EVELYN HONE COLLEGE OF APPLIED ARTS AND COMMERCE

OPEN, DISTANCE AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING DEPARTMENT

DIPLOMA IN TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

TEACHING

MODULE NO: 320-03-A

LEARNING RESOURCES AND

TECHNOLOGY

1ST edition
©2015

BY: MRS. LYEMBELE T. M. L (BA. UNZA)

Edited by: MR. BANDA R .G ([Link]) PGDE (SOLUSI)

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement _____________________________________________________ III
Copyright ___________________________________________________________ IV
Overview of the module __________________________________________________ V
Learning outcomes ______________________________________________________ V
Duration ____________________________________________________________ V
Help? ___________________________________________________________ VI
Assessment criteria _____________________________________________________ VI
Prescribed readings _____________________________________________________ VII
How to use this module__________________________________________________ VII
Marginal icons _______________________________________________________ VIII
List of acronyms/abbreviations ____________________________________________ IX
UNIT 1. THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING/ INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS IN
EDUCATION _________________________________________________________ 1
1.1 DEFINITION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING AIDS ______________________________ 2
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS ________________________ 2
1.3 THE NEED FOR TEACHING AIDS ___________________________________________ 3
1.4 TYPES OF LEARNING RESOURCES __________________________________________ 4
1.5 SOURCES OF LEARNING RESOURCES _______________________________________ 7
1.6 IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTING LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS ___________ 8
1.7 MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION ___________________________________ 8

UNIT 2. USING NON PROJECTED TEACHING AIDS ___________________ 12

2.1 GRAPHICAL AIDS ______________________________________________________ 13
2.2 VARIOUS TYPES OF BOARDS _____________________________________________ 21
2.3 VISUAL MATERIALS ____________________________________________________ 26
2.4 PRINTED MATERIALS ___________________________________________________ 30

UNIT 3. PROJECTED TEACHING AIDS _______________________________ 36

3.1 DEFINITION __________________________________________________________ 36
3.2 IMPORTANCE OF PROJECTED AIDS ________________________________________ 37
3.3 BENEFITS OF USING PROJECTORS IN A CLASSROOM __________________________ 39
3.4 TYPES OF PROJECTORS _________________________________________________ 40

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Acknowledgement
Evelyn Hone College of applied arts and commerce, Open, Distance and Flexible
Learning Department would like to acknowledge and thank the following people
sincerely for their contributions to this module.

Mrs. T.L. Lyembele

Mr. R.G. Banda

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Copyright

“All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, recording, photocopying, or
otherwise, without permission from Evelyn Hone College of applied arts and commerce”.

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Overview of the Module

Welcome to Evelyn Hone College of applied arts and commerce, particularly to the
Open, Distance and Flexible Learning (ODFL) department. I also welcome you to
Learning Resources and Technology module one, which is one of the subjects in the
Diploma in Technical and Vocational Teaching course. In this subject, you will be
introduced to the principles that you need in order to be an effective teacher. You will be
equipped with the relevant knowledge, appropriate attitudes and skills that will enable
you to effectively and efficiently apply media and technology in the teaching and
learning process at any level. The subject is both demanding and interesting. You are
advised to effectively use this module as we will have limited face to face interaction
during residential school. This subject has been divided into three [Link] main
aspects covered in this subject are as outlined in the table of contents.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. Explain the importance of learning/instructional aids in education
2. Use non-projected teaching aids
3. Use projected teaching aids

Duration
You are expected to complete this module in one academic calendar according to
TEVETA and EHC specifications

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Help?

When you need help you can use these contacts details:

College website: http/[Link]

Evelyn Hone College-ODFL department: phone number: +260 211 225127

Email: evelynhonecollegeoaac@[Link]

Fax: 225127

You can also visit the college to meet specialists through the ODFL department located at
printing building during working hours from 08: 00 to 17:00hrs.

Assessment criteria
You will be assessed through written assignments, tests, observations, practical’s and
group work. You will be expected to do FOUR official assessments each term except for
third term when you will only have THREE assessments translating into a total of
ELEVEN assessments making your Continuous Assessment (CA). Tests will be written
during residential school. The actual distribution of marks will be:

Continuous Assessment 50%

6 Assignments 2 5%

5 Tests 2 5%

Final Examination 50%

It is important that you write the final examination because you cannot graduate if you do
not write or fail the final examination.

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Prescribed readings
Castle, E.B. (1971). Principles of Education for Teachers in Africa. Nairobi: Oxford

University Press.

Crangle, R, et al (2005). Devices and Desires. Realms of Light. London: The Magic
Lantern Society.

Farrant, J.S (1964). Principles and Practice of Education. London, Longman.

Lawler, R. (2006). LG's 100-inch LCD set for mass production, New York, Engadged.

Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

Powell, E. (2002). Epson's 730c: Best of Class in 2000-Lumen Portables, projector

[Link]

Thungu, J et al (2008). Mastering PTE Education. Nairobi: Oxford University Press

How to use this module

This module should be studied together with the recommended readings given in each
unit. Each unit will comprise of learning outcome that you should use as yardsticks as
you study. A variety of self-assessment activities will help you grasp the theory and
practical part of this subject. Familiarise yourself with the icons used in this module to
signpost different activities and emphasis.

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Marginal icons

Learning outcome Need help

Timeframe/Duration

Group work
Tip Assessment

Unit summary Self-assessment

Activity

New terminology Discussion Reading point

Case study
Quick Tip Personal reflection

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List of Acronyms/Abbreviations

CD- Compact Disk

PC- Personal Computer
ROI- Return On Investment
ROM- Read Only Memory
TV- Television
LCD- Liquid Crystal Display

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UNIT 1. THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING/ INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS IN
EDUCATION

Learning outcomes: On completion of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define teaching and learning aids

2. Explain the purpose/ importance of teaching and learning aids
3. Outline the need for teaching and learning resources
4. Discuss the types of teaching/ learning aids
5. Identify the sources of teaching/learning aids
6. Indicate how the teacher may identify and select
teaching/learning resources
7. Define media and technology in education

Learning conditions: you must have access to:

 A pencil

Duration:

You will be expected to spend a minimum of 13 hours on this unit.

