Fluid Mechanics

[CEC-104]

Introduction

By
Abhishek, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engg.
IIT Roorkee
Course
content
Evaluation Procedure

• CWS: 15% [attd-10; Quiz-5]

• PRS: 20%

• Mid-term: 25%

• End-term: 40%

2
 Introduction
and
Fluid Properties

3
Fluid Mechanics

Fluid at rest
Fluid Mechanics Behavior
Fluid at motion

Static Fluid at rest

Kinematic Excluding Pressure forces

Dynamic Including Pressure forces

4
Properties of Fluids
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
1. (Mass) Density 𝜌=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Water: 1 g/cc

2. Specific Wt. / Wt. Density 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑤= 𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Water: 9.81*1000 N/m3

3. Specific Vol. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1

∀= =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌
Generally for gases

3. Specific Gravity 𝑊𝑡. 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆=
𝑊𝑡. 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑎𝑖𝑟
Hg: 13.6 𝜌? ?
5
Problem
Calculate the density, specific weight, and weight of one liter of

kerosene (𝑆=0.7).

Viscosity
(श्यानता)

6
7
 Viscosity
Property of fluid which offers resistance to the relative
movement of layers.
Newton’s law of viscosity

𝑑𝑢
𝜏 ∝ Rate of shear strain/deformation
Shear stress 𝑑𝑦
Velocity gradient
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Constant of proportionality
Coefficient of dynamic viscosity

Define viscosity?? Units??

8
 SI Units: Pa s CWS: units in other systems

1 Poise = 0.1 Pa s
𝜇
Kinematic viscosity ν=
𝜌

SI Units: m2/s CGS Units: cm2/s [Stoke]

Centipoise, centistoke, etc.

• 𝜇 gives information on force needed to make fluid flow at a certain rate

• ν tells how fast the fluid is moving when a certain force is applied.
9
Variation with temperature
T Liquids: ↓ Gases:
↓ ↓

Cohesive forces>> ??
+
Molecular momentum transfer

10
Types of fluids

Ideal
Real
Newtonian
Non-Newtonian
Ideal-plastic

Ideal: Incompressible and no 𝜇

Ideal-plastic: 𝜏 is > yield value

11
Problem
A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity
2.0 N s/m2 and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2
cm is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/s, through the
gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The
weight of the plate is 40 N.

12
Solution

13
Thank you

14
Thermodynamic Properties
Thermodynamics (ऊष्मप्रवैगिकी)
study of the relations between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
Absolute temperature in °K
𝑝
For gases p∀= 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇
𝜌

Absolute pressure of gas [N/m2] Gas constant

[287 J kg-1 K-1]

Isothermal Processes Adiabatic Processes

𝑝 𝑝
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 𝜌𝑘
𝑘: Ratio of specific heats of a gas at constant
pressure and constant volume (= 1.4 for air)

15
Universal Gas constant
𝑚 = Mass of a gas in kg
p∀= 𝑚𝑅𝑇
∀ = Volume of gas of mass m
Mole-basis p = Absolute pressure
Make it T = Absolute temperature
universal
No. of moles in vol. of a gas
For all gases
𝑚 =𝑛∗𝑀

p∀= 𝑛𝑀𝑅𝑇 Mass of gas molecules

Mass of a hydrogen atom

Universal Gas constant

[SI: 8314 J kg-1 mole-1]

16
 Problem
A cylinder of 0.6 m3 in
volume contains air at 50°C
and 0.3 N/mm2 absolute
pressure. The air is
compressed to 0.3 m3. Find
(i) pressure inside the
cylinder assuming
isothermal process and (ii)
pressure and temperature
assuming adiabatic
process. Take k = 1.4.
17
Problem
Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a
temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m3. Molecular weight
of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable.

18
Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
Elastic modulus: Resistance to being deformed elastically

Bulk modulus of elasticity

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 [𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠]
𝐾=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑝 −𝑑𝑝
= = ∀ …(1)
𝑑∀ 𝑑∀
− ∀

1
Compressibility = -ve sign??
𝐾

Isothermal Processes
𝑝∀ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Differentiate to get 𝑝 Put in eq. (1) 𝑲 = 𝒑
Adiabatic Processes CWS?? 𝑲 = 𝒑𝒌

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Surface Tension and Capillarity

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 Surface Tension and Capillarity
membrane
under tension
Tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid
in contact with a gas or on the surface
between two immiscible liquids.

