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Table of contents
pages
Introduction………………………………….………………………………………… 1

I- Historical background……………………………………………………. 2

II. British Vs American English ……………………………………………… 3

III. variety of English ………………………………………………………….. 4

Camerounian English
Nigerian English

Conclusion
References
Introduction

In an increasingly interconnected and globalised world, the English

language has evolved far beyond its original geographic and cultural
roots. English is no longer confined to native-speaking countries but is
now spoken, learned, and adapted by millions of people worldwide. This
phenomenon has given rise to what is known as World Englishes, a term
that encompasses the diverse forms, functions, and varieties of English
used across different sociolinguistic and cultural contexts (Kachru, 1992).
The global spread of English has led to the development of localised
varieties, such as Cameroonian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean
English, and many others, each shaped by the linguistic and cultural
identities of their speakers. The concept of World Englishes challenges
the notion of a single “standard” English and recognizes the legitimacy of
non-native varieties. These varieties are not simply imperfect imitations
of British or American English but are systematic, rule-governed, and
capable of fulfilling complex communicative functions (Bamgbose, 2001).
The plural form Englishes emphasizes the diversity and multiplicity of the
language as it adapts to new environments and fulfills new purposes.
This recognition is particularly important in education, international
communication, and policymaking, where native-speaker norms have
traditionally dominated. Traditionally, language teaching and assessment
have been anchored in the norms of Inner Circle Englishes primarily
British and American English. However, the growing presence of English
in multilingual societies and its role as a global lingua franca have
necessitated a shift in perspective. Scholars and educators now argue for
a more inclusive and equitable approach that embraces the legitimacy of
World Englishes and supports the communicative competence of
speakers across all varieties (Kirkpatrick, 2007). This study will look at
three main questions:

1. Where did English come from, and how did it spread around
the world?

2. What are the differences between British and American

English?

3. What are the different types of English people speak around

the world?

By answering these questions, we can better understand how English is a

changing and growing language. It’s important to know that speaking
English in a different way isn’t a mistake it’s just another way of using a
language that connects people from many places.

I- Historical background of world Englishes

English started as the language of a small group of people in England many

centuries ago. Over time, it began to spread to other parts of the world. This happened
for several reasons but mainly because of colonization, trade, and globalization.

In the 1600s and 1700s, the British Empire began expanding. The British took
their language with them to Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the Caribbean. In these
places, local people started learning and using English for communication, business,
government, and education.

But English didn’t stay the same everywhere. It changed based on the people
using it, their local languages, and their cultures. For example, in Nigeria, Cameroon,
India, or Singapore, English began to sound different and develop unique words and
accents. These new versions of English are called varieties or World Englishes.

A famous scholar, Braj Kachru, explained this with a model in 1992. He said
there are three circles of English:

1. Inner Circle: Countries like the UK, USA, and Australia, where English is the
first language.
2. Outer Circle: Countries like Nigeria, India, and Cameroon, where English is a
second language but still very important.
3. Expanding Circle: Countries like China, Japan, or Brazil, where people learn
English mainly for international communication.
 Over time, people began to understand that no one “owns” English anymore.
There is no single correct way to speak it. Every variety, like Cameroonian English or
Nigerian English, is a real and valid way to use the language.

II- British English Vs American English

The differences between British English and American English in four areas of
language: phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax.

1- Phonology
The key differences in phonology between American English (AmE) and British
English (BrE), particularly Received Pronunciation (RP) as the standard British dialect, can
be summarized as follows:
A_ Rhoticity
- American English (AmE): Rhotic, meaning the /r/ sound is pronounced in all positions,
including after vowels (e.g., car /kɑr/, hard /hɑrd/).
- British English (BrE): Typically non-rhotic in RP. The /r/ sound is not pronounced unless it
appears before a vowel (e.g., car/kɑː/, hard /hɑːd/).
B_ Vowel Pronunciations
- Trap–Bath Split: - In BrE, words like bath, glass, and laugh are pronounced with a long
/ɑː/ vowel (/bɑːθ/). - In AmE, these words typically use the short /æ/ vowel (/bæθ/).
- Cot–Caught Merger:
Many AmE dialects (especially in the west) have merged the vowels in cot and caught to /ɑ/.
- In BrE, these vowels are distinct: cot /kɒt/ vs caught /kɔːt/.
- Schwa in Unstressed Syllables: - In BrE, the schwa /ə/ is more common in unstressed
syllables (e.g., necessary/ˈnɛsəsəri/). - In AmE, secondary stress is more frequent (e.g.,
necessary /ˈnɛsəˌsɛri/).
C_ T-Flapping
- American English: The /t/ sound between vowels is often pronounced as a soft, quick /d/
(flapping), making butter sound like budder(/ˈbʌɾər/).
- British English: The /t/ sound is pronounced clearly as a /t/ (e.g., butter/ˈbʌtə/).
D_ Stress and Intonation Patterns
- AmE: Often uses a “flatter” intonation pattern and places primary stress differently in some
words (e.g., advertisement /ædˈvɝːtəˌtaɪzmənt/).
- BrE: Has more varied intonation and may stress different syllables (e.g., advertisement /əd
ˈvɜːtɪsmənt/).
E_ Intrusive and Linking R
- BrE: Linking /r/ is added between a word ending in a vowel and the next word beginning
with a vowel (e.g., law and orde → /lɔːr ən ˈɔːdə/). Intrusive /r/ is added even if there is no "r"
in spelling (e.g., Asia and Europe → /ˈeɪʒər ən ˈjʊərəp/).
- AmE: Intrusive /r/ is rare, and linking /r/ only occurs in rhotic accents.
These phonological differences contribute significantly to the distinct accents of American
and British English.