Introduction
What comes to your mind when you hear the terms learning and teaching resources? Am sure
you have heard people talking about teaching aids. You also know that every teacher
does not go to class without something to use for teaching.

This unit is aimed at making you understand the meaning and importance of teaching
aids. I will point out a number of teaching and learning aids which will be useful to your
day to day activities as a teacher, as you interact with learners in the classroom, it is of
paramount importance for you to realise the relevance of teaching and learning resources
as they will benefit both you and the learners.

Here, you must also pay special attention to the ways in which you may select and
identify learning and teaching resources suitable for learners at different levels, as this
will enable you to fulfil the requirements of the subject and easily facilitate the learning

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and teaching process. In this unit, I will also give a brief introduction into media and
educational technology which will be covered in later chapters.

1.1 DEFINITION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING AIDS

Learning and teaching aids are items used to facilitate learning and teaching. Learning
resources are commonly referred to as instructional materials, teaching and learning aids
Thungu, (2008). These are things that make teaching and learning easier and more
meaningful. They are tools used for teaching and learning or those that support the
teacher in the delivery of knowledge or help to emphasize specific knowledge.

Van der Stoep et al. (1973) uses the term "teaching aid" to summarise instructional and
learning aids. Instructional aids are what the teacher uses in presenting a lesson while
learning aids are used by the pupils. In most cases, one period will have the same
teaching aid being used both as an instructional and a learning aid (e.g., a chalkboard)

All good teaching and learning resources should meet the needs of the learners, fulfil the
requirements of the subjects, and facilitate the teaching and learning process. Teaching
aids function on the basis of their ability to impact on the senses. According to Jacinta
and Regina (1987), if the impression of the senses is vivid, arresting or striking our
learning is more effective.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

The governments and other responsible authorities in schools spent a lot of funds buying
audio-visual aids through the audio visual services but many teachers especially
secondary school teachers hardly use teaching aids and they perceived them as
unnecessary.
Teachers should be encouraged to use as many teaching and learning aids as possible to
set an environment which is simulative and conducive to learning and in which pupils can
be easily guided through the discovery of knowledge.

Bruner (1966) defines learning as the teaching intend to evoke in the learner's mind the
patterns of ideas similar to those which already exist in the teacher's mind .To show that
the learner has learnt and must then put together those patterns by using more than one
sense of the five senses of touch, sight, hearing, smelling and feeling. Moreover the
instruction that provided to the learner proceeded from a direct experience through the

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representation of pictures, films etc. to symbolic representation as in words.
The provision of a good learning environment is what distinguishes a good teacher from
an inferior one. Whatever subjects or grade you teach, the use of learning aids is always
superior to the non-use of aids.

1.3 THE NEED FOR TEACHING AIDS

Having defined what learning and teaching resources and having seen their importance, I
am sure you are beginning to get the picture of why they are needed. The following
points show why there is need for learning and teaching resources in learning and
teaching.

 Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps to
retain more concept permanently.
 Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different
teaching aids.
 Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste and
smell properly.
 Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.
 The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.
 Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students.
 Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make learning permanent.
 Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.
 They enhance retention which makes learning more permanent.
 They stimulate and sustain interest in learning.
 They provide first-hand experience with the realities of the physical and social
environment.
 They help to overcome the limitations of the classroom and make what may be
inaccessible in class available, for example, through films, slides. Videos and
photographs.
 They encourage active participation by learners especially resources that can be
handled and manipulated by the learners.

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  They make it easier for the teacher to explain concepts. This saves time as
explanations are brief and precise.
 They discourage rote learning and make abstract ideas more concrete.
 They make learning resource –based.
 They help the learners to develop the power of imagination, observation,
reasoning and creativity.
 They promote the development of skills such as cooperation and sharing.

1.4 TYPES OF LEARNING RESOURCES

There are a variety of learning aids that can be used to make a lesson more interesting
and effective such as the ones listed below;

 Fixed on the walls of the classroom are chalkboard, charts etc.

 Electronics include; computers, TVs, Radios, overhead Projectors
 Environment and Resource persons

Learning resources can be classified in various ways. They are broadly classified in three
groups namely primary, secondary and tertiary.

PRIMARY CATEGORY

This includes the use of actual objects seen in their natural environment such as grazing
cattle, crying babies, singing birds, musical instruments in use, spears etc. .Figures 1 and
2 below depicts primary learning resources as they appear in their natural environments.

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Figure 1: flowers

Figure 2: Koala

SECONDARY CATEGORY

This is where we use models and preserved specimens, for example, sounds recorded on
cassette or produced on radio, mounted leaves and specimens of animals such as fish and
birds. These do not have the reality value of the primary category. Figure 3 below shows
an example of a teaching aid that falls under secondary category.

Activity 1

Can you think of other examples of learning and teaching resources that
fall under the secondary category? Write them down in the space provided.

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Figure 3: A Model of a Skeleton

TERTIARY CATEGORY

This includes using resources such as, pictures, charts, photographs, maps and the
chalkboard. These may not be as effective or superior as the first two categories, most
teachers depend more on them because they are readily available. The figure below is an
example of a learning resource that falls under the tertiary category.

Figure 4: Pie chart

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1.5 SOURCES OF LEARNING RESOURCES

There are many places from which learning and teaching resources can be sourced. As a
teacher, you may also ask the learners to bring some of the learning resources from home
or even collecting them from your school environment. For example, when you ask them
to make a kite, they can get plastics and sticks from home or within the school
environment. Some of the ways of sourcing these materials are listed below.

 By producing or constructing them.

 By collecting them from the environment.
 By inviting resource persons.
 By asking learners to prepare them.
 By requesting the school administration or parents to buy them.
 By borrowing or hiring them.
 Through improvisation. Improvisation refers to making of something from any
material, usually when the required material is not readily available or accessible.

