Dr.

Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor
School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE)
VIT-AP University
E-Mail: subhasish.m@[Link]
 CONTENT

 Generation of Computer
 Definition of Micro-processor
 Definition of Micro-controller
 Definition of Embedded System

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 2
 GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER (GPC)

 The basic blocks of a general

purpose computer are given
below
 Input Device
 Output Device
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 3
 COMPLETE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

CPU

Memory Block

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 4
 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

 First Generation (1946 – 1954)

 Second Generation (1955 – 1964)
 Third Generation (1965 – 1974)
 Fourth Generation (1975 – 1990)
 Fifth Generation (1991 – Present)

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 5
 FIRST GENERATION (1946 – 1954)

 Vacuum Tubes as CPU components

 High cost of vacuum tubes were used for main memory
 Magnetic Tapes or Magnetic drum were used as secondary
Memory
 Used for designing Numerical Integrator and calculator
 Examples

 Electronic Numerical Integrator and calculator (ENIAC) (1946)

 Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) (1949)
 Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) (1950)
 UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC-1) (1951)

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 6
 COMPLETE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

CPU Vacuum Tubes

Vacuum Tubes

Magnetic Tapes &

magnetic drums

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 7
 FIRST GENERATION (1946 – 1954)

Advantages:
 Easily available
 Used machine language only
Disadvantages:
 Very large in size
 Consumed a large amount of energy
 Heated very soon due to thousands of
vacuum tubes
 Very slow speed
 Very less data storage
 Costly commercial production

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 8
 SECOND GENERATION (1955 – 1964)

 Transistor were used in place of vacuum tubes.

 Magnetic ferrite-core memory was used as main
memory.
 Magnetic disks and magnetic tapes were used as
secondary memory.
 Examples
 Honeywell 400
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
 IBM 7030

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 9
 COMPLETE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

CPU Transistors

Magnetic Fe - core

Magnetic Disks &

magnetic Tapes

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 10
 SECOND GENERATION (1955 – 1964)

Advantages w.r.t. First Generation:

 Smaller in size
 more reliable
 Accuracy improved
 Better speed
 Used less energy and less heat generation
 Used assembly language as well
 Punch cards were used for input
Disadvantages :
 Only used for specific purposes
 Constant maintenance was required
 Costly commercial production

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 11
 SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 12
 SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES

Integrated Circuits Semiconductor

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 13
 THIRD GENERATION (1965 – 1974)

 ICs (SSI and MSI) were used to form CPU and other electronic components (Transistors).
 Semiconductor memories (RAMs and ROMs) replaced magnetic core type main memory.
 Examples

 IBM 360/370
 CDC 6600
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 TDC-316
 IBM-370/168

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 14
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

CPU with SSI & MSI Technology

Semiconductor
Memory

Magnetic Disks &

magnetic Tapes

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 15
 THIRD GENERATION (1965 – 1974)

Advantages w.r.t. Second Generation:

 Smaller in size
 More reliable
 Commercial production increased
 Maintenance cost was low
 Better speed
 Used less energy and less heat generation
 Used mouse and keyboard for input
Disadvantages :
 Highly sophisticated Technology required for
the manufacturing of IC chips

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 16
 FORTH GENERATION (1975 – 1990)

 Computers were made using very LSI Technology.

 Development of microprocessor took place because of
tens of thousands of components were packed on a
single chip.
 Personal computer operating systems were developed
during this period.
 Graphic User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited
to offer more comfort to users
 Examples: IBM PC, Apple II, VAX 9000, DEC 10, STAR 1000

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 17
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

Microprocessor as CPU using LSI Technology

Semiconductor
Memory

Magnetic Disks &

magnetic Tapes

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 18
 DEFINATION OF MICRO-PROCESSOR

“Microprocessor is semiconductor device

which contains ALU, Control Unit,
Registers on a single chip, fabricated using

LSI technology”

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 19
 FIFTH GENERATION (1991 – Till Date)

 Used VLSI and ULSI technologies for the development of microprocessors.

