Annals of Geographical Studies

Volume 2, Issue 3, 2019, PP 32-45

ISSN 2642-9136

Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and

Coping Strategies
Tombari Bodo*
Department of Geography and Natural Resources Management, Faculty of Social Science, University
of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: Tombari Bodo, Department of Geography and Natural Resources
Management, Faculty of Social Science, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria,
Email: tombarib@[Link]

ABSTRACT
Urbanisation is a growing challenge in the world today with every society battling with its consequences.
Despite the benefits that come with urbanisation, the damages on developing economies are enormous. This
paper reviews the origin of urbanisation and the theories that defined its formation. Furthermore, the
pattern of urbanisation in developing countries is analyzed in relation with that of the developed world.
Finally, the causes and consequences of urbanisation are reviewed, and possible coping strategies
suggested.
Keywords: Urbanisation, theories, causes, consequences, coping strategies.

INTRODUCTION (Palen, 2008). Each nation uses its own criteria

for defining urban centres depending on how the
Urbanization is the steady increase in the number population are distributed (Satterthwaite, 2005).
of people living in cities or urban centres. This
occurrences result from the continuous mass For the first time in history, the majority of the
movement of people from the villages or rural people live now in urban areas and the urban
settlements to cities or urban areas. It can also population is growing rapidly (UN, 2007).
result from natural increase (the excess of births Urbanisation is not common only to a particular
over deaths) especially where this population country or region of the world, as it is a
increase take place in areas where advance phenomenon that is currently visiting every
technology and developmental projects are nations of the world. In 1960, the global urban
present. The definition of what qualifies a town population was 34% of the world‟s total and only
as an urban centre differs from one country to 43% as at 1990, however, by 2014 the urban
another depending on the population criteria population accounted for 54% of the world‟s
used. In Sweden for instance, from as low as total and continues to grow. By 2050 the proportion
200 inhabitants in a place could be regarded as living in urban areas is expected to reach 66%
an urbanised centre; 250 persons for Denmark; (UNDESA, 2014; UN-Habitat, 2016; UNDESA,
1000 persons in Canada; 10,000 in Greece; 2019). Figure 1 shows the change in the rural and
while in Nigeria, a place is called an urban when urban populations of the world from 1950 through
the population is as high as 20,000 inhabitants to projected figures up to the year 2050.

Figure1. Urban and rural population of the world, 1950–2050(Source: UNDESA, 2014)

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

There had been concerns that with the current The challenges posed by this rapid urbanisation
rapidly growing world‟s population, the trend of are immersed and very frightening with more
shifting from rural areas to urban settlements is easily observable, are human and environmental
likely to continue, and the overall growth of the poverty, declining quality of life, and the untapped
world‟s population could add another 2.5 billion wealth of human resources that they represent
people to urban areas by 2050, with close to 90% (Chen, 2007). Housing and associated facilities
of this increase taking place in Asia and Africa (water, electricity, etc) are similarly inadequate,
(UN, 2018). Urbanisation is a major challenge in such that millions now live in substandard and
the world, but the source of the rapid growth of subhuman environments, plagued by slum,
cities in less developed countries has been a major squalor, and similarly inadequate social amenities,
concern of researchers. schools, health and recreational facilities (Bodo,
2015). The city challenges that have lead to
The two sources of urbanisation mostly referred
breakdown of family cohesiveness and community
in literatures have been the continued rural-
spirit can further increased levels of juvenile
urban migration and the rate of natural increase.
delinquency and crime (Burra, 2005).
Opinions have also differed on the most
contributing source of rapid urbanization in these The rate of urbanization differs from one country
less developed countries, although majority of to another, even for those in the same region
opinions seem to be that, rural-urban migration (Chen, 1991). Though, there are similar trend of
has been a net contributor to the growth of urban urbanization in developing and developed countries
centres in the 1950s to the 1970s, while natural of the world, but still, there are distinctions in
increase is contributing more to urban growth in the individual countries (Bodo, 2015). Figure 2
the past two decades (Chen and Parish, 1996; shows a comparison of trends in more or less
Chirisa, 2008). developed regions of the world.

