieved a broadband responsivity of
guides,104 as shown in Fig. 5a. Compared with the previous about 8 mA W−1 in the LWIR wavelength at zero bias.

Fig. 5 IR photodetector integrated with Si waveguide and 2D materials. (a) Graphene photodetector with integrated Si slot waveguide. The photo-
current measurement of normal incident and waveguide coupling at 0.5 mW as a function of the bias voltage is shown on the right. Reproduced
with permission from ref. 104. Copyright 2016, the Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Waveguide-integrated graphene photodetector. Photocurrent as
a function of the optical communication band is shown on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 105. Copyright 2013, Springer Nature. (c)
Waveguide-integrated graphene photodetector with CaF2 substrate. The right shows the temporal photoresponses under different incident powers.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 106. Copyright 2021, the American Chemical Society. (d) Encapsulated bilayer MoTe2 photodetector is inte-
grated on a silicon photonic-crystal waveguide with a p–n junction. On the right is the dynamic photocurrent under zero bias voltage. Reproduced
with permission from ref. 107. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. (e) Vertical MoTe2–graphene heterostructure photodetector with Si waveguide. The
functional relationship between light response and EQE with applied bias at different wavelengths is shown on the right. Reproduced with per-
mission from ref. 60. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. (f ) Si–graphene hybrid plasmonic waveguide photodetector in 1.55 and 2 μm. The measured
photocurrent map as VG and Vb vary is shown on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 108. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature.

