1. What is IPV? How is it different from domestic violence?

What are
the different types?
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and Domestic Violence
IPV Defined:
IPV refers to behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical,
sexual, or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion,
psychological abuse, and controlling behaviours. IPV encompasses any violence
within a romantic relationship, regardless of legal or cohabitation status.
Difference from Domestic Violence:
While IPV specifically pertains to violence between intimate partners, domestic
violence is broader, including violence against children, siblings, or elders in
addition to partner violence.
Types of IPV
1. Physical Abuse: Hitting, slapping, choking, or using physical force.
2. Sexual Abuse: Coercion into sexual acts or assault.
3. Psychological Abuse: Verbal aggression, intimidation, or emotional
manipulation.
4. Economic Abuse: Restricting access to financial resources.

2. Discuss the scale used to measure IPV that was discussed in

lecture. Different meta-analyses have been done on the scale –
what are some of the findings? What are some criticisms of the
CTS (CTS2)?
Measurement of IPV: Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS/CTS2)
CTS Overview:
The CTS, especially its revised version (CTS2), is a widely used tool to measure
IPV by asking respondents about their experiences with specific conflict tactics,
from negotiation to violence.
Meta-Analytic Findings:
 Prevalence: CTS reveals high rates of IPV across cultures, particularly in
nonphysical forms like psychological aggression.
 Gender Symmetry: Studies suggest similar rates of perpetration
between men and women for minor acts, though men’s violence often
leads to more severe consequences.
Criticisms of CTS:
1. Context Ignored: Fails to consider the context or motivation (e.g., self-
defence vs. aggression).
2. Severity Bias: Equates slapping with more severe forms like choking.
3. Underreporting: Overlooks nonphysical abuse and economic control.
 3. Does husband battering and same-sex battering exist? Discuss
briefly.
Husband Battering and Same-Sex IPV
 Husband Battering: Men can be victims of IPV, though often
underreported due to stigma.
 Same-Sex IPV: Rates are comparable to heterosexual relationships, with
unique dynamics like "outing" as a form of control.

4. Is IPV declining? Discuss its prevalence in Indigenous populations

Trends in IPV and Prevalence Among Indigenous Populations
IPV Decline?
Rates of IPV appear to be declining in many regions due to public awareness and
interventions, though underreporting remains an issue.
Indigenous Populations:
Indigenous individuals in Canada face disproportionately high IPV rates, linked to
historical trauma, systemic inequality, and socioeconomic challenges.

5. Discuss dating violence in Canada (be sure to discuss Canadian

university students as well)
Dating Violence in Canada
General Prevalence:
Among Canadian university students, dating violence (psychological, physical, or
sexual) is disturbingly prevalent, with studies suggesting up to 50% experience
psychological aggression.
University Students:
Factors include substance use, gender norms, and campus culture, making
students particularly vulnerable to dating violence.

6. What are the three theories discussed that attempt to explain

IPV? Discuss the three Theories Explaining IPV
1. Social Learning Theory: IPV is learned through observation and
reinforcement of violent behaviours.
2. Feminist Theory: Emphasizes power and control dynamics, viewing IPV
as an outcome of patriarchal systems.
3. Ecological Model: Examines IPV through multiple levels, including
individual, relational, societal, and cultural factors.
 7. Discuss the criminal justice response to IPV. What are mandatory
charging policies? Why were they implemented? How have they
impacted IPV?
Criminal Justice Response to IPV
Mandatory Charging Policies:
These policies require police to lay charges in IPV cases if evidence supports it,
aiming to ensure consistent responses and reduce victim burden.
Impact: Increased arrests but mixed effects on recidivism and victim safety.