2- Morphology
The key differences in morphology (word formation and structure) between American
English (AmE) and British English (BrE) are relatively subtle but notable. These differences
are primarily in spelling patterns, word endings, and word formation. Here is an overview:
A_ Spelling Differences
Certain morphological patterns differ in spelling between AmE and BrE:
Ending British American
-or vs our Colour Color
Honour Honor
-ize vs ise Analyse Analyze
Organyse Organyze
-er vs re Centre Center
Theatre Center
-l vs ll Travelled Traveled
Cancelling Canceling
Note: -ize is also acceptable in BrE in formal contexts.
 B_ Verbs Morphology : Past Tense Forms
- AmE: Regularized past tense forms ending in -ed are more common (e.g., learned,
dreamed). -BrE Irregular forms are more common (e.g., learnt, dreamt).
- Use of Auxiliary Verbs:
- AmE: Gotten is used as the past participle of get in many contexts (e.g., I have gotten
better). - BrE: Got is used instead (e.g., I have got better).
C_ Noun Morphology
- Pluralization of Certain Words:
AmE Some nouns keep their singular form in plural contexts (e.g., math, sports). - BrE:
These can take a plural form (e.g., maths, sport when referring to general activities).
- Collective Nouns:
AmE: Collective nouns (e.g., team, government) are treated as singular (e.g., The team is
winning).
BrE: Collective nouns are often treated as plural (e.g., The team are winning).
D_ Derivational Morphology
- Suffix Preferences:
Ending British American
-ible -able Discernible Discernible
-ence -ense Licence License

- Formation of Adverbs:
°AmE: Forms like real as an adverb (e.g., real good) are more common (though informal).
°BrE: Standard adverbial forms like really are more strictly used.
5. Word Formation and Usage
Prefixes a nd Suffixes:
°AmE: Prefixes are often written without hyphens (e.g., nonprofit, reenter).
°BrE: Prefixes sometimes retain hyphens (e.g., non-profit, re-enter).
- Compounding:
°AmE: Some compounds are written as single words (e.g., checkbook, anymore).
° BrE: These are often written as two words or with a hyphen (e.g., cheque book, any more).
While the morphological differences between AmE and BrE are not as pronounced as
phonological ones, they reflect historical, cultural, and linguistic influences that shape
variations in spelling, word endings, verb forms, and word formation practices. These
differences are key markers of the two dialects.

3- Semantics
The key differences in semantics (meaning and usage of words) between American
English (AmE) and British English (BrE) lie in variations of word meanings, word choices,
and idiomatic expressions. Here are the main distinctions:
A. Different Words for the Same Concept
AmE and BrE often use entirely different words to refer to the same thing:
Transportation words
BrE AmE
lorry, lift, flat, truck, elevator,
pavement. apartment, sidewalk.

Daily Items
nappy, tap, torch, diaper, faucet,
sweets. flashlight, candy.
Clothing
jumper, trousers, sweater, pants,
trainers. sneakers.

B. Same Word, Different Meaning

Many words are shared between AmE and BrE but have different meanings depending on the
dialect:
- Boot: -AmE: Refers to footwear. -BrE: Refers to the trunk of a car.

“Football”: British: what Americans call soccer. American: their own type of football (with
helmets and touchdowns)

C. Differences in Idiomatic Expressions

Idiomatic phrases often differ between AmE and BrE, even if they mean the same thing:
- AmE: It's a no-brainer. BrE: It's a doddle.
-AmE: He passed away. BrE: He popped his clogs.
- AmE: I don't have a dog in this fight. BrE: It's not my cup of tea.

D. Semantic Preferences in Certain Words

Some words have different connotations or are preferred in one dialect over the other:
- AmE: Vacation refers to a leisure trip, while holiday refers to specific days like Christmas.
- BrE: Holiday refers to both leisure trips and public holidays.
E. Phrasal Verbs
Some phrasal verbs differ in usage or meaning:
BrE AmE
Fill in a form Fill out a form
Meet someone (without with) Meet with someone

The semantic differences between American and British English reflect cultural, historical,
and social influences, leading to variations in vocabulary, idioms, word meanings. While
mutual intelligibility remains high, these differences can occasionally lead to
misunderstandings.