 Usage of large number of components lead to
the development of micro-controllers which
includes microprocessors, memory, timers, etc.
in a single Chip
 Development of more user-friendly operating
systems like MS Windows and Linux, and
Linux based software products are the other
developments during this period.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 20
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

Single chip IC contains

Microprocessor, memory,
Timers, IO Ports, etc. using VLSI
Technology

Magnetic Disks &

Magnetic Tapes

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 21
 DEFINATION OF MICRO-CONTROLLER

“Microcontroller is semiconductor device which

contains all components of Microprocessor,
Memory, timers etc. are present in single chip,
fabricated using VLSI technology”

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 22
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 An embedded system is some combination of

computer hardware and software, either fixed
in capability or programmable, that is designed
for a specific function or for specific functions
within a larger system.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 23
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded System
which includes
Microcontroller,
Input and output
devices

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 24
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 Embedded system is normally developed for a

specific application to perform dedicated task(s).

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 25
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

 Applications in communication: Radios, telephones, cellular phones, answering machines, fax

machines, wireless routers.
 Consumer electronics: Washing machine, clocks and watches, games and toys, remote controls,
audio/video electronics.
 Automotive systems: Braking system, electronic ignition, locks, power windows and seats, collision
avoidance.
 Commercial usage: ATM machines, bar code readers, elevator controllers.
 Medical treatments: Cancer treatments, dialysis machines, blood pressure measuring equipment,
electrocardiography (ECG), etc.
 Industrial: Process automation, oil refineries, food processing plants, paper and board mills, etc.
 Military use: Missile guidance systems, global positioning systems, surveillance systems.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 26
 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 While designing an embedded system, the factors that are of utmost importance are listed below.
1. Power consumption
2. Speed of execution
3. System size and weight
4. Performance accuracy

 Parameters for the selection of Microcontroller and are listed below:

1. Processing rate and processor size

2. Different types of I/O devices that can be interfaced

3. Memory size (RAM and ROM)

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 27
Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 28
 Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor
School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE)
VIT-AP University
E-Mail: subhasish.m@[Link]
 CONTENT

 Basics of Microprocessor
 Basics of Microcontroller
 Memory

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 2
 MICROPROCESSOR

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer which built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is called
a microprocessor.
 It is usually called as the brain of a computer which is having the capability with 8, 16, 32, 64 bits, etc.
 It has a capability of executing instructions at an extremely high speed.
 The basic building blocks of an Micro-processor are as follows

 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

 Control unit
 Bank of registers
 Interconnection buses
 Timing unit

 In general, the interconnecting busses are

data bus, address bus and control bus.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 3
 HISTORY OF MICROPROCESSOR (INTEL)

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 4
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROPROCESSOR

Interconnecting
Buses

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 5
 MICROPROCESSOR OPERATION

 The purpose of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is to perform arithmetic and logical operations such as
addition, subtraction, etc. and logic operations such as AND, OR operations, etc.
 Each operation is encoded by a unique binary combination, which is termed the operational code or op-
code.
 Control unit will generate suitable control signals such read, write signal, etc. for executing a particular
operation.
 The operations and operands (data) are initially stored in the memory which will be brought inside the
microprocessor using buses and are stored temporarily in microprocessor registers.
 The data transfer between each block is operated with help of interconnected buses such data bus,
address bus and control bus.
 The timing unit will provide timing signal or clock signal to the processor to carry out various activities
and to synchronize its tasks.
Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 6
 MICROPROCESSOR OPERATION

 In general, the work of a microprocessor is to execute user programs.

 The program counter (PC) stores the address of the next instruction during the execution of an user
program.
 There are three phase to execute an instruction in an user program
1. Fetch
2. Decode
3. Execute

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 7
 MICROPROCESSOR OPERATION

 In general, the steps are involved in execution of an instruction by CPU. However, not all of them are
required for all instructions.
Memory
 Load the address into the Program Counter (PC)
1000 10111101
in which the instruction is stored
Data 1001 10000011
 Fetch the opcode of the instruction from memory
1002 …
 Decode the opcode
1003 …
 Perform ALU operation (Optional)
Addresses 1004 …
 Access memory . …
 Update register file . …
 Update the Program Counter (PC) . …
. …

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 8
 WORKING OF MICROPROCESSOR

Example: Execute the R = X + Y addition instruction.