USING LEARNING RESOURCES

When using learning resources, it is important for you as a teacher to remember the
following:

 Learning materials are not complete on their own and should be accompanied by
explanation.
 All labels and titles should be clear and well written.
 Not all lessons require teaching and learning resources.
 The resources should be relevant to the lesson.
 The best learning resources are real objects and they should be used in the place
of pictures, drawings or photographs whenever possible.
 The resources should not be displayed for too long. Once they have served their
purpose, they should be brought down and new ones put up.

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1.6 IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTING LEARNING AND
INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

Merely using learning and teaching resources does not guarantee effective teaching. To
make teaching and learning effective, the resources should be appropriately selected and
used. Teachers must therefore become familiar with various types of instructional
materials if greater value is to be derived from their use.

When selecting and identifying teaching aids, teachers should ensure that the resources
fulfil the following qualities:

 They should be suitable for the level of the learners.

 They should capture and maintain the learners’ interest throughout the lesson.
 They should be pleasant and acceptable to use. For example, they should not have
an offensive smell or look scary.
 They should carter for the learners’ individual differences.
 They should be relevant and contain up to date information.
 They should be accurately made; that is they should be a true representation of the
information.
 They should be large
enough for visibility.
 They should be neat and tidy.
 They should be clear and audible.
 They should portray or contain immoral or offensive information.
 They should be durable and cost-effective.
 They should be easy to use and manipulate.
 They should be safe to use.
 They should appeal to as many senses as possible.

1.7 MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

You will agree with me that Media and technology have become of paramount
importance in this time and age. It is therefore vital for teachers like yourself to be
acquainted with skills necessary for you to adapt media and technology in teaching.

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Below are the definitions of media and educational technology. This will however be
explained further later in unit seven.

MEDIA: There is a wide diversity of standpoints about what is meant by media in

teaching. De Cecco (1968) represents the approach concerning audio-visual aids that is in
agreement with the above pronouncements as follows: “the electro-mechanical devices
which act as middle conditions between the student and what he is to learn”. You can see
that here, the emphasis is largely on apparatus.

Gerlach and Ely (1971) on the other hand, define a medium as any person, material or
event that creates circumstances that put the pupils in a position to acquire knowledge,
skills and dispositions. De Corte et al (1974) further argues that a medium is any means
used or presented by a teacher to function in the teaching situation in connection with
reaching a particular teaching aim.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY is the effective use of technological tools in

learning. As a concept, it concerns an array of tools, such as media, machines and
networking hardware, as well as considering theoretical perspectives for their effective
application. Educational technology includes numerous types of media that deliver text,
audio, images, animation, and streaming video, and includes technology applications and
processes such as audio or video tape, satellite TV, and computer-based learning, as well
as web-based learning.

Educational technology thus refers to the use of both physical hardware and educational
theoretic. It encompasses several domains, including learning theory, computer-based
training, online learning, and, where mobile technologies are used.

Unit summary

The unit has introduced you to the concept of learning and teaching resources. It aimed at
making you understand the importance/purpose of using these resources in Zambian
schools; we also highlighted the sources of these resources as well as several ways of
using them. I have also introduced media and educational technology as a way of
showing you the importance of technological resources in education. I have also
explained how you as a teacher may identify and select learning and teaching resources at

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every given level of teaching. I have also briefly explained the different categories of
learning and teaching resources while giving examples. This should pave way to
understanding of unit two without much difficult.

Self-assessment

1. List five guidelines that a teacher should follow when selecting materials for
instruction.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Further readings

Castle, E.B. (1971). Principles of Education for Teachers in Africa. Nairobi: Oxford

University Press.

Farrant, J.S (1964). Principles and Practice of Education. London, Longman.

Thungu, J et al (2008). Mastering PTE Education. Nairobi: Oxford University Press

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Answers to activity 1

Other examples include; plastic guitars, plastic cars, cartoons, model of a human
skeleton, specimen of a frog, specimen of a tomato etc.

Answers to self-assessment

1. Age of the learners, level/grade of the learners, individual differences of the

learners, relevance, neat, safety, accuracy etc.

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UNIT 2. USING NON PROJECTED TEACHING AIDS

Learning outcomes: On completion of this unit, you should be able to;

1. Define non-projected teaching aids

2. Identify different non-projected teaching aids as being
graphical aids, various types of boards, visual materials and
printed materials.
3. Discuss the various non-projected teaching aids
4. Explain the uses of non-projected teaching aids using examples

Learning conditions: you should have access to:

 Manila paper
 Markers and pencils
 Ruler
 Atlas
 Geography center

Duration:

You are expected to spend a minimum of 13 hours on this unit.

Introduction
Do you remember the times when you used atlases at school? Remember how helpful
they were in showing the different boundaries of countries and continents as well as
oceans, rivers, lakes, mountains, waterfalls etc. You could have also used pie charts or
graphs to explain certain statistics in mathematics, and you could have also used
specimen for experiments in science and you could have also seen a globe or a model of a
human skeleton. One thing for sure is that you used text books in all the subjects and the
first thing that comes to your mind when you think of a classroom is a blackboard.

Imagine life without these things we have mentioned. For example, It is true that many
people including yourself have not been to all the continents in the world, you have not
seen all the rivers, lakes, dams, mountains etc. but you know that the highest mountain in

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the world is Mt Everest and you know where it is located in the world, this is because you
had a chance to use a map. Therefore, this unit aims at introducing you to the non-
projected teaching aids which include teaching and learning resources such as graphical
aids, various types of boards, visual materials and printed materials. The unit will ensure
that you understand the importance of using materials such as graphs, maps, globes and
models in teaching and learning. In discussion, you will also notice that these are the
materials which are commonly used in Zambian schools and usually readily available.
You will have little difficulties in analysing them because you must have come across
them at different levels at school. Let us begin with looking at graphical aids.

2.1 GRAPHICAL AIDS

Graphics are materials that communicate facts and ideas clearly and vividly through the
combination of drawings, words and pictures. The most commonly used graphics include
charts, posters, pictures, cartoon strips, graphs, diagrams, maps and globes etc.