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Notably, it is well known that photodetectors with MSM the wavelength range of 1.55 μm and beyond. It is worth
structures integrated with 2D materials are relatively simple to noting that the photodetector has many novel designs. Firstly,
fabricate. On the one hand, the dark current of these photo- the Si waveguide is ultra-thin and very wide, enhancing the
detectors is generally large and their response time is relatively absorption of transmitted light by graphene. Besides, placing
long. On the other hand, due to the extended length of the a narrow metal strip on top of the Si waveguide, due to the
absorption region of the 2D material and the waveguide to local surface plasmon resonance effect and the very narrow
transmit light, the photodetector footprint and capacitance metal strip, can reduce the absorption of the transmitted light
will increase, which also hinders the high-speed operation of by the metal and enhance the absorption of graphene, and
carriers in the 2D material.96 The above-mentioned two draw- thus the absorption coefficient of graphene can reach 0.23 dB
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backs are challenges for realizing high-performance photo- μm−1. Further, the presence of gate control improves the per-
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detectors. Thus, to overcome these drawbacks, photodetectors formance of the plasmonic waveguide photodetector. Based on
such as diodes, heterojunctions, and field effect transistors these optimized designs, the photodetector exhibited a
(FETs) can be considered. Because a diode device can make setting-limited 3 dB bandwidth of >40 GHz and high respon-
the dark current of the photodetector very small due to the sivity of 0.4 A W−1 at 1.55 μm and bias voltage of −0.3 V. While
existence of a depletion region potential barrier, the hetero- operating at 2 μm, the device had a broad 3 dB bandwidth of
junction device can shorten the response time of the photo- >20 GHz (setup-limited) and a responsivity of 70 mA W−1 at
detector due to the built-in electric field of the device. Owing −0.3 V bias. It should be noted that given that graphene is a
to the regulation of the gate voltage, FET devices can achieve a 0-bandgap 2D material, graphene photodetectors operating in
small dark current, high responsivity, and shortened response PC mode inevitably have higher dark currents. Alternatively,
time. In 2017, Bie et al. designed and fabricated light-emitting BP is a direct bandgap material with ∼0.3 eV in bulk and 1.8–2
diodes and IR photodetectors (1100 nm) with an integrated Si eV in monolayer form,109,110 which can be used for broadband
waveguide and MoTe2,107 as shown in Fig. 5d. It is well known photodetection. In addition, compared with graphene, BP has
that for photonic devices, the performance of photodetectors a higher absorption rate.96 In 2019, Huang et al. presented an
is a challenge faced by researchers. Considering this challenge, FET mid-IR photodetector (3.06–4.03 μm) integrating an Si
the p–n junction photonic device integrating bilayer MoTe2 waveguide and BP,73 as depicted in Fig. 4d. Under a bias of 1
and Si waveguide can be used as a multifunctional photonic V, this high-performance photodetector achieved an ultra-high
device. Consequently, the detection wavelength of this photo- responsivity of 23 A W−1 at 3.68 μm and 2 A W−1 at 4 μm.
detector covers the range of 1100–1200 nm, and the maximum Furthermore, the noise equivalent power of this BP photo-
responsivity occurs at around 1160 nm with 5 mA W−1. detector was less than 1 nW Hz−1/2 at 1 V and room tempera-
Compared with this work, Flöry et al. designed and fabricated ture. The fabrication of these photodetectors integrated with Si
a photodetector at telecom wavelengths integrating an Si wave- waveguides and 2D materials provides a potential way to
guide and MoTe2–graphene heterojunction,60 as shown in realize the design and fabrication of on-chip photonic inte-
Fig. 5e. This photodetector achieved a record-high measure- grated chips for applications in optical communication
ment bandwidth (at least 24 GHz) at a bias voltage of −3 V. In systems,39 sensing,41 imaging,40 and other fields.
addition, Flöry et al. also studied the effect of different thick- It is worth noting that for electronic devices, Si has a
nesses of MoTe2 flakes on the performance of photodetectors leakage phenomenon because it is a semiconductor material,
and found that the photodetectors corresponding to thicker which will lead to the poor performance of the fabricated
MoTe2 flakes have higher photoresponsivity. This is due to the photodetectors integrating Si waveguides and 2D materials.111
fact that the thicker MoTe2 flakes have higher light absorption. Alternatively, given that the band gap of Si materials is rela-
Further, given that the photodetector is a vertical hetero- tively small, Si waveguides transmit incident light with wave-
structure device, the photodetector can confine the trans- lengths between 1000 and 1550 nm better.112 Regarding inci-
mission path length of photogenerated carriers to a few nano- dent light in other wavelength bands, the loss of Si waveguides
meters, thereby achieving a shorter transmission time. increases. Thus, to solve the above-mentioned two problems
Therefore, the photodetector achieved high-speed and high- simultaneously, the Si3N4 waveguide is a better alternative. In
performance targets with a record bandwidth and a high 2018, Gao et al. designed and fabricated an MSM photo-
response of 0.2 A W−1 at 1300 nm. detector integrating Si3N4 waveguides and graphene deposited
Compared with diode devices and heterojunction devices, by CVD,113 as shown in Fig. 6a. Compared with the Si wave-
although the process of FET devices is more complicated, due guide photodetector, the Si3N4 photodetector can block the
to the good control of the gate to the channel, the photogene- leakage of carriers into the waveguide and reduce the trans-
rated electron–hole pairs can be separated faster under the mission loss, thereby improving the photoresponse of the
longitudinal electric field, and thus FET photodetectors have photodetector. Further, the IR photodetector innovatively
the advantages of small dark current and fast response simul- adopts a metal–graphene junction design that increases the
taneously. In 2020, Guo et al. reported the fabrication of an interaction between evanescent light and graphene, thereby
FET photodetector based on an Si waveguide, graphene, and doubling the responsivity of the photodetector. According to
Al2O3,108 as shown in Fig. 5f. The plasmonic waveguide photo- this design, the photodetector achieved a 30 GHz bandwidth
detector exhibited an excellent photoelectric performance in and an intrinsic responsivity of 15 mA W−1 at ∼1550 nm and