Step -1: The microprocessor fetches the instruction by applying

PC contents on the address bus, a read signal on the control
bus
Step-2: The control unit decodes the opcode of addition
instruction
Step-3: Processor executes R = X + Y by
 fetching the current value of X from the memory
 fetching the current value of Y from the memory
 instructing the ALU to add these two numbers
 writing the sum back to the memory address of R

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 9
 MICROCONTROLLER

 A microcontroller combines a
microprocessor, read only memory (ROM),
random access memory (RAM), and
input/output (I/O) peripheral devices on a
single chip.
 The microprocessor sends signals to control
as well as to exchange information with
various subsystems inside the
microcontroller.
 The data, address, and control buses will be
used to communicate among these
subsystems.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 10
 MICROCONTROLLER

 During the execution of a program, the address will be fetched from the memory i.e. RAM or ROM by placing
the address in the address bus generated by the processor.
 The data bus carries the data stored in a particular address.
 Increasing the size of the data bus allows more number of bits to be communicated between two subsystems.
 The control bus is used to generate control signals such as read/write inform whether the CPU is interested in
reading some information or wants to write some information to the location whose address was generated
over the address bus.
 The capability of a microprocessor to process simultaneously a certain number of bits defines the type of
microcontroller in terms of processing bits such as 8, 16, 32 bits, etc.
 Another feature of microcontroller is Input/Output (I/O) ports in which data can be processed through serial
(single line) and parallel (multiple lines) ports.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 11
 FAMILY OF MICROCONTROLLERs

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 12
 MICROCONTROLLER VS MICROCOMPUTER

 The major differences between microcontrollers, employed by

embedded systems and microcomputers (or personal computers) is
that

 RAM, ROM, CPU, and I/O interfaces in a personal computer are

MICROCONTROLLER
typically integrated in the form of multiple different chips on a
motherboard, while all of these components in the case of a
microcontroller are embedded inside a single chip.

 Speed also increased in case of microcontroller compared to

microcomputer because of reduced size of memory and
peripherals.
MICROCOMPUTER

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 13
 MEMORY

 To store binary information, digital electronic circuits such as complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) can be built and a collection of a large number of such circuits is named memory.

 Memory is the portion of a computer or other system that stores binary data. In a computer, memory is
accessed millions of times per second.

 A memory unit is a device to which binary information is transferred for storage and from which
information is retrieved when needed for processing.

 Binary information received from an input device is stored in memory, and information transferred to
an output device is taken from memory.

 A memory unit is a collection of cells capable of storing a large quantity of binary information.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 14
 TYPES OF MEMORY

 There are two types of memories

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Read Only Memory (ROM)

 RAM can perform both write and read operations.

 ROM can perform only the read operation.

 In general, two operations can be performed by memory

 Memory Write: The process of storing new information into memory.

 Memory Read: The process of transferring the stored information out of memory.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 15
Please follow the instructions of the government and stay safe

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 16
 Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor
School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE)
VIT-AP University
E-Mail: subhasish.m@[Link]
 CONTENT

 Memory
 Types of Memory
 RAM
 ROM

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 2
 MEMORY

 Memory stores the information like a human being stores information

in brain.

 To store binary information, digital electronic circuits such as

complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) can be built and a
collection of a large number of such circuits is named memory.

 Memory is the portion of a computer or other system that stores

binary data either in the form of 0 or 1 which will be accessed millions
of times per second.

 A memory unit is a device to which binary information is transferred

for storage and from which information is retrieved when needed.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 3
 MEMORY

 Binary information received from an input device is

stored in memory, and information transferred to an
output device is taken from memory.

 A memory unit is a collection of cells capable of storing a

large quantity of binary information.

 Figure shows in the right where each byte is uniquely

addressable, such memories are called byte addressable
memories.

 Other possibilities are bit addressable as well as word

(32-bit) and half word (16-bit) addressable memories.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 4
 TYPES OF MEMORY

 There are two types of memories

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Read Only Memory (ROM)

 RAM can perform both write and read operations.

 ROM can perform only the read operation.

 In general, two operations can be performed by memory

 Memory Write: The process of storing new information into memory.

 Memory Read: The process of transferring the stored information out of memory.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 5
 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

 A memory unit that consists of a collection of storage

cells used for both transfer of information into and
out of a device is called a RAM.

 The architecture of memory is such that information

can be randomly retrieved from any of its internal
locations.