4- Syntax
The key differences in syntax (sentence structure and grammatical rules) between
American English (AmE) and British English (BrE) are relatively subtle but noticeable in
certain areas. These differences often involve word order, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, tense
usage, and other grammatical structures. Here's an overview:
A. Use of Present Perfect vs. Simple Past
- BrE:The present perfect is more commonly used to describe recent past actions with present
relevance. - Example: I have just eaten lunch.
-AmE: The simple past is often preferred in similar contexts, especially with words like just,
already, and yet. - Example: I just ate lunch.
i) Use of “Got” vs. “Gotten”
- BrE: Got is used as the past participle of get. - Example: I have got better at this game.
- AmE: Gotten is used as the past participle of get in most contexts, though *got* is still used
to mean possession. - Example: I’ve gotten better at this game.(AmE)
- Exception: I have got a car (AmE and BrE for possession).
ii) Use of “Shall” and “Will”
- BrE: Shall is more commonly used, especially in formal or legal contexts, and often
conveys suggestions or offers. - Example: Shall we go to the park?
- AmE: Will is preferred in most contexts, and shall is rarely used except in legal or formal
writing. - Example: Should we go to the park?
B. Preposition Usage
- BrE: Certain prepositions differ in usage.
- Example: She is in hospital; Write to me when you arrive.
- AmE: Prepositions are slightly different in similar contexts.
- Example: She is in the hospital; Write me when you arrive.

5. Collective Nouns
- BrE: Collective nouns (e.g., team, government) are often treated as plural, depending on
whether the group is seen as individuals. Example: The team are winning.
- AmE: Collective nouns are usually treated as singular. Example: The team is winning.

III- Varieties of Englishes

 1- cameroon English
a- historical background
Cameroon is a bilingual country with French and English as official and national
languages as a result of re-unification in 1961. This situation has evolved over the
years bringing us to the present situation of 10 regions in Cameroon. Only 2 are
English Speaking although it is difficult to draw a clear cut line since both French -
speaking and English- speaking Cameroonian are dotted everywhere in all the
regions for various reasons. Some for work, others deliberately to learn the other
official language and the language in question is the English language. It is
important to go back into history to understand the place of each of the official
languages and the atmosphere to appreciate the reason for this sudden change of
attitude.

Cameroon english is the variety of english spoken in cameroon. It's mostly learn as
a second language. And it's mostly spoken the Northwest and sounthwest regions.
It's include both a standard english and pidgin englishes ( Kamtok). By times, we
have a types of english which is the camfranglais. Over the years, Cameroonian's
english has delopped characteristics features, particularly in lexis, phonology and
grammar.
A- Types of cameroon englishes
1- standard cameroon english
It's a type of english which is refer to a variety of english used in particularly
in formal contexts like educationand official communication. It's a post colonial
variety influenced by British english.
Exp: The appointee shall be entitled to the various benefits provided for by the regulations in
force.
2- Pidgin english
This is an english used an english baesd on pidgin or creole language that serves as
a lingua franca in many part of cameroon, particularly in regions where English is
wide spoken ( Norhtwest and southwest ).
Exp: How far na? Wuna di fine ? (What’s up? Are you all fine?).
E no di come. (He/She is not coming).
3- Camfranglais
It's a New variety of english which is mixed languages or code switching that
combine elements of french, english, pedgin and local languages particularly
popular among francophone youth.
Exp: on go chop.(let go eat) Bring moi les kako (Bring me the clothes)

B- Features of cameroon english

1- Phonology
There is clearly a range of accents that can be heard.
the fricatives [T] and [D] used in RP in the beginning of thin and though are represented by
[t] and [d] respectively (but with the tip of the tongue touching the upper teeth as well).
Sometimes RP /T/ might also be realised as /f/, as in bath (RP [bA;T], SgE [baf]).
Lack of final plosives, often substituted with a glottal stop /: great, mad, chop, crab, pork, big
o most don't make a distinction between pull and pool; sot and sought; bat and bet - the
same vowel sound is also used for bear
o some also don't distinguish between calm and come; and sit and sear.

2- Lexis

Lexis means the words and vocabulary used in a language. In Cameroon English, there are
many words and expressions that are different from British or American English. These
words are influenced by local languages, French, and Cameroonian culture.

