Topic

Elements of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Unit III – EARTH ATMOSPHERE & BASIC

AERODYNAMICS

Prepared by
Program :[Link] Engineering R. Karthikeyan
Course Code : U20AE0T01 Assistant Professor,
Department of Aeronautical, BIHER
Course Name :Elements of Aeronautics and Astronautics [Link]@[Link]
 BHARATH INSTITUTE OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
(Declared as DEEMED-TO-BE UNIVERSITY Under section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

VISION
Department of Aeronautical Engineering will endeavour to accomplish worldwide recognition with a
focal point of Excellence in the field of Aeronautics by providing quality Education through world class
facilities, enabling graduates turning out to be Professional Experts with specific knowledge in Aeronautical
& Aerospace engineering.

MISSION
• To be the state of art Teaching and Learning centre with excellent infrastructure and empowered Faculties
in Aeronautical & Aerospace Engineering.

• To foster a culture of innovation among students in the field of Aeronautics and Aerospace with updated
professional skills to enhance research potential for sponsored research and innovative projects.
• To Nurture young individuals to be knowledgeable, skilful, and ethical professionals in their pursuit of
Aeronautical Engineering.
 BHARATH INSTITUTE OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
(Declared as DEEMED-TO-BE UNIVERSITY Under section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
Graduates of Aeronautical Engineering program will,
PEO -1
Possess a strong foundation in Mathematical, Scientific, and Engineering fundamentals necessary to solve engineering
problems in the field of Aeronautics.
PEO -2
Engage in designing, simulating, manufacturing, testing, and analyzing in the field of Aeronautical and allied
Engineering Industries.
PEO -3
Acquire enhanced skill to involve in research and development activities in emerging areas and pursue higher
education.
PEO -4
Work effectively as individuals and as team members in multidisciplinary projects.
PEO -5
Involve in lifelong learning, career development and adopt to social needs.
 Program Outcomes (POs) PO6- The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal, and cultural issues and the
PO1- Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
science, engineering fundamentals, and Engg. Specialization to the
solution of complex engineering problems. PO7- Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
PO2- Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
analyze engineering problems to arrive at substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural, and engineering sciences. PO8- Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO3- Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex PO9- Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
engineering problems and design system components, processes to or leader in teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
meet the specifications with consideration for the public health and
PO10- Communication: Communicate effectively with the engineering community and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
with society at large. Be able to comprehend and write effective reports
documentation. Make effective presentations and give and receive clear instructions.
PO4- Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions. PO11- Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team. Manage projects in multidisciplinary environments.
PO5- Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate
techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including PO12- Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability
prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
understanding of the limitations. technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1: Design, analyze and developing satellite systems & subsystems

PSO2: Apply their skills in the field of aerodynamics, space propulsion, aerospace
structures and materials to nurture launch vehicle systems.
 MODULE 3: EARTH ATMOSPHERE & BASIC
AERODYNAMICS
International Standard Atmosphere-Pressure, Temperature and Density altitude,
Bernoulli’s equation-Mach number-subsonic, transonic, sonic and supersonic flow
regimes, Measurement of pressure and airspeed- IAS, EAS and TAS. Incompressible
Flow; Coanda Effect; Airfoil geometry and nomenclature - airfoil characteristics -
lift, drag and moment coefficients-angle of attack-aspect ratio; Mach number.

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 EssentialPoints
1. Heat, Temperature and Temperature Scales
2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3. Composition of theAtmosphere
4. Layers in the atmosphere are defined by
temperature profiles
5. How pressure varies in the atmosphere
6. Principal weather instruments
7. Earth’s radiation budget

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 Heat and Temperature
• Temperature: Averageenergy of moleculesor
atoms in amaterial
• Heat: Total energy of molecules or atoms ina
material
• Canhave large amount of heat but low
temperatures
• Canhave high temperatures but little heat