Basically, graphics refers to any of the documents such as tables, charts, pictures, maps,
etc. graphics serve the following purposes:

 to make the data stand out on the page and

 To make the data support the main purpose of the document as clearly and
strongly as possible.
Effective graphics accomplish both these goals.

USING GRAPHICAL AIDS

When using graphical aids, the teacher must remember the following principles;

 Provide a detailed view of something difficult or impossible to convey in words

 Clearly support the text, i.e. be visible simultaneously with the text they
support .The details of the graphical aid should be clear, especially those most
relevant to the point being made.
 The background of the display should be chosen wisely to enhance visibility.
 Display information should have no mistake.

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  Graphics should be removed after they have served their purpose and replaced
with new ones.

THE IMPORTANCE OF GRAPHICAL AIDS

The use of graphic aids in the classroom has become an important teaching strategy in
education. As educators learn more about how to reach all types of learners, the use of
graphic aids assists in differentiating instruction, giving students greater access to
content, and helping students to achieve greater comprehension of new information.
There are a multitude of graphic aids which can be used in today's classroom that
motivate students to learn.

Differentiating Instruction: Teachers are responsible for teaching hundreds of learner’s

every day and ensuring that they are learning. In order to do this successfully, teachers
must be aware of the various learning types in each of their classes and how to tailor
instruction to meet each learner. Graphic aids provide the differentiation needed to ensure
that all learning types have been adequately introduced to key skills or concepts.

Provides Access to Content: Graphic aids provide much needed access to content when

learners are low-level readers. Using magazines, videos or concept maps are a way to
teach these students the lessons' objectives while also keeping them interested in the
material. Without graphic aids, these students will find it difficult to comprehend the
lesson and keep up with instruction.

Facilitates Greater Comprehension: After introducing a new concept or skill, graphic

aids can be used to facilitate greater comprehension of the material. They allow learner’s
to spend more time with the content and solidifies understanding. When learner’s work
together on graphic aids, there's a scaffolding of information and an exchange of ideas.
This experience, along with the use of the graphic aids, helps learner’s master material,
increasing their confidence in their ability.

Engages All Learners: Graphic aids are a great tool to use to engage all students in the

learning process. Today's students need constant stimulation so lecturing is not an

effective teaching strategy by itself. The use of graphic aids allows teachers to vary the
delivery of lessons and keep students interested in learning.

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TYPES OF GRAPHICAL AIDS

There are a lot of graphical materials available for teachers to use in the classroom. These
range from charts, graphs, pictures, posters etc. The first graphical aid we will look at is
the chart.

CHARTS

Wall charts provide an interesting classroom focus on various subjects. They can be used
to display data using histograms, pie charts, graphs, maps etc. some charts pin point
events in a story such as the life cycle of the frog, or time charts. Others show condensed
information in statistical form like graphs or quantity symbols. Their value lies in
presenting teaching material in a condensed form. They are of particular value for
recapitulation and revision in lessons. Manila paper can be used to make wall charts.

Characteristics of charts

 Quality display charts should have the following characteristics.

 Big and clear print that can be seen by all the learners.
 Labelling that is horizontal and in straight lines.
 Accurate and if there are maps they should be drawn to scale
 Attractive enough to capture and hold attention and interest of the learners.
 Accurate and authentic use of colours in its representation of people, animals,
events and things.
 A neat layout with margins that makes important information stand out.
 Suitable for the age and level of maturity of the learners

To produce a good chart, consider the following;

 Decide on the material to use.

 Select the essential information to be included on the chart.
 Draw margins on all sides to make a frame.
 Ensure a good symmetry for the title.
 Ensure content balance and legibility
 Do the draft in pencil to ensure there are no mistakes before using ink or paint.
 Use only the colours which will bring out the information clearly.

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 Activity 2

Using the guidelines above, make a chart on any topic in any subject of your
choice.

Displaying charts

Charts may be displayed using the following methods:

 Using pushpins on soft boards.

 Using paper clips or cloths pegs on a string.
 Using blu-tack as adhesive directly between the back of the chart and the wall.
 Using magnets against a steel strip fastened on the wall.

Advantages of using charts

 They stimulate interest in and motivate learners.

 They provide ideas from which a discussion may be developed.
 They involve learners in the learning process.
 They act as an information store as they can be used for quick reference.
 They provide summarized information for easy retrieval.

Disadvantages of using charts

 If poorly drawn, charts can convey the wrong information.

 If too detailed, charts cause confusion to the learners.
 If illustrations are not drawn to scale, learners may form misconceptions about
concepts.
 If the wrong colours are used, learners may learn the wrong information.

GRAPHS

Graphs are visual representations of data involving numbers and showing relationships
between sets of numerical data in a summarized form. Examples of graphs are; bar
graphs, line graphs, pie-charts etc.

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Basically, the graph is a two-dimensional field used to plot the relationships among two
interrelated sets of data. The most common sort of graph has the familiar X and Y axes,
with data of one sort on the X axis and data of another related sort set on the Y axis. Such
a representation allows the reader to see at a glance not just the data, but more important,
the relationship between the two sets of data. For any value on either axis, the reader can
quickly derive the related value or values on the other axis.

In creating graphs, the writer must select an appropriate scale for both axes. One too
small distorts overall patterns, with even small variations appearing to cause large
changes on the graph. One too large has the opposite effect, as even large variations in
data will appear to have little impact on the basic shape of the graph. The figure below
shows an example of a graph.

Figure 5: An example of a graph

DIAGRAMS

A diagram is a sketchy visual representation of interrelationships of facts and ideas,

general patterns or essential features of a process, an object or an idea. Sometimes
writers want to show, not physical objects, but ideas.

A diagram can also be said to be a symbolic representation well-suited to the presentation

of ideas. For instance, a flow diagram of a company's corporate structure symbolically
represents the power relationships among employees. Another common diagram, based
on a physical object, is the exploded view, which does not aim to picture the object, but
to show the working relationships among its parts. Other typical examples of diagrams

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include blueprints, wiring schematics, and maps, below is an example of a diagram.

