PARADIGMS : WAYS OF SEEING THE

WORLD AND DOING RESEARCH

 Outcomes
• Describe the paradigms discussed
• Apply the knowledge in recognizing the paradigm of research articles
• Critique the research articles in terms of the paradigm used.
 What is a Paradigm?
• Paradigm Shift - change
• Ways of generating knowledge
• Empirical analytical: cause and effect and related to positivism
• Historic – hermeneutic: understanding a phenomenon and related to Interpretivism
• Critically orientated: empower people through knowledge
• You need to define your world views and perspectives in terms of your research
• This is known as your research philosophy and is done through your ontology and
epistemology
 What is Ontology?
• The researcher's view of the nature of reality or being
• Represents actual knowledge
• Explains the inner working of actual knowledge
• Is an area of philosophy that deals with the nature of being, or what exists
• It is concerned with reality and is often presented with questions such as ‘what is the meaning
of being?’ or ‘what can be said to exist?’
• Realism: The researcher views the world as existing separately from humans and their
interpretations of it
• Nominalism: The researcher believes that their interpretations of the world are based on their
inner subjectivity and the personal ‘lens’ through which they are viewing
 Ontological Position
• Study of being
• Reality
• What reality is and
• How do we know its real
 What is Epistemology?
• Represents the knowledge as perceived by people
• Looks into the perceived knowledge and its workings
• Is an area of philosophy that is concerned with the creation of knowledge, focusing on how knowledge is obtained and
investigating the most valid ways to reach the truth
• Essentially determines the relationship between the researcher and reality and is rooted in the ontological assumptions
(as noted in previous slide)
• There are three significant branches within epistemology: empiricism, rationalism and transcendental philosophy
• An empirical researcher gives cognition (or understanding) a passive role, indicating that the object of study is
recorded by the brain, but is not produced by the brain
• This image is then associated with similar objects, thus requiring the use of a concept
• This concept is formed through a logical process known as induction
 Epistemological Position
• Study of knowledge
• Nature of knowledge
• Ways of knowing
• Contribute to knowledge
 Methodological position
• A way to systematically solve the research problem.
• It describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze
information regarding a specific research topic
Guiding system for solving problems
Research design
Data collection
Data analysis
 Research paradigm
• A research paradigm is a framework or set of assumptions that guides research in
a particular field.
• Paradigms are often based on a particular philosophical or theoretical
perspective.
• Paradigms can influence the types of questions that are asked, the methods that
are used to gather data, and the interpretation of results.
• There are several different research paradigms, including positivism,
interpretivism, and critical theory, each with their own unique assumptions and
methods.
 Research Traditions

• Positivism
 Positivism
• Reason: • Metatheoretical:
• To discover causal relationships in order to • Theories must universally valid and true
predict and control event
• By establishing causal relationships, we can
• Epistemological: predict effects and therefore take action to
• Approach of the natural sciences manipulate or control phenomena
• The only valid knowledge is knowledge • Methodological:
produced via empirical observation
• Empirical data
• Objective observable and verifiable facts to • Reliability is important
explain natural and social phenomena only
knowledge from senses can be valued • Objective quantitative research is used
• Ontological: • Axiological:
• Reality can be observed and measured • Honesty, preciseness and personal integrity
• Reality is external and objective and the laws • Objective research, truth and reason are valued
that govern it can be discovered
 Interpretivism
• Reaction to positivism, people are different form objects
• In depth understanding
• Hermeneutics – theory and method of interpretation
• Phenomenology – way people make sense of the world
• Symbolic interactionists: reality is constructed e.g. winking
 Interpretivism
• Reason:
• Metatheoretical:
• To understand and describe meaningful social action
and experiences • Tells a story, inductive approaches – data to theory
• Epistemological: • Theory should tell a story in order to create an in-
depth understanding of other people’s realities
• Context and interpretation, no generalisation of
results • Methodological:
• Something is seen as knowledge when it feels right to • Subjective
choose being studied
• Qualitative methods are used
• Common sense is an important source of knowledge
• Axiological:
• Ontological: • Do not do value free research, discuss the values that
• Reality is social construction shape the research
• Reality is fluid and subjective and is created by human • Uniqueness is valued
interaction
 Critical Paradigm
• Arose from a concern for marginalised members of society or issues of
social justice.
• Ontology: historical realism. Reality changes over time, influenced by
external factors. Reality is unjust to certain groups.
• Epistemology: Knowledge arises from the interaction between the
researcher and the subject. Investigator’s values influence knowledge.
Knowledge should lead to emancipation.
• Methodology: Practical and collaborative, participatory action
 Positivism Interpretivism Critical Realism
Reasons for To discover causal relationships in To understand and describe meaningful To expose myths and empower people
research order to predict and control event social action and experiences to transform society radically

Ontology Reality is external and objective and Reality is fluid and subjective and is Reality changes over time and is
the laws that govern it can be created by human interaction governed by underlying structures
discovered
Epistemology The only valid knowledge is Something is seen as knowledge when it Knowledge should supply people with
knowledge produced via empirical feels right to choose being studied. the tools needed to change their own
observation Common sense is an important source world
of knowledge