Examples in food : ndolet, eru, koki makala etc

Benskineur someone who work with motorbike
Kako refer to clothes
Conversation expressions : tok, naso e dey, e no di come etc
3- grammar
As mentioned earlier, is not greatly divergent from other standard varieties, so what follows
are some features of CE.
Subjectless verb groups ( Still got fever.)
Verbless complements (Where pain?)
o Lack of auxiliary verbs and reliance on simple verb phrases (Robot coming); reliance
on already to signal completion as opposed to the have auxiliary (I wait here two
hours already, not I have waited here for two hours)

Reduplication is common in Cameroon English, often for emphasis or to express intensity.

o Examples:
o "Fast fast" (Very quickly).
 o "Small small" (Gradually or little by little).
o "Fine fine" (Very nice or attractive).
o You go go go go go until you reach the traffic light.)

2- Nigerian English
a- Historical background

English came to Nigeria through British colonial rule in the late 1800s. But even before that,
in the 1500s, British traders started visiting the West African coast. They used a mix of
English and Nigerian languages, which slowly developed into Nigerian English. However,
not everyone liked the idea of spreading English. Some people were afraid that it would cause
Nigerians to lose their local languages and cultures. Even the British had different opinions
on how to teach English in Nigeria. The use of English started strongly with the Efik-
speaking people during the time of slave trade in the 1600s and 1700s. Over time, English
spread through contact between different cultures and languages, leading to things like:

 Language shift – one language (English) becoming more dominant.

 Code-switching – people mixing English with their local languages when speaking.

Trade also helped English grow in Nigeria. The Portuguese, British, and other Europeans
came for missionary work and business, which made English more important.

B- Features of Nigerian english

b- phonology
These features contribute to the distinctiveness of Nigerian English and help to differentiate it
from other varieties of English. One prominent phonological feature of Nigerian English is
the substitution of certain sounds. For example, the /θ/ sound in words like "think" and
"thank" is often replaced with a /t/ sound, so that the words are pronounced as "tink" and
"tank". Another substitution occurs with the /ð/ sound, which is replaced by a /d/ sound. This
results in words like "this" being pronounced as "dis". Additionally, Nigerian English
exhibits a tendency to palatalize the /l/ sound, especially in word-final positions, therefore,
words like "girl" may be pronounced as "gial" or "gil". Nigerian English also is characterized
by the dropping of the /h/ sound, also known as the (H factor) at the beginning of words, as in
"oise" (house) and "ome" (home).

d- lexis
In Nigerian English, loanwords from indigenous languages are not just linguistic
borrowings but essential components of cultural expression and identity. They serve as
bridges between the English language and the diverse Nigerian sociocultural context,
allowing for a more authentic and nuanced communication experience. These loanwords
capture the essence of Nigerian culture and serve as a tool for cultural preservation and
celebration. They also serve as a form of resistance against linguistic oppression and
assimilation into dominant English speaking cultures. “Nigerian English embraces loanwords
from indigenous languages as a means of cultural expression and identity” (Nwosu et al.,
2022). For example, the use of loanwords in Nigerian English allows for specific references
to local customs and traditions.
Buka - a local food joint
Obioma – from the Igbo language which refers to a local tailor
Sallah - the Muslim holiday Eid al-Fitr
Ogbonge - something excellent or of high quality
Mama put - a woman who runs a small local restaurant
Bole - a popular street food made of roasted plantains
Owambe - a big party or celebration
Okada - derived from the Igbo language, used to refer to a motorcycle
Amala - from the Yoruba language, used to describe a type of Nigerian food made from yam
flour
Suya - from the Hausa language, which refers to a spicy grilled meat delicacy
These loanwords bring a unique flavor to Nigerian English, allowing speakers to infuse their
conversations with cultural richness and local relevance. They help to capture the diferences
of local traditions, beliefs, and practices that may not have direct equivalents in
Standard English.

c- grammar
Nigerian English Grammar refers to the unique set of grammar rules and patterns used in the
English language within Nigeria. These rules and patterns have developed over time as a
result of the influence of local languages, cultural norms, and sociocultural context. They
reflect the adaptation and domestication of the English language to suit the linguistic
behavior and communication needs of Nigerian speakers (Nwosu et al., 2022).
Below are examples of Nigerian English grammar:

1. Reduplication of words for emphasis, such as "come come" or "big-big," is a typical

grammatical structure in Nigerian English.
2. The use of "ehn" to seek clarification or agreement in a conversation is a distinct
feature of Nigerian English.
3. The omission of the verb "to be" in sentences, such as "She a teacher" instead of
"She is a teacher," is a common grammatical pattern in Nigerian English.
4. The use of "untop" to mean "on top of" reflects the influence of Nigerian languages
on English grammar.
5. The use of "borrow me" instead of "lend me" is a unique grammatical feature in
Nigerian English grammatical pattern specific to Nigerian English.
6. The use of the phrase "go and come" as a way to express the act of going somewhere
and returning is a typical feature of Nigerian English syntax.
These examples illustrate the rich and diverse grammar patterns that characterize
Nigerian English, reflecting the unique linguistic and cultural context of the region.