8. Discuss the two most common types of intervention when it

comes to IPV. Why has the Duluth model been criticized?
Interventions for Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)
1. The Duluth Model
 Overview:
o Developed in Duluth, Minnesota, this approach views IPV as rooted
in patriarchal power and control dynamics.
o Uses group-based therapy sessions focused on accountability and
challenging beliefs about male dominance.
 Criticism:
o Overgeneralization: Critics argue it oversimplifies IPV as solely
caused by male dominance, ignoring IPV in same-sex relationships
or cases where women are perpetrators.
o Limited Individual Focus: The model does not address mental
health, substance abuse, or other contributing factors to IPV.
o Effectiveness: Evidence of its long-term effectiveness in reducing
recidivism is mixed.
2. Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
 Overview:
o Focuses on identifying and changing harmful thought patterns and
behaviours related to aggression.
o Includes anger management, problem-solving skills, and emotional
regulation.
 Strengths:
o Addresses psychological and emotional contributors to IPV.

o Can be adapted for individual or group settings and is inclusive of

diverse populations.
 9. Discuss the effectiveness of treatment of offenders who commit
IPV. What variables have an impact on treatment?
Effectiveness of IPV Treatment
 Mixed Outcomes:
o Studies show varying levels of success, with some reductions in
recidivism but limited long-term behaviour change.
 Key Variables Influencing Treatment:
o Motivation to Change: Offenders genuinely committed to reform
tend to show better outcomes.
o Severity of Violence: Those with a history of severe or chronic
violence may be less responsive to intervention.
o Mental Health and Substance Use: Co-occurring disorders
significantly impact treatment success.
o Support Systems: Access to stable housing, employment, and
supportive relationships improves outcomes.

10. What is stalking? How is it included in the Criminal Code of

Canada? What needs to be present for charges to be laid?
Stalking in Canada
Definition:
Stalking, referred to as criminal harassment under the Criminal Code of Canada
(Section 264), involves repeated behaviour that causes the victim to fear for
their safety or that of someone close to them.
Requirements for Charges:
To lay charges, the following must be proven:
1. Repeated Conduct: Harassing behaviour occurred more than once.
2. Intent: The perpetrator knew or should have known their behaviour would
cause fear.
3. Fear for Safety: The victim must have experienced actual fear for their
safety or that of others.

11. What is the prevalence of stalking in Canada? What are

some of the characteristics of stalkers and victims?
Prevalence of Stalking in Canada
 General Prevalence:
o About 9% of Canadians report experiencing stalking at some point
in their lives, with higher rates among women.
 Characteristics of Stalkers:
 1. Often male, with a prior relationship to the victim.

2. May have obsessive tendencies or a history of rejection sensitivity.

3. Frequently display narcissistic or borderline personality traits.

 Characteristics of Victims:
1. Disproportionately female.

2. Commonly known to the stalker (e.g., ex-partners or

acquaintances).
3. May experience psychological distress, anxiety, or PTSD.

12. Discuss the likelihood of violence when it comes to stalking.

Likelihood of Violence in Stalking
 Elevated Risk:
o Stalking is strongly associated with violence, particularly
when:
 The stalker has a history of IPV or criminal behaviour.
 The stalking escalates over time.
 The stalker exhibits extreme jealousy or possessiveness.
 Statistics:
o Studies indicate that about 30–40% of stalking cases involve threats
or actual violence, with former intimate partners being the most
likely to become violent.

13. Discuss the impact that stalking has on victims.

Impact of Stalking on Victims
Stalking has profound psychological, emotional, and physical effects on victims,
including:
 Psychological Impact:
o Anxiety, fear, and paranoia.

o Sleep disturbances and chronic stress.

o Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and depression.

 Social Impact:
o Isolation due to fear of being followed or monitored.

o Difficulty maintaining employment or relationships due to

disruptions.
  Physical Impact:
o Direct physical harm in cases where stalking escalates to violence.

o Stress-related health issues, such as hypertension or chronic

fatigue.
 Financial Impact:
o Costs of legal action, increased security measures, or relocating to
avoid the stalker.