 The time required to retrieve and store a binary

information from and to a particular location
respectively, is always same.

 A memory unit stores binary information in groups of

bits called words (may be 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits).

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 6
 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

 It is customary to refer to the number of words (or

bytes) in memory with one of the letters K (kilo), M
(mega), and G (giga). K is equal to 210, M is equal to
220, and G is equal to 230.

 A memory word is a group of 1’s and 0’s and may

represent a number, an instruction, one or more
alphanumeric characters, or any other
binary‐coded information.

 One limitation of RAM is that information stored in

it is lost as soon as the power applied to it is
removed. Hence volatile in nature. RAM

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 7
 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

Static RAM: Dynamic RAM:

 Uses flip-flops to store the binary  Uses a capacitor and 2 transistors to design
information and require 4 to 6 transistors to the memory cell for storing the binary
design the memory cell information
 Stored information remains valid as long as  Needs refreshing circuit for periodically
power is on. So, does not require refreshing refreshment to hold the stored info
circuit
 Shorter read and write cycles, hence faster.  Longer read and write cycles, hence less
Hence used in cache memory. speed than SRAM. Used in main memory.
 Larger cell area and more power  Smaller cell area and less power consumption
consumption

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 8
 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

Static RAM: Dynamic RAM:

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 9
 READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

 A memory device that can permanently keep binary data even when power is turned off or on. Hence
nonvolatile in nature.

 ROM does not have data inputs, because it does not have a write operation.

 Instructions or a program code are the information that is normally stored in a ROM.

 Based on how a ROM is programmed, ROMs can be of different types.

 Example: used in Desktops and laptops for running the operating system.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 10
 TYPES OF ROM

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 11
 TYPES OF ROM

Mask programming ROM:

 In this type of ROM, the specification of the ROM (its

contents and their location), is taken by the manufacturer
from the customer in tabular form in a specified format and
then makes corresponding masks for the paths to produce
the desired output.

 Economic for large quantity of the same ROM.

 They are used in network operating systems, server

operating systems, storing of fonts for laser printers, sound
data in electronic musical instruments.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 12
 TYPES OF ROM

Programmable ROM (PROM)

 It is first prepared as blank memory, and then it is programmed to store

the information.

 PROM is manufactured as blank memory and programmed after

manufacturing, whereas a Mask ROM is programmed during the
manufacturing process. Also, the data stored in it cannot be modified, so
it is called as one – time programmable device.

 They have several different applications, including cell phones, video

game consoles, RFID tags, medical devices.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 13
 TYPES OF ROM

Erasable PROM (EPROM)

 It overcomes the disadvantage of PROM that once programmed,

the fixed pattern is permanent and cannot be altered.

 Unlike an ordinary PROM, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if an

existing program in the memory array is erased first.

 The EPROM can be reprogrammed to the initial state under a

special ultraviolet light (UV) for a given period of time.

 Used in compact flash, microcontrollers, etc.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 14
 TYPES OF ROM

Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM or E2PROM)

 The EEPROM is returned to its initial state by application of an
electrical signal, in place of ultraviolet light.

 Only allow single byte read and write operations that makes them
slow speed device.

Flash Memory

 Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that allows read and write operations to be carried out in large multi-
byte blocks.
 In addition, the cost of flash memory is also low compared to byte-programmable EEPROM.
 Many modern PCs have their BIOS stored on a flash memory chip, called as flash BIOS and they are also
used in modems as well.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 15
Please follow the instructions of the government and stay safe

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 16
 Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor
School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE)
VIT-AP University
E-Mail: subhasish.m@[Link]
 CONTENT

 Classification of Microprocessor
Architecture

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 2
MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE CLASSIFICATION

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 3
 INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE (ISA)

Complexity - based ISA Classification

 Using the complexity of instructions, it can be again categorised into two types
 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 4
 COMPLEXITY-BASED ISA CLASSIFICATION

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 5
 COMPLEXITY-BASED ISA CLASSIFICATION