Figure2. Trends in urban population growth, comparing more and less developed regions (Source: UNDESA, 2014)

Urban growth also differs in the different cities; even for cites in the same zone (for
regions of the world as shown on Table 1. Every example, Port Harcourt and Yenagoa in the
city in the world has its own peculiar challenges Niger Delta region of Nigeria) has their peculiar
that makes them different from those of other challenges.
Table1. Urban rate of change, 1995-2015
Average annual rate of the urban population Entire period
Region/Area 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2015 1995-2015
World 2.13% 2.27% 2.20% 2.05% 2.16%
High-income countries 0.78% 1.00% 1.00% 0.76% 0.88%
Middle-income countries 2.74% 2.77% 2.61% 2.42% 2.63%
Low-income countries 3.54% 3.70% 3.70% 3.77% 3.68%
Africa 3.25% 3.42% 3.55% 3.55% 3.44%
Asia 2.79% 3.05% 2.79% 2.50% 2.78%
Latin America and the Caribbean 2.19% 1.76% 1.55% 1.45% 1.74%
Europe 0.10% 0.34% 0.34% 0.33% 0.31%
North America 1.63% 1.15% 1.15% 1.04% 1.24%
Oceania 1.43% 1.49% 1.78% 1.44% 1.53%
Source: UNDESA, 2014

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

HISTORY OF URBANISATION developed countries due to inconsistency of

what should be adjudged or defined as an urban
So many literatures have recounted slighted place and also the unavailability or lack of
different versions of the possible origin of quality of their census data (Timberlake, 1987).
urbanisation. However, there seemed to be a The transition from the twentieth to the present
consensus in these literatures that the earliest century marked a more catastrophic rapid
form of urban life started in the Middle and urbanisation growth all over the world, as half
Near East, in what we call today as Iraq around of the people in the world were now living in
3,500 BC. In this regard, the oldest urban urban areas by 2008. It is predicted that the
communities known in history is believed to world‟s urban population will rise from the
have started approximately 6,000 years ago and current 50 percent to 75 percent by 2050, which
later emerged with the Maya culture in Mexico is far higher than the mere 10 percent in 1900
and in the river basins of China and India. In the (Dogan, 1998). Already the USA, Britain and
earlier period of the thirteenth century, the Germany have already surpassed 75 percent
largest cities in the world were the Chinese cites urban and could even exceed 90 percent by
of Chang‟an (Xi‟an today) and Hangzhou, which 2050 (Soja and Kanai 2007). Available data
had over one million people. Even the city of revealed that South Korea and Mexico had
London was less than one until the 1700. In the already surpassed 50 percent urban in 1950 and
nineteen century, insufficiency of food supply are likely to be more 75 percent urbanised by
and the difficulty of the means of transportation 2030 (Chen, 2007; Castillo, 2007).
necessitated a stable and low population with
The cities with more than one million inhabitants
less than three percent of the world‟s population
have gradually grown from only two (London
living in urban places around 1800 (Clark, 1998).
and Beijing) around 1800 to 16 around 1900, to
According to reports from previous scholars, roughly 70 in 1950, to approximately 180 by 1975
urban population started fluctuating between and then catapulted to 450 in 2005 (Clark, 1998;
four and seven percent of the total population Cohen, 2004). Out of these 450 cities, China
from the beginning of the Christian era until claimed 100, India about 40, while the USA,
1850. In that same year, out of an estimated Europe and Africa had 40 respectively and the
world population of 1.3 billion persons, about rest shared among the cities in Latin America
80 million or 6.5 percent lived in urban settlements and the Caribbean. As at 1900, London was the
(Grauman, 1976). In 1850, only three cities of first and only megacity of 10 million inhabitants,
the world (London, Beijing and Paris) had more but the list has increased to over 20 in 2005.
than one million inhabitants, with about 110
other cities presumed to have more than 100,000 THEORIES OF URBANISATION
inhabitants (Golden, 1981). It was also reported There are been several explanations on what
that of the 25 largest cities in the world then, 11 drives urbanisation and how cities had emerged.
were in Europe, eight in East Asia, four in South Some of the available literatures on the theories
Asia, and only two in North America. Between of urbanisation have ideas that intersect with
1850 to 1950, only three regions in Great others; while some came up as a build up from
Britain, North-West Europe, and the USA were other theories. Some of these theories are
more than 20 percent urban. By the first half of highlighted below to further buttress the
the twentieth century, urbanisation was most understanding of why and how urbanisation
rapid and extensive in Europe, the Americas and
takes place.
Australasia. Within this period, the number of
large cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants in The Theory of Self-Generated Urbanisation
the world had increased to 946; and the city of This theory suggest that urbanisation occurrence
New York had the largest population of about
requires two separate conditions, which are the
2.3 million people (Darvis, 1965). This was a generation of surplus products that sustain
period where the urbanisation of developed people in non-agricultural activities (Hawley,
countries had largely reached its peak, even 1981) and the achievement of a level of social
though; only a quarter of the world‟s population development that allows large communities to
lived in the urban places (Davis, 1965). be capable of working successfully alone (Bodo,
In the developing world, urbanisation became 2015; Lampard, 1965). It is believed that this
noticeable in the late twentieth century, although type of changes that result in urbanisation took
it was difficult to ascertain the actual growth place simultaneously in the Neolithic period
rates or the trend of urbanisation in the less when the first cities emerged in the Middle East