Figure 6: Class diagram sample

MAPS AND GLOBES

Maps combine the features of both pictures and charts in that they present something that
is real and at the same time, do so in form of a summary. Maps are scaled down
representations of the real earth and it is important to remember this (Farrant, 1980).

Maps and globes are significant materials in the teaching of social studies, history,
geography, mathematics and science.

A globe is a spherical representation of the earth’s surface. Globes are more accurate than
maps because they represent the true shape of the earth. They show the true relationship
between the land and the sea. A map is a visual scaled down representation of a flat
surface or some portion of the earth on paper. Below are figures of a globe.

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Figure 7: A political globe

Figure 8: A Physical globe

TYPES OF MAPS

There are many types of maps, below are examples of some.

1. Physical and political maps- these show political boundaries such as countries and
districts, as well as outlines of features such as mountains, deserts, rivers and
water bodies.
2. Relief maps- these show the inequalities in elevation of the earth’s surface by use
of colour.
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 3. Pictorial maps- these use pictures, drawings and other symbols to indicate the
distribution of population, crops, minerals and ethnic groups.
4. Outline maps-these give outlines that should be developed by learners as they go
through the lesson.

The figure below shows an example of a map.

Figure 9: Political map of Zambia

Advantages of using graphs, diagrams and maps

The following are some of the advantages of using maps, graphs and diagram.

 When used in textbooks, they break the monotony of print.

 They help the learners to develop the skills of analysis and interpretation.
 They make it possible to present large data in a summarized form.

Disadvantages of using graphs, diagrams and maps.

The following are the disadvantages of using graphs, diagrams and maps.

 One may need to have a mathematical background in order to interpret them

correctly.
 If wrongly drawn, they can convey wrong information.

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2.2 VARIOUS TYPES OF BOARDS

Boards used as teaching and learning resources include chalkboards, flannel boards and
bulletin boards.

CHALKBOARD

Chalkboards are also called blackboards. A chalkboard is a reusable writing surface on

which the teacher writes and draws using chalk.

The chalkboard must be used extensively, variously and effectively. Like other teaching
resources, the chalkboard is effective if used in a professional and skilful use by the
teacher. Chalkboards may be black, green, green or grey. The different types of
chalkboards include;

 Portable chalkboard
 Fixed chalkboard
 Horizontal sliding board
 Vertical sliding boards

Using chalkboards

The following are the guidelines that a teacher can follow when using the chalkboard:

 Write the date, class, subject and topic on the board at the start of the lesson
 Always keep the board clean, wash it periodically with water and soap.
 Erase any written materials on the board after each use as a matter of courtesy for
the next teacher.
 Write horizontally straight
 Keep the handwriting neat, legible and uniform
 Make sure all the learners can see what you are writing
 Use underlining, encircling or framing to focus attention on important details,
coloured chalk can also be used
 Develop illustrations as you teach but complicated drawings or diagrams can be
developed before the lesson begins
 Use a clean duster to erase the board while using it
 Always stand at the side of the board when pointing at something

21
Uses of chalkboards

 To record learners ideas as they develop or main points of the lesson during
discussions.
 To write questions to be discussed or answered
 To define key words, technical terms or concepts.
 To develop sketch maps or drawings to emphasize specific points as the lesson
progresses.
 To write a lesson notes for learners to copy especially when textbooks are scarce.
 To mount charts and other learning resources

The following materials help the teacher to use the chalkboard effectively.

 The metre ruler-used to draw lines and take measurements

 A string- used to draw circles in the absence of the conventional equipment.
 Duster-used to clean the chalkboard
 Mathematical sets- used for illustrating and constructing mathematical figures.
 Perforated map outlines and templates-used to trace out map outlines and other
diagrams.
 A chalkboard pointer-used to point and emphasize figures or facts.
 Templates-displayed in place of drawings, e.g. map outline for social studies,
geometrical shapes for mathematics e.g. square, rectangle, triangle etc., and
shapes of science apparatus.

Advantages of using chalkboards

 They are readily available

 Easy to use
 It is versatile and adaptable for to requirements of all subjects.
 It is not expensive to install and maintain
 It helps learners see the intended information
 It may be used to involve learners more actively in learning
 It can be used alongside other learning aids such as models, charts and books.

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Disadvantages of using chalkboards

 Illustrations such as maps are often not drawn to scale.

 Information that is written incorrectly on the chalkboard and is not corrected may
be learnt wrongly.
 The teacher has to keep turning his or her head away from the learners as he or
she writes on the chalkboard, this breaks eye contact, and may lead to loss of class
control.
 Information cannot be stored for long on the chalkboard.
 Chalk dust can cause allergic reactions or respiratory problems.
 If too much information is written on the chalk board, it can confuse the learners.
 Inexperienced teachers may produce disorganised work.

FLANNEL BOARDS

These are display surfaces covered with fabric such as flannel or felt. The surface is
usually plain. Materials are usually fixed on a flannel board using masking tape. Figure
10 below shows a flannel board.

Figure 10: Flannel board

Uses of flannel boards

Flannel boards may be used in the following ways:

 When telling stories with the aid of cut out pictures or drawings

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  Teaching new vocabulary where list of new words are fixed on the board
 Teaching mathematics where fractions or geometrical shapes are introduced using
cut outs.
 Teaching geography i.e. in constructing maps and placing names of different
countries and their capital cities on maps.

Considerations when using flannel boards

You must make the following into consideration when using a flannel board.

 Plan and rehearse the flannel board presentation and decide where each picture or
shape will be placed on the board.
 Place all the needed materials within easy reach,
 Draw the attention of the learners to the flannel board while making the
presentation and stand on the side to avoid blocking the learners.
 Place the board where everyone can see.
 Keep the board away from any source of sudden strong wind to prevent the
pictures from being blown away.
 Keep the presentation simple and avoid unnecessary clutter.
 Make sure the back surface of each material is such that it can be able to stick to
the flannel board.
 Tilt the board backwards to help in the adhesion of the materials.

Personal reflection.

What could be the disadvantages of using a flannel board?

BULLETIN BOARDS

This is also known as the notice board. It is an exhibit medium.