The magnitude of force per unit length of the

free surface = surface energy per unit area.

Denoted by 𝜎 [SI unit: N/m] Forces

balanced

Liquid Droplet Hollow Bubble Liquid jet

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Surface Tension on Droplet/Bubble

𝜎 = Surface tension of the liquid

𝑝 = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of outside pr. int.)
𝑑 = Dia. of droplet

At equilibrium; 𝜋 2
𝑝∗ 𝑑 = 𝜎 ∗ 𝜋𝑑
4

Across cross-section Across circumference

4𝜎
Droplet Size ↓
↓
𝑝= 𝑝
𝑑

8𝜎
For hollow bubble: 𝑝= ??
𝑑
22
Surface Tension on Liquid Jet

CWS??

2𝜎
𝑝 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑑 = 𝜎 ∗ 2𝐿 𝑝=
𝑑

Capillarity

23
Capillarity

Phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid

surface in a small tube/channel relative
to the adjacent general level of liquid.

Capillary rise and Capillary depression

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Capillary Rise/Depression
At equilibrium;

𝜋 2
𝑑 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑔 = 𝜎 ∗ 𝜋𝑑 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4

Weight of liquid Vertical component

in the tube of surface tension

4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ= [For glass and water, 𝜃 = 0]
𝜌𝑔𝑑
At
equili

[For glass and Hg, 𝜃 = 128°]

25
Problem
The capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of
water. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension
for water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m.

26
 Problem
An oil of viscosity 5
poise is used for
lubrication between
a shaft and sleeve.
The diameter of
the shaft is 0.5 m
and it rotates at
200 r.p.m.
Calculate the
power lost in oil for
a sleeve length of
100 mm. The
thickness of oil film
is 1.0 mm.
27
Vapour Pressure and Cavitation

Vaporization: Liquid to gas

Depends on temperature and pressure

For a given T, keep on decreasing P above liquid

At P<Vapor pressure of liquid, Vaporization will happen

Cavitation: formation of bubbles in low pressure and sudden

collapsing [causes creation of very high P] in higher pressure

Pitting action on metal surface leading to cavities

28
Thank you 

29
Pressure and its
Measurements

30
Fluid Pressure at a Point
dA = small area in large mass of fluid

dF = force acting on the area dA in the normal direction.

If the fluid is stationary

Pressure intensity [pressure]
𝑑𝐹
𝑝=
𝑑𝐴 force exerted by the
If F is uniformly distributed over A surrounding fluid on the
𝐹 area dA will always be
𝑝= perpendicular to the
𝐴
surface dA

N/m2: Pa Bar = 100 kPa = N/m2 ??

31
Pascal’s Law
Pressure at a point in static fluid is equal in all directions.

Forces acting on Wedge shaped fluid element

1. Pressure forces normal to surfaces

2. Weight of element [↓].

Force on face AB = 𝑝𝑥 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵 Weight = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔

= 𝑝𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 1 𝐴𝐵∗𝐴𝐶
= ∗1 ρ𝑔
2
𝑑𝑦∗𝑑𝑥
Similarly on faces AC and BC ?? = ∗1 ρ𝑔
2
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Pascal’s Law Contd…
Forces in x-direction
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑝𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 1 − 𝑝𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 ∗ 1 ∗ sin 90 − 𝜃 = 0

𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦

𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧

Forces in y-direction

𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
𝑝𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 ∗ 1 − 𝑝𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 ∗ 1 ∗ cos 90 − 𝜃 − ∗1∗ρ∗𝑔 =0
2
𝑝𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 ∗ 1 − 𝑝𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 0
[weight: negligible]
𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧

𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 [Regardless of the choice of fluid]

33
P variation: Fluid at Rest
Hydrostatic Law: The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically
downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the
fluid at that point.

∆𝐴 = Cross section area of element

∆𝑍 = Height of fluid element
𝑝 = Pressure on face AB
𝑍 = Distance of fluid element from free surface

Forces on the fluid element:

1. On AB = 𝑝 ∗ ∆𝐴
𝜕𝑝
2. On CD = 𝑝 + 𝜕𝑍 ∆𝑍 ∗ ∆𝐴
3. Weight = 𝜌 ∗ ∆𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑍 ∗ 𝑔
34
Hydrostatic Law
At equilibrium;

𝜕𝑝
𝑝 ∗ ∆𝐴 − 𝑝 + ∗ ∆𝑍 ∗ ∆𝐴 + 𝜌 ∗ ∆𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑍 ∗ 𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
− ∗ ∆𝑍 ∗ ∆𝐴 + 𝜌 ∗ ∆𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑍 ∗ 𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑍

𝜕𝑝
= 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑤
𝜕𝑍
Integrating [P = pressure above atm
pressure]
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑍

𝑝
𝑍= Pressure Head
𝜌𝑔
35
Problem
The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a
hydraulic jack are 3 cm and 10 cm respectively. A force of 80
N is applied on the small piston. Find the load lifted by the
large piston when :
(a) the pistons are at the same level.
(b) small piston is 40 cm above the large piston.