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

(Wheatley, 1971). This theory also holds that is often seen by scholars in this tradition as
rural-urban migration was the source of this having major impact in the transformation of the
form of urbanisation, as people began to move third world societies. Previous scholars have
to the cities for factory jobs (Childe, 1950). asserted that the modernization approach
Thus, industrialisation was identified as the encourages cultural diffusion and breeds uneven
driver behind the exodus movement of people development especially in the third world
from the rural settlements to urban areas. Before countries (Hawley, 1981; Kasarda and Crenshaw,
the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the
1991). It is believed that this kind of urbanisation
twentieth century, historical evidence showed
that no society could be described as urbanised. may have been triggered by the concentration of
It was after this period that the West began to social amenities and developmental projects in
industrialise rapidly and soon after the accelerated certain parts of the society, due to ethnic, racial or
industrialisation and then urbanisation in the rest religious divisions and corrupt politics, that has
of the world through the last century to the created economic dichotomy and uneven
present. This theory concludes that industrialisation developments in the world today (Alonso, 1980).
produces urbanisation. This theory has also been With investments and opportunities concentrated in
queried for focussing on rural-urban shift within few places (most likely cities); massive rural-to-
counties as the source of the urbanisation, urban migration is necessitated stemming from
considering that there are other cities that are rural-push and urban-pull factors (Berliner,
urbanized based on other factors, and not 1977; Kasarda and Crenshaw, 1991).
necessarily through rural-urban migration
(Davis, 1972; Pred, 1977). Dependency/World-System Theory
Modernization Theory There had been several theoretical statements as
regard dependency/world-system theory,
This theory was prevalent and influential from making it difficult to harmonize these ideas into
the 1950s the 1970s. The theory asserts that a single thought (Kasarda and Crenshaw, 1991;
urbanization results from the introduction of Frank, 1967; Baran 1957; Evans, 1979; Timberlake,
new things and innovations within the society 1985, 1987). This perspective of urbanisation
through industrialisation, technological application, emerged from the failure of modernization
information penetration and cultural diffusion theory to account for both the conditions and
(Smith, 1996). Considering urbanisation through consequences of urbanisation in developing
the lens of modernization, first, it is common to countries (Bodo, 2015). The theorists in this
see elements of modernisation (new things) in tradition believe that, this kind of system is
every society that has moved from the primitive introduce through either intentional coercion or
era (Stone Age) to a new or modern pattern of through the inherent logic of capitalism in certain
doing things. Secondly, the importance of areas; and also the presence of underdevelopment
technology in social organisation and shaping of among the population (Wallerstein, 1980;
the society is very obvious; as urbanisation Galtung, 1971). A more critical analysis of
usually results afterwards. The present state of dependency/world-system theory had been
urbanisation and development in the world reviewed at a more basic level, whose views were
today cannot be separated from its initial state at rested on three assumptions (Kasarda and
the onset of modernization (Kasarda and Crenshaw, Crenshaw, 1991; Hermassi, 1978; Chirot and
1991). Most developments are products of Hall, 1982).
technologically driven societies, which could
boost or increase economic capabilities, provide Firstly, these critical theorists believed that a
surplus food through improve agricultural system unique form of capitalist development pattern
and the use of mechanical and electronic tools exist in societies, attributing it to a form of
or machines to reduce workload on citizen; yet social organisation. Secondly, for capitalism to
increasing speed and efficiency of work done be in place, certain social structure will manifest
(Lenski and Nolan, 1984; Nolan and Lenski, 1985). in the form of unequal exchange, uneven
development, individual social inequality, core-
It is assumed in this context that technology is periphery hierarchies and dominance structures
more important than social organisation of the (Kasarda and Crenshaw, 1991). Perhaps, these
society. Thus, the application of technology is features of underdevelopment were not available
seen as the main driving force of urbanisation in in such societies; the dependency/world-system
the society. According to Kasarda and Crenshaw theorists asserted that a capitalistic development
(1991); industrialisation rather than capitalisation will necessitate such scenario or create them