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Fig. 6 IR photodetector integrated with different waveguide and semiconductor materials. (a) Si3N4–graphene hybrid waveguide photodetector
with a signal electrode with a width of wS and channel width w. The top is the energy band diagram of the photodetector under zero bias and the
right is the plot of responsivity as a function of reverse bias at 1550 nm. Reproduced with permission from ref. 113. Copyright 2018, Optical Society
of America. (b) A graphene–Si3N4 waveguide photodetector with transverse-magnetic mode distribution. The photocurrent and responsivity at an
input optical power of 1.314 mW as a function of bias voltage are shown on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 114. Copyright 2018,
AIP Publishing. (c) The single layer graphene photodetector on Si3N4 waveguide with a p–n junction. On the right is the photovoltaic map under
zero bias voltage. Reproduced with permission from ref. 117. Copyright 2018, the American Chemical Society. (d) The double single-layer graphene
photothermoelectric photodetector on Si3N4 waveguide. The simulated photovoltaic map as a function of the voltage applied to the split gate is
shown on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 118. Copyright 2020, the American Chemical Society. (e) The hybrid PtSe2–SiN photo-
detector. On the right is the measured I–V curve of the PtSe2 photodetector under dark and different optical powers. Reproduced with permission
from ref. 64. Copyright 2020, the American Chemical Society. (f ) The flexible waveguide-integrated chalcogenide glass photodetector. The I–V
curve of the photodetector under different optical powers is described on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 66. Copyright 2018,
Optical Society of America.

zero bias, which is comparable to that obtained with the best photoconductivity effect) under different bias voltages. In the
pristine graphene-based photodetectors. Next, Gao et al. case of the photovoltaic effect, efficient photodetection is
improved the metal–graphene junction photodetector and fab- mainly achieved by separating photogenerated carriers
ricated a grating-like metal contact photodetector (1550 nm) through the action of a built-in electric field. Given that the
integrating an Si3N4 waveguide and graphene,30 as depicted in region where the metal–graphene junction and band bending
Fig. 2c. The resistance–capacitance limited bandwidth of the exist is small,115 it is usually much smaller than the distance
fabricated device improved because of the relatively small rela- between the two electrodes. Alternatively, the photogenerated
tive permittivity of the Si3N4 material. Besides, the IR photo- carriers in graphene have a relatively short lifetime,116 and a
detector innovatively adopts a grating-shaped metal electrode large number of carriers is recombined before reaching the
design, which reduces the distance of carrier transmission contact electrodes. The above-mentioned two problems limit
between the two metal electrodes. Based on this design, a the responsivity of graphene photodetectors. Thus, to over-
transit time-limited bandwidth of 111 GHz was calculated. come these problems, the interdigitated metal contacts
Alternatively, for the actual device, it was experimentally found employ an interdigital spacing as narrow as 200 nm. At zero
that at 1550 nm, the photodetector has an electro-optical bias, the built-in electric field can accelerate the carriers to sat-
bandwidth of 38 GHz under 0 V bias and an intrinsic responsi- uration drift velocity. By increasing the bias voltage, the device
bility of 13 mA W−1 under 0.1 V reverse bias. During the same can also perform photodetection under the photoconductor
period, to further improve the performance of the photo- mechanism. Consequently, at zero bias and 1550 nm, the
detector integrating a waveguide and graphene, Gao et al. high-performance photodetector achieved an electro-optical
demonstrated a novel photodetector integrating an Si3N4 wave- bandwidth of ∼33 GHz. Alternatively, at 1 V bias, the photo-
guide and graphene with interdigitated electrode contacts,114 detector achieved a responsivity of ∼2.36 A W−1. Compared
as shown in Fig. 6b. Based on this design, the photodetector with the MSM photodetector, in 2019, Muench et al. demon-
exhibits two detection mechanisms ( photovoltaic effect and strated a split-gate FET photodetector integrating single-layer