Uses of the bulletin board

The following are the uses of a bulletin board.

 To supplement textbook materials

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  For displaying materials that will provide information on new topics or
summaries of topics such as charts, maps, posters etc.
 To display the work of learners
 To display announcements
 To display the class timetable
 To display the exam timetable
 To display the class list
 To display the learners’ results

When using the bulletin board, the teacher must keep the following in mind:

 Keep the display simple and free of clutter

 Change the display materials frequently
 The arrangement of the materials displayed must be balanced and attractive.
 The theme, title or any other captions should be bold and large enough to be seen
by everyone from a distance.
 Keep display materials used in the past for future use.
 Bulletin boards should be placed at the eye level of the learners.
 Learners should be involved in making some of the display materials in order to
develop their creativity.

WHITE BOARD

Uses of the white board are the same as those of the black board except the white board
requires the use of a white board makers and a white board marker eraser. The figure
below shows a whiteboard.

Figure 11: A white board

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Advantages of whiteboards

The following are advantages of using whiteboards in schools.

 It can be used for displaying materials using a projector

 It is white and much clearer and neat
 It uses white board markers and hence is dust free

Disadvantages of whiteboards

The following are disadvantages of using whiteboard in schools.

 In case of use of permanent marker, it is difficult to erase

 Expensive
 Not easy to write on
 Certain maker colours are too bright

2.3 VISUAL MATERIALS

Items under visual materials are those that appeal to the sense of sight. They include
realia, specimens, models and diorama.

REALIA

This includes the use of real objects such as oil, live animals or plants, equipment
apparatuses for science, agriculture or home economics, musical instruments etc. these
items are three dimensional and are more interactive and stimulating to learners.

26
Figure 12: A desert scene

The figure here is showing a desert scene. In the real sense, we can say that taking
students to a real desert is an example of using realia in teaching and learning.

SPECIMEN

These are examples of things or objects that represent a group or class of similar things.
A specimen could be the whole thing or part of it, for example, a bird or a wing of a bird.
Specimen are usually preserved and used over a long period of time. Specimen is the real
thing and a collection of different types of mineral and agricultural products can save the
teacher lengthy explanations about those which are strange to the children. Specimen of
plants and small animals and insects are useful. The figure below shows some specimen.

27
Figure 13: Specimen Jar

DIORAMA

These are three dimensional teaching and learning aids that incorporate a two
dimensional scene as a background, objects and figures. The figures and objects can be
moved around to create different scenes. E.g. to make an ocean scene using card boxes
and real sand, or making a house using card boxes with real sticks and stones etc.

Activity 3

Can you think of a diorama you can make for any subject of your choice? Make
it.

MODELS

A model is three dimensional simplified representation of a real object. Sometimes,

models are smaller in scale but can be used for detailed study. Models bring down to

28
handy size things that otherwise would be difficult to study. Models of all kind make an
excellent focus for the interest and attention of the children for this reason, it is important
for all children to see.

Figure 14: A model of a girl

Figure 15: A model of human internal organs

Advantages of models

The following are advantages of using models in school.

 When learners are involved in making models, they internalize the concepts.
 Models can be assembled or dissembled as the need arise.
 Concepts or special features can also be easily explained.
 Being three-dimensional, models give the feeling of substance and depth of the
real object.
 Models can be manipulated by learners.

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Disadvantages of models

The following are advantages of using models in school

 Since models are not always made to size, they may give the wrong impression of
the real thing.
 It is difficult to involve learners in making models of things they have never seen.
 They may be oversimplified which may cause a misrepresentation of the real
situation.

2.4 PRINTED MATERIALS

Printed materials are publications. They are materials that one is sure to encounter and
use in the course of teaching and learning. They include text books, pamphlets,
workbooks etc.

WORKBOOKS

Workbooks are those printed books produced to accompany some children’s textbooks.
These books provide the teacher with prepared written and practical exercises for his
pupils

TEXT BOOKS

Thousands of new books are published every year but only a fraction of these are
textbooks. The textbook is a very special type of book. It is written to satisfy a special
need. These are designed for use in teaching the whole or part of a particular study
course.

When the professor’s discover something new as the result of research, the most effective
way to pass on to others the fruit of their findings is through writing a book about it, but
as specialists, their books are more likely to be used by a very limited number of people
and are used as reference textbooks. But if an average learner is to understand the works
of the professors, their writings should be used in combination with other associated
studies in a more simplified manner suitable for general learning. Such a book is called a
general textbook (Farrant, 1980).

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Activity 4.

How would you care for textbooks to ensure that they are well
maintained?____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Learners should be taught how to make maximum use of textbooks. The teacher must
emphasise the importance of the table of contents, glossary, the index, graphs and other
illustrations as these help to make information clearer.

Textbooks are not meant to be read at one sitting like a story book. Textbooks are
teaching books and must be used according to educational principles.

WHEN A TEACHER IS CHOOSING A TEXTBOOK HE OR SHE MUST

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING FACTORS AMONG OTHERS;

 The price should be affordable.

 The quality of paper used should be good.
 The binding should be durable and firm.
 The size of the print should be easy to read and appropriate for the learners’ age.
 The illustrative materials must be clear, accurate, relevant and able to sustain the
interest of the learners.
 Use the most current edition of the book

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  The content must be organised in a systematic and logical way.
 The vocabulary used must be appropriate for the level of the learners.
 Colour should be properly used and appealing to the eyes.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF TEXTBOOKS

Book users should take care of books by doing the following;

 Washing their hands before handling a book

 Storing and using books in clean and dry places.
 Closing books after use and not leaving them open and face down as this causes
them to fall apart along the spine.
 Turning pages by holding the corner of the page and not the middle.
 Using bookmarks instead of folding a page of the book to mark a page.

Advantages of using printed materials

Below are advantages of using printed materials in education.

 They save valuable time for the teacher because they contain a list of activities,
review questions etc.
 They provide the necessary basic knowledge for a particular topic.
 They provide a common experience for the whole class. It is expected that all the
learners use one title for a specific subject.
 They are readily available, especially textbooks.
 They ensure continuity of learning in case there is change of teachers.
 They last long if properly cared for.
 They can be conveniently used at learners’ pace.
 They convey information quickly.