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

into the system (Hermassi, 1978; Kasarda and development of the rural areas by pressuring the
Crenshaw, 1991). government to protect their interest by their
location in urban areas at the expense of the
The views of these theorists were clear, that the
rural areas (Ades and Glaeser, 1994) and this
social changes in the third world were as a result
development process in the poor countries that
of structures and processes of the capitalist
is economically bias to the rural areas has been
world system. Thus, this system thrive through
embedded in the political structure by the urban
the unequal structure and disproportionate groups (Varshney, 1994). So, the people in these
development in the society; as the world cities of rural areas continue to suffer from stunted growth,
the developed world are using primate capitals reduced investments, lower public goods provision
of the third world as accumulators and transmitters and political repression due to the lack of
of wealth (Portes and Benton, 1984; London, political will or power to aid their development
1987; Bornschier, 1981; Cohen, 1981). (Lipton, 1977).
Theory of Urban Bias There had been also other opposing arguments
This theory has been supported by several that urban bias does not necessarily cause rural
scholars (London and Smith, 1988; Bradshaw, poverty as some governments in developing
1987; Tadoro, 1981; Lipton, 1977; among others). countries have made efforts in developing the
Michael Lipton, a development economist, who rural areas by enacting laws and policies that
is a leading proponent of the urban bias theory; favour the rural settlements. Taiwan and South
in 1977 explained this theory in his paper by Korea formulated policies on land reforms to
comparing the data of 63 less developed boost agricultural production and profits for the
countries and nine developed countries, which rural people; while Malaysia, the Philippines
revealed that urban-rural disparity is seen to and Thailand governments decided to focus
growing in the poor countries as the governments developmental projects on health and education
of these nations tend to intervene in markets in in the rural areas (McGuise, 2001). These activities
ways that imposes tax on agriculture; whereas
of these governments countered rural-urban
the governments of the richer nation were doing
migration as more jobs and opportunities were
the reverse by intervening in ways that confer
readily available in the rural areas (Muscat,
subsides on farmers (Lipton, 1977; Dixon and
McMichael, 2016). In this sense, the rural people 1990).
were described as being parasitized by urban URBANISATION OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
populations, who benefits massively from the IN COMPARISON WITH THE DEVELOPED
consumption of cheap good from the rural WORLD
settlements and beautiful urban structures from
the tax incomes from these rural areas (Dixon The geographical regions that constitute
and McMichael, 2016). This bias in favour of developing countries are Africa, East Asia,
the urban settlements has created disparity South Asia, Western Asia, Latin America and
between the rural and urban areas; as regard to the Caribbean as shown on Table 2. Prior to
consumption, wage and productivity levels; 1950, urbanisation was a phenomenon that was
necessitating mass exodus of the rural dwellers only common to developed countries and these
to cities for greener pastures and an improved countries experienced rapid urbanisation during
standard of living (Bradshaw, 1987; Corbridge the period of industrialisation in Europe and
and Jones, 2005). North America in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The sufferings and abject poverty among the Movements were usually from the rural
people in the rural areas is attributed to urban settlements to the urban centres for better jobs,
bias (Lipton 1977). This results from the uneven but after 1950, this trend slowed down in the
distribution of available resources among the developed countries (Modal, 2019). In fact,
populace; a situation that concentrate currently people are moving from the big cities
developmental projects like agricultural and in developed countries to rural areas; resulting
industrial reforms in the urban centres, making into what is regarded as Counter Urbanisation
the impoverish rural dwellers to move to the (Modal, 2019). This trend is what gave birth to
cities where they can access quality education, the growth of suburbs.
health care service, basic social amenities, security,
essential goods and services (Lipton, 2005; On the other hand, in most developing countries,
Bates, 1981). The urban bias theorists believed around 1950, the colonies became independent
that there are groups that hinder the economical nations and the quest for development leads to