14. What are the four different types of stalkers mentioned in

lecture? Discuss.
Four Types of Stalkers
1. Intimate Partner Stalkers:
o Often ex-partners who refuse to accept the end of a relationship.

o Most likely to escalate to violence.

2. Delusional Stalkers:
o Develop an irrational belief in a non-existent relationship with the
victim.
o Often target public figures or acquaintances.

3. Vengeful Stalkers:
o Motivated by anger or revenge, often feeling wronged by the victim.

o Seek to intimidate or punish the target.

4. Predatory Stalkers:
o Seek to observe and plan an attack, typically sexual or violent.

o Least common but highly dangerous.

15. Discuss how the definition of sexual assault has changed

over the years. How is it defined now? What are the three levels
of severity?
Definition of Sexual Assault: Historical and Current Perspectives
Historical Definition:
 Previously referred to as "rape," focusing narrowly on non-consensual
vaginal penetration.
 Limited to male perpetrators and female victims.
 Required evidence of physical resistance and corroboration.
Current Definition:
 Section 271 of the Criminal Code: Sexual assault now broadly
encompasses any non-consensual sexual activity, including physical
contact or exploitation without consent.
 Gender-neutral, recognizing male and female victims and perpetrators.
 Emphasizes the absence of consent rather than the presence of force.
Three Levels of Sexual Assault Severity:
1. Level 1 (Sexual Assault):
o Involves unwanted sexual contact without causing physical injury.

2. Level 2 (Sexual Assault with a Weapon, Threats, or Bodily Harm):

o Includes threats, weapons, or physical harm to the victim.

3. Level 3 (Aggravated Sexual Assault):

o Results in severe physical injury or endangers the victim’s life.

16. Discuss the nature and extent of sexual violence. What do

some researchers believe had an impact on sexual assault reports
in 2017 and 2018?
Nature and Extent of Sexual Violence
 Extent:
o Sexual violence remains significantly underreported.

o Women and marginalized groups, such as Indigenous and LGBTQ+

communities, face disproportionate risks.
 Nature:
o Most perpetrators are known to the victim (e.g., intimate partners or
acquaintances).
o Often involves coercion, manipulation, or incapacitation, rather than
overt physical force.
Increase in Reports (2017–2018):
 Researchers attribute the spike in sexual assault reports to heightened
awareness from the #MeToo movement, which empowered survivors to
share their stories and challenge stigma.

17. Discuss the #metoo movement and the impact it had on the
reporting of sexual assaults.
The #MeToo Movement and Sexual Assault Reporting
  Overview:
o Originated on social media to highlight the prevalence of sexual
harassment and assault.
o Amplified by high-profile cases in the entertainment and political
industries.
 Impact:
o Increased public discourse on consent and accountability.

o Survivors felt validated and encouraged to report incidents.

o Law enforcement and institutions faced pressure to take allegations

seriously.

18. Is the reporting of sexual assaults accurate (i.e., are the

numbers truly representative?)
Accuracy of Sexual Assault Reporting
 Underreporting:
o Most sexual assaults are not reported to authorities, with studies
estimating that only 5–10% of cases come to light.
o Reasons for underreporting include fear of retaliation, shame,
mistrust of the justice system, or belief that the assault is not
"serious" enough.
 Overreporting Concerns:
o Instances of false accusations are exceedingly rare, accounting for
less than 2% of reported cases.
 Conclusion:
o Current statistics on sexual assault underrepresent the true extent
of the issue, highlighting the need for systemic change to support
survivors and improve reporting rates.

19. Discuss the consequences (both physical and psychological)

of sexual assault on victims.
Consequences of Sexual Assault on Victims
Physical Consequences:
 Immediate Effects:
o Injuries such as bruises, fractures, or genital trauma.

o Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or unintended pregnancy.

 Long-term Effects:
 o Chronic pain syndromes (e.g., pelvic pain, fibromyalgia).

o Gastrointestinal or gynaecological issues.