Disadvantages of using printed materials

Below are disadvantages of using printed materials in education.

 Some of them have baseless information or propaganda.

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  A number of textbooks may be poorly edited and may convey wrong or
inaccurate information.
 They get outdated easily and new editions are published. This makes their use
expensive.
 No single textbook can exhaustively cover a subject in the curriculum. It may be
necessary to buy more than one book for each area.

Unit summary

We defined non projected teaching aids as any teaching or learning material that does not
use a machine to project information. We have identified non projected teaching and
learning resources as being: graphical aids, various types of boards, visual materials and
printed materials and we have described different graphical aids including charts,
different types of maps, graphs, globes and diagrams.

We have also discussed various visual materials including dioramas, models, specimen
and realia, using examples.

We have also looked at printed material with a focus on textbooks. We have indicated
ways of caring and maintaining textbooks as well as qualities of good printed materials.

We have further discussed various types of boards including, bulletin boards, white
boards, chalkboards and flannel boards.

Self-assessment

1. Give four ways in which a teacher can ensure that the chalkboard is well
maintained.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Further readings

Barber, T. X. Phantasmagorical Wonders: The Magic Lantern Ghost Show in Nineteenth-

Century America. Film History 32 (1989)

Breeden, J. (2009). LCD monitors go big, with mostly good results, GCN, p. 3

Castle, E.B. (1971). Principles of Education for Teachers in Africa. Nairobi: Oxford

University Press.

Crangle, R, et al (2005). Devices and Desires. Realms of Light. London: The Magic
Lantern Society.

Farrant, J.S (1964). Principles and Practice of Education. London, Longman.

Lawler, R. (2006). LG's 100-inch LCD set for mass production, New York, Engadged.

Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

Powell, E. (2002). Epson's 730c: Best of Class in 2000-Lumen Portables,

[Link]

Thungu, J et al (2008). Mastering PTE Education. Nairobi: Oxford University Press

34
Answers to the self-assessment.

Clean it every time after use, clean it using a clean duster, do not allow scratching on it,
wash it with soap and water from time to time, do not allow sticking with glue, do not use
wet chalk.

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UNIT 3. PROJECTED TEACHING AIDS

Learning outcomes: by the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define projected aids

2. Discuss the use of LCD projectors in education
3. Describe the uses of projectors in education
4. Discuss the use of overhead projectors in education

Duration: you are expected to spend a minimum of 13 hours on this unit.

Introduction

What comes to your mind when you hear the word projector? Have you ever come across
one? Despite your response to these questions, do not despair. This unit will define a
projector and enlighten you on its use in education.

Teachers all over the world are provided with a much easier way of teaching through the
use of various aids to teaching. Here, we will understand how teaching and learning has
been made a lot easier and better with the use of projected aids. Projected aids are
pictures shown upon a screen using a certain type of machine such as an overhead
projector, a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector etc. We will only have a look at
overhead projectors and LCD projectors.

3.1 DEFINITION

A projector or image projector is an optical device that projects an image or moving

images onto a surface, commonly a projection screen (Needham, 1986). Most projectors
create an image by shining a light through a small transparent lens, but some newer types
of projectors can project the image directly, by using lasers.

The figures 8 and 9 below show a projector and a projected image.

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Figure 16: A Projector

PROJECTION SURFACES

What do you think could be the best projection surface colour?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

The best image quality is found using a blank white, grey, or black surface.

Perceived colour in a projected image is a factor of both projection surface and projector
quality. Since white is more of a neutral colour, white surfaces are best suited for natural
colour tones ( Barber, 1989); as such, white projection surfaces are more common in
most school presentation environment.

3.2 IMPORTANCE OF PROJECTED AIDS

The use of a projector is very important in learning and teaching. Below are some points
indicating the importance of using a projector in education.

 Provides greater enjoyment in learning

 Stimulates more rapid learning
 Increases retention: larger percentages and longer retention
 Makes teaching situation adaptable to wider range
 Compels attention
 Enlarges or reduces actual size of objects

37
  Brings distant past and the present into the classroom
 Provides an easily reproduced record of an event
 Influences and changes attitudes

USING A PROJECTOR

When choosing to use a projector for your lesson, you must note the following;

Bright and clear- No matter how diverse the multimedia content or interactive the
technology, a teacher using a projector with poor image or sound quality will not ignite
classroom brain waves (Breeden, 2009). Students must be able to clearly hear the lesson
and see the projected image from any seat in a classroom. The clarity and brightness of
the image really does make a big difference in how closely students pay attention and
retain what they've learned.

Total cost of ownership- Faced with tight budgets in today's economy, schools should not
only consider the purchase price, but also the costs that span the projector's lifecycle.

Features for easy use- Before buying a projector, make sure you check out the features to
get the best solution for your school. The projector must be "plug 'n play," so teachers
don't waste valuable teaching time setting up their projectors and computers (Crangle,
2005). Look for a projector designed to simplify the most essential steps of operation
such as powering up, getting connected, and shutting down.

Projector as team player-An important consideration in purchasing decisions is how a

projector will be used in the classroom. For multifaceted classroom presentations, make
sure you have multiple inputs and the projectors must work as part of a team with other
classroom tools, including Internet-connected Macs and PCs, control systems, document
cameras, digital cameras, printers, scanners, laptop docks, VHS/DVD players, and
handheld devices, among others (Powell, 2002). Easy hook-ups to technology like
computers and A/V equipment link teachers to vast resources of lesson material via the
Internet and media-rich elements like video clips and animations.

One innovative classroom scenario is to combine tablet PCs with wireless projectors. A
teacher can freely walk about the room carrying a tablet PC and use a projector to display
whatever is written with a digitizer pen on the tablet screen. Some schools even send the
data wirelessly to the main wired network, which in turn sends it back to the projector.

38
By communicating wirelessly with the network, the tablet PC output can be directed to
any network projector at the school.