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

accumulation of resources in core settlements to other parts of the world for greener pastures,
(or areas of interest) that immediately became leisure and religious functions, but despite this,
urbanized through two main factors: massive the continent is one of the fastest urbanizing
rural-urban migration and natural increase regions of the world (Guneralp et al, 2018).
(Abiodum, 1997; Modal, 2018). The urbanisation Currently, most places in Africa is largely rural
of developing countries, especially African has and primitive; yet, African urban population is
been described as unique (Bodo, 2015). expected to be more than triple in over forty
Urbanization pattern in African is different from years, from 395 million in 2000 to 1.339 billion
that of other continents of the world. As compared in 2050, corresponding to 21st of the world‟s
with other regions, Africans are always moving projected urban population (UNDESA., 2019).
Table2. Developing economies by region
AFRICA ASIA LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
North Africa Southern Africa East Asia Caribbean
Algeria Angola Brunei Darussalam Barbados
Egypt Botswana China Cuba
Libya Lesotho Hong Kong Dominican Republic
Mauritania Malawi Indonesia Guyana
Morocco Mauritius Myanmar Haiti
Sudan Mozambique Papua New Guinea Jamaica
Tunisia Namibia Philippines Trinidad and Tobago
South Africa Republic of Korea
Zambia Singapore
Zimbabwe Taiwan of China
Thailand
Viet Nam
Central Africa West Africa South Asia Mexico and Central America
Cameroon Benin Bangladesh Costa Rica
Central African Burkina Faso India El Salvador
Republic Cabo Verde Iran Guatemala
Chad Cote d‟Ivoire Nepal Honduras
Congo Gambia Pakistan Mexico
Equatorial Ghana Sri Lanka Nicaragua
Guinea Guinea Panama
Gabon Guinea-Bissau
Sao Tome & Liberia
Principe Mali
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
East Africa Western Asia South America
Burundi Bahrain Argentina
Comoros Iraq Bolivia
Congo DR Israel Brazil
Djibouti Jordan Chile
Eritrea Kuwait Columbia
Ethiopia Lebanon Ecuador
Kenya Oman Paraguay
Madagascar Qatar Peru
Rwanda Saudi Arabia Uruguay
Somalia Syrian Arab Venezuela
Uganda Republic
Tanzania Turkey
United Arab
Emirates
Yemen

Source: UNDESA, 2014

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

In developing countries, the towns usually serve in developing countries are unable to cope with
as sources of opportunities for job seekers. The the needs of the growing population, so the
villagers who are usually able bodied men, urban dwellers fall back to the informal sectors
leaves their families with the assurance of for employment opportunities (Gundogan and
coming back to the village after few months in Bicerli, 2009).
the city with enough money to cater for the
Urbanisation in Nigeria
family needs. In most cases, these journeys that
begin with few villagers going to the city are Urbanisation in Nigeria started a long time ago
always successful as their objective is met. On with cities like Kano, Ibadan, Benin, Zaria,
their return, they tell others of the mouth- Sokoto and others already urbanised, with about
watering opportunities in the city and how they 450 ethnic groups existing before colonisation
intend to go back into the city to make more (Williamson, 1987). The urban environment as
money for their family. Gradually, with the at that time was noted for local and international
quest for an improve standard of living, the trips trade, with the some of the famous traditional
become more frequent and the stay in the city palaces in these cities. After colonisation and
moves from months into years (McCall, 1955). the subsequent amalgamation of the Northern
Earlier before now, the migration pattern in and South protectorates by Lord Fredrick Lugard
Africa used to be in circular form with the in 1914; more opportunities for trade were
villagers that travelled to work in the mines, created in the urban centres. Business transaction
plantations and factories during the colonial was mainly on agricultural produce and mineral
times returning after 2 to 5 years (Byerlee, resources between Nigeria and the Western
1974). During those times, the villagers could World (Williamson, 1988). Within the country,
leave their jobs to visit their families at home for the needed roads, rails and infrastructures were
some months and still return to find their jobs constructed in towns where certain items were
waiting for them or they could go for a needed in commercial quantities. For instance,
completely new and better job. But currently, the railways ran from the groundnut pyramids of
there are lacks of jobs in the cities that have Kono through the tin-ore of Jos, to the coal
made it risky for villagers with paid job to return deposits of Enugu down to Port Harcourt where
home, knowing that their chances of finding a ships were already stationed to transport these
job again are very slim (McCall, 1955). The goods overseas (Okowa, 1991). Other routes
cities in the developing countries that was once were also running as at this time, as the Logos
a heaven of opportunities for migrants is now port terminal was popular for importation and
infested with several problems such poverty, exportation of goods. These popular towns used
high infant mortality, malnutrition, environmental for commercial activities in those days started
degradation, congestion and inadequate housing attracting people from other areas coming to do
(Herrmann and Khan, 2008). business and new towns were emerging along
The conditions in rural areas in developing the routes of transportation between the major
countries are so pitiful that many move to the towns.
cities in order to improve their standard of living, In 1954, the British government recognised
only to be faced with what has been described as three major regions in Nigeria which were the
urban illusion (Eyong and foy, 2006). The Western, Eastern and Northern provinces (FGN,
villagers arrive the city and find it difficult to 1962). After independence, the pattern of
find a job, their situation become worse than it urbanisation in Nigeria was highly depended on
was before they moved (Stifel and Thorbecke, the Nigerian government plans and policies
2003; Potts, 2006). Urbanisation which is usually (FGN, 1970). In 1967, the military president,
complemented by industrialisation should normally General Yakubu Gowon created 12 states with
lead to an improvement in the economic conditions, new capitals to replace the regional structure of
living standards of the population as it in the North, West, East and the Mid-West (FGN,
developed countries. Unfortunately, urbanisation 1975, 1981). In 1976, the state structure increase
in most developing countries does not show any to 19 by General Murtala Mohammed, 21 in
significant or an improvement of the living 1986 and then 30 in 1991 by General Ibrahim
standard of the population (Adegbola, 1987); Babangida and finally to 36 states in 1993 by
rather in some African countries, urbanisation General Sani Abacha (FGN, 1991, 1993, 1994).
creates wars and armed conflicts, insecurity, This sequence of state creation was redefining
poverty and diseases (Boadi, et al, 2005; Fay the Nigeria‟s environment as revenues accrued
and Opal, 2000). Majority of the urban centres from oil and other investments to the nation was