The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/m3.

(a) (b)

36
 Solution

37
Pressure and Measurement

Absolute Pressure

Gauge Pressure

Vacuum Pressure

Datum 1: Absolute Zero

Datum 2: Atmospheric (atm) pressure [MSL: 15 °C; 101.3 kN/m2]

𝑝𝑎𝑏 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

38
Pressure and Measurement
Simple Measure pressures by
Manometer
balancing (same/different)
Differential
fluid column.

Measure pressures by
Mechanical Gauges balancing (same/different)
fluid column by spring/DW.

Piezometer
Manometer U-tube manometer
Single column manometer

39
 Manometers contd…
Target points
U-tube manometer

Piezometer

Reference line

Simplest form of manometer U-shape: One end is open to atm

Rise of liquid = pressure Generally: Liquid with higher 𝑤

head at the point

P at A = 𝜌𝑔ℎ N/m2 (a) 𝑝 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2

(b) 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑝 = 0

40
 Problem
A conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-
tube manometer is connected. The reading of the
manometer given in the figure shows when the
vessel is empty. Find the reading of the manometer
when the vessel is completely filled with water.
When the vessel
is empty

41
 Pressure in the right limb will increase and mercury level in the right limb
Vessel is full of water

will go down. Let the distance through which mercury goes down in the
right limb be, y cm. The mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y cm.
Now the datum line is Z-Z. Equating the pressure above the datum Z-Z.

42
Single Column Manometer
Modified form of a U-tube manometer
Reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times)
as compared to the area of the tube.

Any pressure variation, change in the liquid level in the reservoir

will be very small [neglected].

Pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb.

Vertical Single Column Manometer

Inclined Single Column Manometer

43
Single Column Manometer
Vertical Fall of heavy Inclined
liquid in reservoir
will cause a rise
in the right limb

𝐴 ∗ ∆ℎ = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ2
𝑎 ∗ ℎ2
∆ℎ =
𝐴
For YY More sensitive

𝜌1 𝑔 ∆ℎ + ℎ1 + 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔 (∆ℎ + ℎ2 )

𝑝𝐴 = ∆ℎ 𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔 + ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑝𝐴 = ℎ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔

𝑝𝐴 = ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔

44
Differential Manometer
Devices used for measuring the difference of pressures
between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes.

It consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy/light liquid,

whose two ends are connected to the target points.

U-tube differential manometer [Heavy]

Inverted U-tube differential manometer [Light]

45
Differential Manometer Contd…

(a)

For XX

𝜌1 𝑔 ℎ + 𝑥 + 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝐵
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 =? ?

(b)

For XX
𝜌1 𝑔 ℎ + 𝑥 + 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝐵

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ CWS??

46
Differential Manometer Contd…

For measuring difference of low pressures

For XX

𝑝𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔 ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔 ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑠 𝑔ℎ

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 =? ?

47
 Problem
An inverted U-tube manometer is connected to
two horizontal pipes A and B through which water
is flowing. The vertical distance between the axes
of these pipes is 30 cm. When an oil of specific
gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the vertical
heights of water columns in the two limbs of the
inverted manometer (when measured from the
respective centre lines of the pipes) are found to
be same and equal to 35 cm. Determine the
difference of pressure between the pipes.

48
49
For a compressible Fluid
Density changes with temperature and pressure.

𝜕𝑝
= 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑤 Cannot be integrated
𝜕𝑍

𝑃 𝑃
= 𝑅𝑇 =𝜌
𝜌 𝑅𝑇

𝜕𝑝 𝑃
= 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑤 = 𝑔
𝜕𝑍 𝑅𝑇

𝑑𝑝 𝑔 [-ve: if Z is measured vertically upwards]

=− 𝑑𝑍
𝑃 𝑅𝑇

Isothermal Adiabatic
50
Thank you 

51