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graphene, Al2O3, and Si3N4 waveguide,117 as depicted in ible waveguides have received increasing attention. In 2017, Li
Fig. 6c, where the photodetector mainly works in the telecom- et al. designed and fabricated an MSM photodetector based on
munication band. Besides, compared with the large dark flexible chalcogenide glass (ChG) waveguides and InGaAs,66 as
current of the MSM device, the photodetector can directly depicted in Fig. 6f. Consequently, the photodetector exhibited
generate a photovoltage with zero dark current through the a record optical and mechanical performance measured at
PTE effect. Further, the design of this Au split gate can not 1530 nm with noise equivalent power as low as 0.02 pW Hz1/2,
only generate built-in electric fields but also act as surface linear dynamic range exceeding 70 dB, and 3 dB bandwidth of
plasmons to resonate with specific wavelengths of absorbed GHz. In addition, the device could withstand 1000 bending
light. The surface plasmon resonance effect has the function cycles within a sub-millimeter radius without degrading its
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of limiting the absorbed light, thereby increasing the optical optoelectronic response. Therefore, the photodetector is
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field intensity in the graphene channel and the absorption of expected to become an important device in novel bio-inte-
the transmitted light. Consequently, the high-performance grated optoelectronic systems, wearable sensors, and flexible
photodetector has the advantages of ∼12.2 A W−1 external consumer electronics.
responsivity and a 3 dB bandwidth of ∼42 GHz. Mišeikis et al.
designed and fabricated an FET photodetector integrating a 3.2 Waveguide-integrated VIS photodetectors
polymer gate dielectric, a graphene channel, and an Si3N4 VIS light is a common and interesting wavelength band that
waveguide,118 as depicted in Fig. 6d. The photodetector adopts can be used in biomedical and short-range communication
a graphene/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/graphene stack structure, applications.129,130 VIS photodetectors also play a significant
and its detection mechanism is the PTE effect. The use of PVA role in these applications.131 The Si3N4 material has good
produces a low charge inhomogeneity of ∼8 × 1010 cm−2 and a transmittance for the VIS band, and is one of the better candi-
large Seebeck coefficient of ∼140 μV K−1, which enhances the dates as a VIS light waveguide.124 However, most of the
PTE effect. In addition, the top split gate is composed of two research on photodetectors based on photonic platforms has
graphene layers grown by CVD. By applying a gate voltage to focused on the IR telecommunication band, and there is still
each split gate, a p–n junction is created when light absorption relatively little research on integrated waveguides and semi-
in the monolayer graphene channel above the waveguide conductor materials for VIS photodetectors.
induces an electron temperature gradient across the junction, Wu et al.123 reported the fabrication of a photodetector
enabling photovoltage generation.119 This photodetector is based on an Si3N4 waveguide. The photodetector integrates the
unaffected by a dark current at ∼1550 nm and is currently the current hot transfer graphene/MoS2 heterostructure (where the
fastest graphene photodetector, with a flat frequency response monolayer MoS2 is obtained by the CVD method). As shown in
up to 67 GHz without significant loss. Further, this high-per- Fig. 7a, in this structure, photogenerated electron–hole pairs
formance photodetector is realized on a low-cost, passive will be generated, and the heterostructure interface will rapidly
photonic platform, and does not rely on nanoscale surface separate the photogenerated electron–hole pairs.
plasmon structures, promising for next-generation communi- Subsequently, electron transfer to the graphene layer is
cation and data applications. induced by the built-in electric field. The Fermi energy level of
Due to the low light absorption rate of graphene materials, the graphene layer changes in response to the back-gate
researchers have been searching for 2D materials to replace voltage, which enables the device to achieve an optical respon-
graphene.120 In 2020, Wang et al. used transition metal sul- sivity of 440 mA W−1 and a rise/fall time of 80/30 ms at
fides instead of graphene to design and fabricate MSM photo- 532 nm. This photodetector integrating an optical waveguide
detectors integrating PtSe2 and Si3N4 waveguides,64 as shown with a 2D heterostructure has great potential for future appli-
in Fig. 6e. In this design, the researchers innovatively covered cations in integrated optoelectronic circuits. Selvaraja et al.124
PtSe2 with a low-refractive-index polymer. Due to the combined also reported a photodetector integrated on a planar oxide-free
effect of the high-refractive-index Si3N4 waveguide and the low- Si3N4 waveguide SOI platform, which was capable of detecting
refractive-index polymer waveguide to form bound states in the in the VIS to near-IR wavelength range, which has potential for
continuum (BIC),121,122 the waveguide transmits light into the applications such as biosensing and short-range communi-
2D material and is bound to it, thereby enhancing the mode cation. This is an MSM photodetector with the advantages of
overlap between the waveguide evanescent field and the 2D high responsivity, low capacitance, low dark current, and high
material. Consequently, the responsivity of this photodetector operating speed, as shown in Fig. 7b. The photodetector inte-
at 8 V bias voltage and 1550 nm is ∼12 mA W−1. In addition, grating an Si3N4 waveguide with Si can be used in communi-
optical impulse response measurements show a 3 dB band- cation applications operating at high speed, providing a fairly
width of 35 GHz, demonstrating the promise of this photo- reliable sensitivity to the device. Traditional superconducting
detector integrating Si3N4 waveguides and 2D materials for nanowire single-photodetectors have achieved a high detection
high-speed optoelectronic devices. Hard waveguides such as Si efficiency of 98% at a wavelength of 1550 nm, while supercon-
waveguides and Si3N4 waveguides are difficult to apply in the ducting nanowire single-photodetectors with integrated wave-
fields of wearable devices, flexible consumer electronics, and guides can achieve higher absorption efficiency due to the
bendable and stretchable devices. Thus, to overcome the photons being absorbed in the traveling wave along the propa-
above-mentioned problems, the design and fabrication of flex- gation direction. As shown in Fig. 7c, Schuck et al.125 demon-