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Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

shared monthly to the state governors, who more children that their counterparts in the cities
immediately started developing their state because of the lack basic knowledge on family
capitals at the expense of other areas in their planning measures; but the congestion of the
locality (FGN, 1996, 1997).. Currently, these people in the urban areas makes the problem of
thirty six states capitals are urbanized with the natural increase more seen, as compared to the
outer rural surroundings in abject neglect. rural settlement mainly because of the multiplier
effect (Bodo, 2015). Polygamy that is common
CAUSES OF URBANISATION in the rural settlements also increases the
There had been numerous submissions as to number of children in a family unit.
what causes urbanisation, some of the reasons Aside from the reasons mentioned earlier,
given are industrialisation, commercialisation, environmental changes, droughts, floods, lack of
social beneficial services, natural increase, availability of sufficiently productive land, and
employment opportunities and others; but for other pressures on rural livelihoods can
this study, three main reasons were identified which necessitate migration to the urban areas.
encompasses or envelops every other reasons.
Rural Urban Transformation
Rural to Urban Migration
The process of urbanisation affects all sizes of
Migration in the context of this study is the settlements, so villages gradually grow to
voluntary movement of people (as individuals, become small towns, smaller towns become
family units or large groups) from their homelands larger towns, and large towns become cities.
(place of birth or residency) to a new location This trend has led to the growth of mega-cities.
with the intention of settling down temporarily It is possible that in some localities, residents
or permanently; due to economical and may not need to relocate or migrate to nearby
technological growth or advancement in their cities for greener pastures, but may see the
desired destination. The absence essential basic opportunities they desire, come to them; as
amenities, unavailability of government presence some rural settlements metamorphosed in to
and little or no commercial activities in the rural urban settlements (Bodo, 2019a). Over time, the
areas of most developing countries serve as push continuous inputs of scientific and technological
factor that drives people away from the rural knowledge in a small rural settlement, can
settlements; whereas the cities of these counties gradually transform it into a city. Incoming
remains the focus of government developmental industries may begin to build up commercial
projects and the centre of several opportunities, activities around their environment and beyond,
necessitating rural dwellers to troop in their due to the discovery of minerals, resource
numbers to the cities due to these pull factors. In exploitation and mechanized agricultural activities.
developing countries most especially, the main With the prosperity of the rural settlement, there
causative factor is rural-urban migration (Bodo, will be increase in production and the availability
2015). of commercial goods and services; which will
accumulate to boost economic growth and
The government is bias toward the rural settlement, providing more employment to the locals. In
as they pay special wage structures in urban most cases, the required skills for certain jobs in
areas (Gibert and Gugler, 1982). Employment
the industries may not be available in such a
opportunities are believed to be surplus in the
rural settlement and may lead to the importation
cities with many industries offering high wages
of specialized or skilled persons to this rural
(Tadaro, 1979). There are more educational
settlement.
institutions, health facilities, beautiful housing
facilities, good road networks and bigger markets With the increase of commercial and industrial
for the residents to enjoy. Most residents in the activities that could possibly generate more
rural areas of the some of the poorest countries revenue into the government purse and the
do not electricity, so they often desire the urban policy makers are likely to channel construction
lifestyle with beautiful street lights at night; as of basic social amenities, health and housing
compare to the villages were they have rely on facilities to maintain the tempo of economic
the moon‟ light at night. This factor also makes growth or to encourage more businesses in the
natural increase more conspicuous in the cities. In area. Such rural settlement will gradually be
Africa, it is believed that the number of children urbanized as people from the neighbouring
one has determines the level of wealth villages may migrate over to benefit from the
accumulation. Families in the rural areas have employment opportunities.