1. Heat, Temperature and

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 Heat and Temperature
• The earth’s outermost atmosphere is
extremely “hot” but its heat content is
negligible
• The surface of the moon can reach 250 Fin
sunlight and -200 Fin shadow, but thevacuum
around the Apollo astronauts contained no
heat.
• It takes time for things to warm up and cool
off.
1. Heat, Temperature and
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 Absolute Temperature
• Once atoms stop moving, that’s ascold asit
can get
• Absolute Zero = -273 C= -459 F
• Kelvin scaleusesCelsiusdegrees and starts at
absolute zero
• Most formulas involving temperature usethe
Kelvin Scale

1. Heat, Temperature and

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 Electromagnetic Radiation
• Radio: cm to km wavelength
• Microwaves: 0.1 mm to cm
• Infrared: 0.001 to 0.1 mm
• Visible light 0.0004 – 0.0007 mm
• Ultraviolet 10-9 – 4 x 10-7 m
• X-rays 10-13 – 10-9 m
• Gamma Rays 10-15 –10-11 m

2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 Composition of theAtmosphere
• Nitrogen 78.08%
• Oxygen 20.95%
• Argon 0.93% (9300 ppm)
• Carbon Dioxide 0.035% (350 ppm)
• Neon 18 ppm
• Helium 5.2 ppm
• Methane 1.4 ppm
• Ozone 0.07 ppm
3. Composition of the Atmosphere
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Other Components of theAtmosphere

• Water Droplets
• Ice Crystals
• SulfuricAcidAerosols
• VolcanicAsh
• Windblown Dust
• Sea Salt
• Human Pollutants

3. Composition of the Atmosphere

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Mach Number Classification
Below based on the ratio values, the Mach number is termed in various regimes.
Subsonic:
The aerodynamic features like the rounded noses or the leading edges found in the commercial aircraft. They
have a mach speed below 0.8.

Transonic:
The aircraft with swept wings built have a mach speed value of 0.8 – 2.1.

Supersonic:
The aircraft has a definite design and a complete movement of thin aerofoil sections, canards, and sharp edges
that can fly at supersonic speed with mach speed value between 1.2 and 5.0.

Hypersonic:
The aircraft that fly at Mach value of between 5.0 - 10.0 has many distinctive features like the small wings and
nickel-titanium skin that is cooled. A world record was created by the U.S. plane X-15, which flew at a speed of
Mach 6.72.

High-Hypersonic:
When flying at mach levels of 10.0 – 25.0, thermal controls become an important factor while designing as the
hotness of the surface needs to be considered beforehand.

Re-Entry Speeds:
When the mach speed is above 25.0, its craft doesn't require wings but a blunt design.

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In aviation, airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. Among the common conventions
for qualifying airspeed are:
•Indicated airspeed ("IAS"), what is read on an airspeed gauge connected to a Pitot-static system;
•Calibrated airspeed ("CAS"), indicated airspeed adjusted for pitot system position and installation
error;
•Equivalent airspeed ("EAS"), calibrated airspeed adjusted for compressibility effects;
•True airspeed ("TAS"), equivalent airspeed adjusted for air density, and is the speed of the aircraft
through the air in which it is flying.

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pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air
pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific
reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:

•Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is

equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure sensors are used in applications
where a constant reference is required, like for example, high-performance industrial applications such
as monitoring vacuum pumps, liquid pressure measurement, industrial packaging, industrial process
control and aviation inspection.

•Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure
minus atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure measurement;
when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is measuring is the same as the ambient pressure. Most
sensors for measuring up to 50 bar are manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric
pressure fluctuation (weather) is reflected as an error in the measurement result.

•Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points. Differential pressure sensors
are used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels
(by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in
pressure across a restriction). Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are really differential
pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in
which one side is open to the ambient atmosphere.
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Trust available and Required
• Thrust available, denoted by TA, is the thrust provided by the power plant of the airplane.
• Unlike the thrust required TR which has almost everything to do with the airframe (including the weight) of the
airplane and virtually nothing to do with the power plant, the thrust available TA has almost everything to do
with the power plant and virtually nothing to do with the airframe.

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At the lower critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is
subsonic. Supersonic aircraft such as the Concorde and combat aircraft also
have an upper critical Mach number at which the airflow around the entire
aircraft is supersonic.

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