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Fig. 7 VIS photodetector integrating Si3N4 waveguide with 2D materials. (a) A photodetector with integrated Si3N4 waveguide and graphene/MoS2
heterojunction. The rise/fall time of 80/30 ms at 532 nm is displayed on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 123. Copyright 2019, Wiley-
VCH. (b) A photodetector with integrated Si3N4 waveguide and SOI platform. Photocurrent as a function of voltage is shown on the right.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 124. Copyright 2018, SPIE. (c) A photodetector with integrated Si3N4 waveguide and nanowires. The right
shows the detection efficiencies under different wavelengths. Reproduced with permission from ref. 125. Copyright 2021, AIP Publishing. (d) An ava-
lanche photodetector with integrated Si3N4 and Si waveguide. The device current as a function of the reverse bias is shown on the right.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 126. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (e) VIS photodetector-integrated Si3N4 waveguide with 2D MoS2. The
right shows the responsivity under different optical power density with applied bias. Reproduced with permission from ref. 127. Copyright 2019,
Published in partnership with FCT NOVA with the support of E-MRS. (f ) A VIS photodetector integrated Si3N4 waveguide with the MoSe2/WS2 hetero-
junction photodiode. The measured responsivity as optical power density is shown on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 128.
Copyright 2023, under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

strated a single photodetector of superconducting nanowires approach from conventional vertical light absorption, with
integrated with a single Si3N4 waveguide. These researchers 647 nm VIS light exhibiting near-transverse absorption in the
integrated a U-shaped superconducting nanowire single-photo- device, which very effectively improves the optical response
detector on top of Si3N4. When connected to a fiber via a 3D with an on–off current ratio as high as 6 × 103. Besides, the
coupler, absorption in a wide band range from 532 to 1640 nm combination of MoS2 and hexagonal boron nitride improves
can be achieved with detection efficiencies as high as 22–73%. the detection speed of the photodetector with a rise/fall time
Avalanche photodetectors capable of achieving an inte- of 13/11 s. Gherabli et al.128 constructed a VIS photodetector
grated photonic platform at VIS wavelengths can be used in a integrating an Si3N4 waveguide with MoSe2/WS2 heterojunction
variety of miniaturized devices, such as biomedical and under- photodiode, as shown in Fig. 7f, which exhibits a high respon-
water imaging, and molecular sensing.132–134 Leong et al.126 sivity of 1 A W−1 at the VIS wavelength of 780 nm. Additionally,
reported the first monolithic avalanche photodetector based the dark current of the device is even reduced to below 50 pA,
on a doped Si ridge waveguide with an integrated Si3N4 wave- and the power spectral density of the dark current is as low as
guide. As shown in Fig. 7d, the Si3N4 waveguide is used as the ∼1 × 10−12 A Hz−0.5. This research can lay a certain experi-
input waveguide to reduce the propagation loss of the device mental foundation for photodetectors with integrated wave-
in detecting VIS light. The photodetector is capable of detect- guides and 2D materials in various fields such as optical com-
ing 685 nm light at a reverse bias voltage of 20 V. The dark munication, quantum photonics, and biochemical sensing.
current of all devices can be below 70 pA at a bias voltage of 2
V, indicating that the device is prepared in a quit stable 3.3 Waveguide-integrated UV photodetectors
process. In addition, the photodetectors exhibit a dark current At present, UV photodetectors, as an important part of photo-
of only 1 pA when the waveguide width is 900 nm. Marin detectors, are mainly used in the military,135 environmental
et al.127 achieved not only a VIS band photodetector integrating monitoring,136 medical field,137 and space.138 Due to the short
an Si3N4 waveguide with 2D MoS2, but also effective light wavelength of UV light, semiconductor materials with a wide
absorption and photocurrent generation. Fig. 7e displays the bandgap or ultra-wide bandgap are generally required to
structure of this device. The device demonstrates a different realize detection, such as ZnO,139 Ga2O3,140 BN,141 AlN,142 and