Metatheory By establishing causal relationships, Theory should tell a story in order to Theory should be a critique that reveals
we can predict effects and therefore create an in-depth understanding of true social conditions and that helps
take action to manipulate or control other people’s realities people to see the way to a better world
phenomena

Methodology Reliability is important. Objective Subjective, qualitative methods are used Mixed methods are used: quantitative
quantitative research is used and qualitative methods are combined

Axiology Objective research, truth and reason Uniqueness is valued Freedom, equality and emancipation are
are valued valued
Paradigm Post-Positivist Interpretive Critical
(ways of seeing the
world)
Styles of research Surveys Ethnographic Case studies
Experiments and quasi- Naturalistic Life histories
experiments Historical Participatory research
Correlational testing Case studies Action research
Feminist research
Possible methods of Questionnaires Observation Interviews
data collection Experimental Interviews Self-observation and self-
Focus groups reflection
Photo voice Focus groups
Drawings
Photo voice
Possible data collection Questionnaires (closed ended) Questionnaires (open ended) Interview schedules
instruments Test results Observation schedules Settlement “maps”
Secondary data from data Interview schedules Reflective journals
bases Teachers’ journals
Learners’ note books
In class activities
Activity 2.3 page 31 (1st edition)
 AFROCENTRIC PARADIGM
• It is inadequate to analyze African experiences using Eurocentric
frameworks.
• A quest for social, cultural & cognitive justice and harmony based on
the African ways of meaning making and generation of knowledge.
• Ubuntu (humanness) is based on holistic view of life, the
interconnectedness of all things and spirituality (ontology) and
epistemology the interplay the body, mind and spirituality in meaning
making
 Afrocentrism as research paradigm
We cannot, in all seriousness, study ourselves through other people’s
assumptions. I am not saying we must not know what others know
or think of us. I am saying that we must think for ourselves like
others do for themselves (Prah in Chilisa and Preece, 2005, p. 48).
 Afrocentrism
• Afrocentric, Africentric, or African-centred are interchangeable terms representing
the concept which categorises a quality of thought and practice which is rooted in
the cultural image and interest of African people and which represents and reflects
the life experiences, history and traditions of African people as the centre of
analyses (Hill, 1995, p. 4).

• Is nothing more than a legitimate demand that African scholars study their society
from inside and cease to be purveyors of an alienated intellectual discourse …
(Mafege, 2000, cited in Oloruntoba, 2015, p.
 AFROCENTRIC PARADIGM CONT.
• “ (1)The African experience must guide and inform all inquiry;
• (2) spirituality is important and must be given its due action;
• (3) immersion in the subject is necessary;
• (4) holism is a must;
• (5) intuition is a valid source of information;
• (6) not everything that matters is measurable; and
• (7) knowledge generated must be liberating” (Mazama, 2003, p. 27).
 Afrocentrism: Values in research
• Ma’at - truth, justice and order
• Nguzo Saba -unity, self-determination, collective work
• Asante’s (1987 & 1990) Ma’at and Nommo:
Ma’at that is, a quest for social justice and harmony
Nommo based on African ways of meaning-making and generation of
knowledge.
 Nature of knowledge: Interdependence
• Asante (1990, p. 83): “I am river, I am mountain, I am tree, I am emotion, I am
beauty, I am lake, I am cloud, I am sun, I am sky, I am mind, I am one with one.”
• Includes “peaceful co-existence with nature and among groups” (Sefa Dei, 2002, p.
2)
• “I owe my being to the hills and the valleys, the mountains and the glades, the rivers,
the deserts, the trees, the flowers, the seas and the ever-changing seasons that define
the face of our native land.” (Mbeki, 1996. p. 1)
• “Each of us is as intimately attached to the soil of this beautiful country as are the
famous jacaranda trees of Pretoria and the mimosa trees of the bushveld”
(Mandela, 1996)
 Nature of knowledge: Collective ID
• Collective identity and the collective nature
what is good for the group is, or will eventually be, good for the individual
community life is not optional for any individual person; the human
person is at once a cultural being…” (Gyekye, 1997, p. 320).
‘It takes a village to raise a child’
 Nature of social reality
• informed by context and culture
• Ubuntu as Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu in Nguni languages, buthu in Pedi, muntu
in Malawi or Harrambee in Kiswahili, ujaama in Tanzania
 Methodology
• Oneness of mind, body, and spirit in meaning-making
• Participatory.
• All are researchers
• Not everything that matters is measurable.
• Intuition is a valid source of information
 Criteria for judging quality
• UKWELI- groundedness of the research in the experiences of the
community being researched.
• UTULIVI- researcher actively avoids creating, exaggerating or sustaining
divisions within communities but strives for a harmonious relationship.
• UHAKI- fairness to all participants/ researcher must be mindful of the
welfare of the participants.
• UJAMAA- theory and practice should be informed by the actual and aspired
interests of the community.
• KUJITOA- researcher places his assumptions in the foreground by
engaging in continuous self-reflection and self-criticism.
In class activity
Activity 2.4 page 32 (1st edition)