Psychological Consequences:
 Short-term Effects:
o Acute stress reactions, anxiety, and depression.

o Feelings of shame, guilt, and self-blame.

 Long-term Effects:
o Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

o Increased risk of substance abuse and suicidal ideation.

o Difficulties in forming trusting relationships.

20. What are the four reasons why sexual assault having such a
strong impact on victims?
Four Reasons Why Sexual Assault Has a Strong Impact
1. Violation of Autonomy:
o Assault breaches a victim’s sense of control over their body and
safety.
2. Betrayal of Trust:
o Often perpetrated by someone known to the victim, intensifying
feelings of betrayal.
3. Stigma and Social Judgment:
o Victims may fear being blamed or ostracized by society,
compounding their trauma.
4. Re-traumatization:
o Navigating legal and medical systems can exacerbate feelings of
vulnerability.

21. Discuss the three explanations for sexual aggression (i.e.,

the three theories proposed to account for sexual aggression)
Theories Explaining Sexual Aggression
1. Feminist Theory:
o Views sexual aggression as an expression of power and control
rather than sexual desire.
o Argues that societal norms and patriarchy enable aggression
against women.
 2. Social Learning Theory:
o Suggests sexual aggression is learned behaviour, influenced by
exposure to violence, pornography, or cultural norms that condone
aggression.
3. Biological/Neurological Explanations:
o Links sexual aggression to hormonal imbalances, brain dysfunction,
or genetic predispositions.

22. Does treatment work for sexual offenders? Discuss. Is

incarceration a deterrent?
Effectiveness of Treatment for Sexual Offenders
Does Treatment Work?
 Research shows mixed results:
o Treatment programs can reduce recidivism among certain offenders,
especially those who are motivated to change.
o Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) Model: Tailoring treatment to the
offender's risk level, criminogenic needs, and learning style is most
effective.
o High dropout rates can undermine effectiveness.

Is Incarceration a Deterrent?
 Incarceration alone is not a significant deterrent for sexual offenders.
 Without treatment, offenders may reoffend upon release, particularly in
high-risk populations.

23. What do treatment programs focus on?

Focus of Treatment Programs
1. Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT):
o Addresses distorted thinking patterns and promotes empathy for
victims.
o Teaches self-regulation and coping skills.

2. Relapse Prevention:
o Identifies triggers and high-risk situations.

o Develops strategies to avoid and manage these situations.

3. Psychopharmacological Interventions:
o Medications to reduce sexual drive (e.g., anti-androgens or SSRIs).
 4. Risk Assessment and Management:
o Structured risk assessments to monitor offenders over time.

24. What are some of the challenges for researchers conducting

research on sexual violence? What has research shown when it
comes to the treatment of sexual offenders (be sure to discuss
dropout rates, surgical castration, matching treatment to the
offender, etc.)
Challenges for Researchers Studying Sexual Violence
1. Underreporting and Stigma:
o Victims may not report incidents due to fear or shame, limiting
available data.
2. Ethical Concerns:
o Conducting studies involving survivors or offenders requires careful
ethical considerations to avoid harm.
3. Attrition and Dropout Rates:
o Offenders in treatment programs often drop out, making it hard to
assess long-term effectiveness.
Findings on Treatment for Sexual Offenders
Dropout Rates:
 Higher dropout rates are associated with higher rates of recidivism.
 Programs must focus on engagement and retention.
Surgical Castration:
 Rarely used and controversial, but studies show it can reduce recidivism in
extreme cases.
 Raises significant ethical and legal concerns.
Matching Treatment to the Offender:
 The RNR Model is essential to ensure interventions address the unique
risks and needs of offenders.
 Tailored treatment significantly improves outcomes.
Overall Research Findings:
 Comprehensive treatment programs that combine therapy, risk
management, and medication are most effective.
 Long-term success requires ongoing monitoring and support after release.