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Fig. 8 UV photodetector integrated with different waveguide and semiconductor materials. (a) Eu3+-doped waveguide photodetector with an Si
p–n junction. On the right is the spectral photoresponse of the photodetector from UV to IR. Reproduced with permission from ref. 147. Copyright
2001, Wiley-VCH. (b) A vertically grown ZnO nanorod waveguide photodetector based on partially embedded anodized aluminum (AAO) templates.
The absorbance curve of ZnO deposited in the AAO template is shown on the right. Reproduced with permission from ref. 148. Copyright 2018, IOP
Publishing Ltd. (c) A UVC waveguide photodetector integrating n-type Al0.65Ga0.35N waveguide. On the right is the photodetector and emitter
responsivity and emitted power as a function of wavelength. Reproduced with permission from ref. 33. Copyright 2020, the Japan Society of Applied
Physics.

diamond.143 Similarly, to improve the performance of UV studied 2D or quasi-2D UV semiconductor materials.

photodetectors, integrating UV light-transmitting waveguides Considering that the fiber is relatively difficult to fix, in 2018,
with photosensitive semiconductor materials is a promising Maurya et al.148 designed and fabricated a vertically grown
alternative. However, due to the large photon energy of UV ZnO nanorod waveguide photodetector based on partially
light and the large scattering of UV light, considering the embedded anodized aluminum templates, as shown in
bandgap of the material, there are few waveguide materials Fig. 8b. Compared with bare ZnO nanorods, the photodetector
that can transmit UV light. Therefore, the current research on integrating the ZnO nanorod waveguide with hybrid anodized
UV waveguides is relatively scarce, mainly focusing on wave- aluminum showed a higher response in the UV band.
guide materials such as AlN,144 Si3N4,145 and ZnO.146 Consequently, the UV photodetector exhibited a fast response
Consequently, there are currently fewer studies on UV photo- under 365 nm light irradiation, with rise and fall times of
detectors integrating UV optical waveguides with semi- ∼31 ms and ∼85 ms, respectively. In 2020, Floyd et al.33
conductor materials. In 2001, Ivankov et al.147 designed and designed and fabricated a UVC waveguide photodetector inte-
fabricated a UV photodetector integrating Eu3+-doped zinc grating an n-type Al0.65Ga0.35N waveguide and AlxGa1−xN mul-
borate glass (ZBG) fibers and Si, as shown in Fig. 8a. The tiple quantum wells, as depicted in Fig. 8c. The multifunc-
detection principle of the photodetector is to convert the inci- tional photodetector can be used as both a photodetector and
dent UV light into VIS light with a wavelength of 613 nm a light-emitting diode. Interestingly, the emitter, photo-
through the Eu3+ doped ZBG fiber. In addition, the device detector, and waveguide share a common epitaxial layer struc-
detects UV light through the sensing of VIS light by an Si ture. Besides, ∼80% of the transmitted light is confined in the
photodiode. Consequently, the photodetector achieved a n+-Al0.65Ga0.35N layer, 7% in the AlN cladding, and the remain-
photoresponsivity of 3 mA W−1 in the UVC band with low ing 13% in the sapphire substrate. Consequently, the respon-
power consumption. Further, the maximum sensitivity wave- sivity of this photodetector peaked at 250 nm (1 mA W−1).
length of this UV photodetector is in the deep UV range
(240–270 nm). It is worth noting that the reason why 3D semi-
conductor materials are used as sensitive materials for UV 4. Conclusion and outlook
photodetectors is that there are relatively few research groups
studying photodetectors integrating UV waveguides and semi- Herein, we reviewed the recent studies on photodetectors with
conductor materials, and these research groups may not have integrated waveguides and semiconductor materials for wave-