39 Annals of Geographical Studies V2 ● 13 ● 2019

Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

Negative Policies on the government payroll. The other citizens are

expected to fend for themselves, and when they
The biggest influence on urbanisation today is
cannot afford the cost of private accommodation,
the government policies and programmes that
they fall back to outskirt of the town to build
are available in individual countries of the
squatter structures for them themselves as
world. Nigeria for instance, has a system that
shown below inn figure 3.
focuses development in the capital cities alone,
with every government that comes into power
focuses on transforming and adding more
colours to the already built city where the seat of
power is located. The Niger Delta people of
Nigeria had over the years complained that the
resources generated from the region have been
used to build up Lagos and Abuja (former and
present nation‟s capital cities) into mega cities,
at their own detriment (Bodo, 2019b; Bodo and
David, 2018). The 36 state capitals in Nigeria
have been the only areas of infrastructural
development and creation of employment
opportunities; thereby creating permanent Figure3. A typical slum settlement in the waterside of
poverty and sufferings in the town and villages Port Harcourt in Rivers State, Nigeria (Source: Bodo,
2015)
surrounding these capital cities (Bodo, 2019a).
A typical example of the conscious efforts of Poverty, Poor Sanitation, Health and Spread
government to kill off self surviving town is of Diseases
case of Rivers State in Nigeria. In the late 80s
When people move in their numbers to a
and 90s, there were popular towns like Bori,
particular location, there will be pressure on
Isiokpo, Abonnema, Buguma, Ahoada, and
food supplies and on food distribution in such
others that where known commercial activities,
area. In the rural areas in developing countries,
but with the State Government overtime focusing
majority of the residents are subsistence farmers
development (security, social amenities, health
and educational facilities) in Port Harcourt who has no food challenges, but rather usually
metropolis (Port Harcourt and Obio-Akpor have food in excess for market supply. However,
Local Government Areas); these once beautiful as people continue to migrate from their villages
towns have been deserted and are now reverted (place of origin) to the cities, they tend to use
to rural settlements (Bodo, 2019a). This system purchased food instead of their own crops and
of development is common in every part of this makes them more vulnerable to changes in
Nigeria, as towns like Port Harcourt, Calabar, food prices. When they cannot afford the cost of
Uyo, Asaba, Umuahia, Yenagoa, Benin are the food in the city, they settle on rotten or expired
only fairly developed towns in Niger Delta food for survival and then to total lack of food
region. This pattern is not peculiar tto only the supply; and finally in abject poverty and misery
developing societies, but also in developed in the city. A situation that defeats their expectation
world. The government must make conscious of a better life, resulting to what could be
efforts to carry out a spread and even development termed as “suffering in paradise”. The irony of
to curb rural-urban migration and avoid policies this situation is that, more pressure is mounted
that favours only the capital cities. on rural people to produce food for the growing
number of urban people, but the farmers that
CONSEQUENCES OF URBANISATION were in the rural areas are now in the city also
Inadequate Housing and Development of Slums needing someone to produce food that will get
to them. On the long-run, food scarcity and high
In developing countries, about a third of urban
cost of available food (mostly imported foods)
inhabitants live in impoverished slums and
becomes the city‟s reality.
squatter settlements (UNCHS, 1982). Slums are
urban areas that are heavily populated and have It is difficult for the government to provide water
sub-standard housing with very poor living and sanitations services to everyone in the city;
conditions, creating several problems. The Nigeria so they focus on areas that houses government
government for instance, only provide housing personnel and around the seat of power. The
for very senior government personnel (judges, people in living in the poor and neglected areas
politicians, senior civil servants) that are usually do not access to safe drinking water and proper

Annals of Geographical Studies V2 ● 13 ● 2019 40

Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

sanitation. Even available water supplies are

contaminated by poor sanitation through waste
and garbage disposal as shown on Figure 4.
When people live in this deplorable and
compacted conditions, it lead to contamination
of water sources and causes epidemics of
waterborne disease.