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
 RISC processors have simple instructions taking  CSIC processor has complex instructions that
about one clock cycle. The average clock cycle take up multiple clocks for execution. The
per instruction (CPI) is 1.5. average clock cycle per instruction (CPI) is in the
range of 2 and 15.
 Performance is optimized with more focus on  Performance is optimized with more focus on
software hardware
 It has no memory unit and uses separate  It has a memory unit to implement complex
hardware to implement instructions instructions
 It has a hard-wired unit of programming  It has a microprogramming unit
 The instruction set is reduced i.e. it has only a few  The instruction set has a variety of different
instructions in the instruction set. Many of these instructions that can be used for complex
instructions are very primitive. operations.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 6
 COMPLEXITY-BASED ISA CLASSIFICATION

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
 The instruction set has simple addressing modes.  CISC has many different addressing modes and
can thus be used to represent higher-level
programming language statements more
 Complex addressing modes are synthesized using efficiently.
the software.  CISC already supports complex addressing modes
 Multiple register sets are present  Only has a single register set
 RISC processors are highly pipelined  They are normally not pipelined or less pipelined

 The complexity of RISC lies with the compiler that

 The complexity lies in the microprogram
executes the program
 Execution time is very less  Execution time is very high

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 7
 COMPLEXITY-BASED ISA CLASSIFICATION

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

 Code expansion can be a problem  Code expansion is not a problem

 The decoding of instructions is simple  Decoding of instructions is complex
 It does not require external memory for  It requires external memory for calculations
calculations
 The most common RISC microprocessors are  Examples of CISC processors are the
Alpha, ARC, ARM, AVR, MIPS, PA-RISC, PIC, System/360, VAX, PDP-11, Motorola 68000
Power Architecture, and SPARC. family, AMD, and Intel x86 CPUs.
 RISC architecture is used in high-end applications  CISC architecture is used in low-end
such as video processing, telecommunications, applications such as security systems, home
and image processing. automation, etc.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 8
 INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE (ISA)

Instruction Operand-Based ISA Classification

 Instructions in an assembly language program in general have multiple operands.

 The operands for an instruction can be specified either using memory or registers or combination of
both.
 The ISA classification based on how the instruction operands are specified can be categorized in the
following groups
1. Memory-memory
2. Register-memory
3. Register-register

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 9
 INSTRUCTION OPERAND-BASED ISA CLASSIFICATION

Memory-memory
 This type of ISA allows more than one operand of most instructions to be specified in memory.
 Examples: VAX and PDP series
Register-memory
 These architectures allow one operand of an instruction to be specified in memory, while the other operand
is in CPU register.
 Examples: x86 and Motorola 68k
Register-register
 This ISA classification is also called load-store architecture. Only load and store instruction can access the
memory.
 All instructions other than load and store instructions get their operands from and store their results to
registers.
 Examples: ARM and MIPS
Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra
Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 10
INSTRUCTION OPERAND-BASED ISA CLASSIFICATION

Memory-memory
Slower
MOV [1000H], [3000H] Speed
ADD [R1], [2000H]
Register-memory
Medium
MOV R1, [1050H] Speed
SUB [2020H], R2
Register-register
Faster
MOV R1, R4 Speed
ADD R2, R3, R1

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 11
 MEMORY INTERFACE-BASED ARCHITECTURE CLASSICATION

 There are two widely used memory interface architectures

1. von Neumann architecture
2. Harvard architecture

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 12
 MEMORY INTERFACE-BASED ARCHITECTURE CLASSICATION

 Mostly, microprocessors are implemented using von Neumann architecture, while

microcontrollers use Harvard architecture.

 ARM based microcontrollers use Harvard architecture.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 13
 VON-NEUMAN BUS ARCHITECTURE

 The von-Neumann architecture uses a common bus

for both data as well as code memory.
 As a result either an instruction can be fetched
from memory or data can be read/written from/to
memory during each memory access cycle.
 Instructions and data are stored in the same
memory subsystem and share a common bus to
the processor.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 14
 HARVARD BUS ARCHITECTURE

 The Harvard architecture utilizes separate buses for accessing code and data memories.
 This allows instructions and data to be accessed simultaneously.

 In addition, the next instruction may be

fetched from memory at the time when the
previous instruction is about to finish its
execution, allowing for a primitive form of
pipelining.
 Pipelining decreases the per instruction
execution time; however, main memory
access time is a major bottleneck in the
overall performance of the system.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 15
Please follow the instructions of the government and stay safe

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Microprocessors 16