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length bands from the UV to IR region and discussed their guide and graphene–MoTe2, whose photo-dark-current ratio is
potential applications. These applications mainly include almost one order of magnitude better than that of a pure gra-
optical communications, optical computing, and sensing, as phene photodetector. In addition, we can design and prepare
summarized in Fig. 9. With the recent development, the intro- surface plasmon structures to promote the absorption of inci-
duction of some semiconductor materials provides alternative dent light transmitted through waveguides by semiconductors,
opportunities to achieve various active photodetectors on Si thereby improving the response of photodetectors. Moreover,
substrates because of their fascinating optoelectronic pro- heterostructures (such as p–n junctions, n–n junctions, and p–
perties. Further, when waveguides and semiconductor i–n junctions) can reduce the dark current and accelerate the
materials are integrated, the effect of the light–matter inter- separation of photogenerated carriers due to the presence of
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action is considerably improved, thereby greatly enhancing the potential barriers and built-in electric fields, helping to realize
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optoelectronic performance of photodetectors. With the rapid high-performance waveguide-integrated photodetectors.

development of waveguide technologies, novel and high-per- Secondly, currently there is no relevant report on UV photo-
formance photodetectors integrating waveguides with semi- detectors integrating waveguides with quasi-2D or 2D semi-
conductor materials will play an important role in future conductor materials. A potential solution is to integrate quasi-
photoelectric applications. At present, numerous high-speed 2D β-Ga2O3 or 2D h-BN because these materials have ultra-
and high-responsivity waveguide/semiconductor photo- wide bandgaps suitable for solar blind detection and vacuum
detectors have been demonstrated to benefit from the special UV detection.155–159 Thirdly, it is also still challenging to
photoelectric properties of semiconductor materials. However, realize photodetector arrays integrating waveguides and semi-
there are many challenges and bottlenecks preventing the fab- conductor materials with high yield and throughput.96,160
rication of higher-performance photodetectors with integrated Searching for advanced growth processes, for example, using
waveguides and semiconductor materials. Firstly, some 2D the MOCVD method to grow high-quality semiconductor
materials affect the response of photodetectors integrating materials, may be the most straightforward way to solve the
waveguides and 2D material due to their shortcomings. For above-mentioned problem. Lastly, wearable systems are very
example, graphene materials have low absorptivity and other important for human health, while flexible photodetectors
semiconductor materials such as MoS2 have low carrier mobi- integrating waveguides with semiconductor materials are
lity.23 As shown in Fig. 9, the performance of photodetectors rarely reported. It is a promising way to fabricate high-perform-
integrating waveguides and semiconductors can be optimized ance organic waveguides matched with semiconductor
by developing new semiconductor materials or new material materials by using advanced preparation techniques.
structures. Recently, Flöry et al.60 reported the fabrication of In summary, it is becoming very promising to develop
stacked vdW heterostructure photodetector integrating a wave- photodetectors on Si substrates through integrated waveguide

Fig. 9 Schematic summary of the application fields and further development strategies of photodetectors with integrated waveguides.

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