Figure5. Prostitutes hunting for clients around GRA

Phase II, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria (Bodo,
2015)
HOW TO COPE WITH URBANISATION
So many solutions have been suggested by
previous scholars on how to manage urbanisation,
and some these solutions have assisted policy
Figure4. Solid waste cover a section of the road at makers in resolving issues in their environment
Market junction of ikwerre road, Port Harcourt, (Abiodun, 1997; Cohen, 2006; Golden, 1981;
Rivers State, Nigeria (Source: Bodo, 2019a). Goldstein, 1990; Rogers, 1982). However, the
Wastes and pollution World Bank reported that no country has been
able to successfully solve the problem of
Urbanization affects land, water, air and wildlife urbanisation and rural-urban migration (Drakakis-
because of the number of people, the amount of Smith, 1995) and everyday those concerned
buildings and the increased demands on the with managing urban centres are seeking new
available resources in the cities. The lack of ways of coping with the increasing population. In
sanitation and sewerage systems has lead to the the study, three ways of coping with the unending
blockage of the drainage system, causing flooding problems of urbanisation are suggested below.
of the city. Toxic wastes from the industries are
Job Creation by Supporting the Informal Sector
often deposited into rivers. This results in
contamination of rivers which makes the water Unemployment is of great concern in all the
unsafe for drinking and irrigation, as well as cities in the world today (Rondinelli and
harming the fishes. The environment is often Kasarda, 1990). China that has been reported as
contaminated from the emissions from the having the fastest growing economy is
industries and cars in the cities which affect the struggling to absorb the millions of new entrants
health of city residents (Bodo and David, 2018). in to the urban labour market; and despite the
blessings of urbanisation, the problems that
Unemployment, Urban Crime and other Vices follows increases every year (Todaro, 1989).
One of the main consequences of urbanisation in Many believed that it was in the wake to reality
developing is unemployment. Many of the rural of urbanisation as the people of America were
people that migrated in search of jobs in the moving in their numbers to the capital
cities end up on the streets. Most times out of (Washington, D.C), coupled with the challenges
frustration, they start petty stealing like snatching from the cold war and the need for permanent
bags from unsuspected victims and may even peace, that necessitated John F. Kennedy, the
advance their craft to highway and bank robbers. 35th president of the United States on 20th of
The women engage in commercialisation of sex January 1961 to seek for support from the informal
to help them fend for their families. The sex sector in his popular historic words, “And so, my
business is common in the cities of both the fellow Americans: ask not what your country can
developed and developing countries. In Nigeria, do for you-ask what you can do for your country”.
for instance prostitutes could be sited at night in It was a clear declaration that the government
cities like Lagos, Abuja and Port Harcourt in cannot possibly employ everyone without the
places where mostly the rich citizens of the help of private business owners. For instance, in
country visits, as shown on Figure 5. Mexico, 60 percent of all jobs are provided by

41 Annals of Geographical Studies V2 ● 13 ● 2019

Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies

the informal sector (Castillo, 2007), while in the formulation stage into implementation (Bodo,
Nigeria, it is believed to be over 80 percent (Bodo, 2015). Policies of government can be aimed
2015). Governments can further encourage the toward reducing natural increase, providing
informal sector by reducing taxes on them and low-cost housing in the urban centres, provision
giving soft loan to aspiring entrepreneurs. basic amenities and job opportunities for the rural
dwellers. When policies are right, urbanisation in
Spread and Even Development
any geographical space will be well managed.
Even and spread development is possible,
however ethnic and political sentiments has CONCLUSION
been the major barrier to national development. The main cause of rapid population growth in
Political leaders in developing countries usually the world today is due to poor government policies
start developmental projects running into billions that encourages the concentration of basic social
(US dollars) in their home towns (communities amenities and employment opportunities in only
of birth) and not necessary where it is needed the cities; leading to massive rural to urban
(Bodo, 2015). If developments were to be migration. The poor urban planning; poor policy
planned and distributed fairly to ensure equity in implementation; focus of the government in the
the society; the people in every locality will be development of the cities by situating of major
contented and may not need to migrate in search developmental projects only in the urban centres
of food or employment (Drakakis-Smith, 2000). has contributed immensely to the rapid
The backwardness of the rural settlement in population growth in the cities of the developing
Nigeria has been ascribed to lack of government countries, resulting into an urban lock jam of
presence through provision of basic amenities crisis. There are also other instances where a
(Olayiwola and Adeleye, 2005). rural settlement can be transformed into mega
Policies That Favours Rural Settlements city due to due industrialization or the conscious
efforts of government to channel resources into
Policies of government can be seen on the
environment. It is true that countries that are such locality like the case of Abuja in Nigeria.
regarded as developed, attained such status Urbanization has giving rise to several challenges
through effective policy implementation that is or problems such as like commercialization of
geared toward improving standard of living of sex; increase rate of crimes; the build-up squatter
its citizens, while the underdeveloped and settlements and shanty sites; high cost of housing;
developing countries either have no policies or pollution, spread of diseases, inadequate solid
have policies that are not effective, as corruptions waste disposal and poor sanitation. Despite all
and gross mismanagement of every available these numerous challenges of urbanization,
fund is always the end result of every action solutions can come through job creation and
(Bodo 2019b). Nigeria is a typical example of a formulation of policies that favour rural settlement
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Citation: Tombari Bodo, “Rapid Urbanisation: Theories, Causes, Consequences and Coping Strategies,
2(3), 2019, pp. 32-45.
Copyright: © 2019 Tombari Bodo. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
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45 Annals of Geographical Studies V2 ● 13 ● 2019