3.3 BENEFITS OF USING PROJECTORS IN A CLASSROOM

The following are some of the benefits of using projectors in the classroom.

Easier note taking- Projectors enables a teacher to create bulleted power point
presentations or other highly organized notes for the class. With the use of projectors in
the classroom, students can take better notes with the ability to discern what information
the teacher displays is most useful to them (Barber, 1989). Additionally, students can ask
the teacher to repeat a slide if they missed information, or even ask that the teacher to
email the presentation for further review.

Greater teaching versatility- Projectors release teachers from being bound to chalk and
dry-erase boards to present information to their students. With the use of projectors,
teachers can now use films, slides, and images to teach students about a variety of
subjects (Crangle, 2005). Teachers will also find that the Internet is more useful since
projectors can display web content to an entire class, rather than each student having to
access information on individual computers, if they are available.

Better use of class time- Prior to the use of projectors in the classroom, teachers had to
spend time writing notes on the board, as well as erasing information as the board filled
up. Projectors require a simple click of a button or mouse, thus, freeing valuable class
time. By using projectors, teachers can more easily prepare all notes prior to class for
easy presentation. Teachers may also find that they spend less time repeating or rewriting
information that is now accessible with a simple click.

Better student presentations- Students will appreciate the use of projectors as they
prepare class projects that they can now create in PowerPoint or other electronic
mediums (Barber, 1989). Consequently, students will find that presentation creation will
go faster with each person using their own computer to create their section of the
presentation. Presentations on a projector, additionally, reduce the need to make copies of
materials to pass out to classmates during presentations that can now be displayed for the
entire class to view at once.

39
3.4 TYPES OF PROJECTORS

Some of the common types of projectors used today are explained below.

AN LCD (liquid-crystal display) PROJECTOR

This is a type of video projector for displaying video, images or computer data on a
screen or other flat surface (Breeden, 2009).

Benefits of LCD projectors to education

The following are some of the benefits of using LCD projectors in education.

 The LCD projector projects whatever is on a computer onto a wall or screen and
doesn’t require any erasers, messy chalk dust or that horrible squeaking,
scratching noise that blackboards tend to make.
 All students in a classroom can see all the information on a computer. In the past,
students would have to take turns or crowd around a standard-sized monitor, and
some students would complain that it was hard to see (Lawler, 2006).
 A computer tied into a LCD projector can offer much more innovative displays,
such as geography lessons by touring Google Earth, watching live webcams from
different parts of the community, or streaming educational videos.
 It is easy to use and teachers can learn how to operate the equipment themselves
so they can control their lessons and the material they show their students, and
they can troubleshoot technical problems if they occur.
 It presents new ways to reach students (Powell, 2006). Instead of a teacher just
talking at the front of the classroom or writing words on the board, the projector
allows the presentation of text, audio, graphics or video. This is more entertaining
for the students and improves the likelihood they will comprehend the lessons.

OVERHEAD PROJECTORS

The overhead projector has the following benefits in education.

 Easy low-cost interactive environment for educators.

 Teaching materials can be pre-printed on plastic sheets, upon which the educator
can directly write using a non-permanent, washable colour marking pen. This

40
 saves time, since the transparency can be pre-printed and used repetitively, rather
than having materials written manually before each class.
 The overhead is typically placed at a comfortable writing height for the educator
and allows the educator to face the class, facilitating better communication
between the students and teacher (Breeden, 2009). The enlarging features of the
projector allow the educator to write in a comfortable small script in a natural
writing position rather than writing in an overly large script on a blackboard and
having to constantly hold his arm out in mid-air to write on the blackboard.
 When the transparency sheet is full of written or drawn material, it can simply be
replaced with a new, fresh sheet with more pre-printed material, again saving
class time vs. a blackboard that would need to be erased and teaching materials
rewritten by the educator (Lawler, 2006). Following the class period, the
transparencies are easily restored to their original unused state by washing off
with soap and water.

Activity 5

Overhead projectors are almost extinct in Zambian schools. Can you think of
some of the reasons why this is so? Write them down on the spaces provided
below.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

DECLINE IN USE

Overhead projectors were once a common fixture in most classrooms and business
conference rooms, but today are slowly being replaced by systems that allow the

41
presenter to project video directly from computer file, typically produced using software
such as Microsoft PowerPoint (Powell, 2002). Such presentations can also include
animations, interactive components, or even video clips, with ease of paging between
slides. The relatively expensive printing or photocopying of colour transparencies is
eliminated.

The primary reason for this gradual replacement is the deeply ingrained use of computing
technology in modern society and the inability of overheads to easily support the features
that modern users demand. While an overhead can display static images fairly well, it
performs poorly at displaying moving images.

The standards of users have also increased so that a dim, fuzzy overhead projection that is
too bright in the centre and too dim around the edges is no longer acceptable. The optical
focus, linearity, brightness and clarity of an overhead generally cannot match that of a
video projector.

Unit summary

In this unit, we have defined projected teaching aids as optical devices that projects an
image or moving images onto a surface, commonly a projection screen. We have also
described their use in education. We have further explained their benefits to education as
well as their disadvantages. In particular we have looked at the overhead projector which
has since declined in use and also the LCD projector which is a team player in teaching
and learning.

Further readings

Barber, T. X. Phantasmagorical Wonders: The Magic Lantern Ghost Show in Nineteenth-

Century America. Film History 32 (1989)

Breeden, J. (2009). LCD monitors go big, with mostly good results, GCN, p. 3

Castle, E.B. (1971). Principles of Education for Teachers in Africa. Nairobi: Oxford

University Press.

42
Crangle, R, et al (2005). Devices and Desires. Realms of Light. London: The Magic
Lantern Society.

Farrant, J.S (1964). Principles and Practice of Education. London, Longman.

Lawler, R. (2006). LG's 100-inch LCD set for mass production, New York, Engadged.

Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

Powell, E. (2002). Epson's 730c: Best of Class in 2000-Lumen Portables,

[Link]

Thungu, J et al (2008). Mastering PTE Education. Nairobi: Oxford University Press

END OF MODULE ONE

43