Electronics principles and circuits Module-3

Module 3(b)
Syllabus -. Oscillator: Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation, The Wein-Bridge Oscillator, RC Phase Shift Oscillator, The Colpitts
Oscillator, Hartley Oscillator, Crystal Oscillator. The 555 timer: Monostable Operation, Astable Operation.

Oscillators:
An Oscillator is an electronic device which produces sustained sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency. It
consists of an amplifier, a positive feedback circuit and tank circuit. Usually the feedback circuit behaves as the
tank circuit.

Principle of operation:
When the switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs. Consider that a fictitious voltage (Thermal
noise or switching transients) at the amplifier input Vi. This results in an output voltage Vo = AVi after the
amplifier stage and a voltage Vf = (AVi) after the feedback stage where  is the feedback factor.

Thus, the feedback voltage Vf = AVi, where A is referred to as the loop gain. If the magnitude and phase of
feedback voltage Vf is made equal to input Vi, then, when the switch is closed and the fictitious voltage V i is
removed, the circuit will continue operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to drive the amplifier and
feedback circuit, resulting in a proper input voltage to sustain the loop operation. The output waveform will still
exist after the switch is closed if the condition A  1 is met.
VO = A[Vi + Vf] = A[Vi + βVO ] or VO (1 − βA) = AVi
VO A
=
Vi (1−βA)

If Vi = 0, the only way that VO can be non zero is that loop gain A=1 which implies that the equation becomes
indeterminate (0/0)

At this condition; even if the input is removed, the circuit can produce output by using the fraction of the output
as input. The frequency of oscillation depends on the feedback network
Barkhausen’s Criterion (Conditions for Sustained Oscillations)
(i) The total phase shift around the amplifier and feedback network |A is 00 or 3600.
(ii) The magnitude of the product of open loop gain A of the amplifier and magnitude of the feedback factor 
is unity i.e. |A| = 1

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Note: Initially |A| must be kept >1 to start the oscillations and later the circuit adjusts itself in such a way that
|A|=1, so that sustained oscillations are produced. Figure below shows the oscillations for different values of
A








Applications of Oscillators
Oscillators are used in radio receivers to transform the RF signals to IF signals
Oscillators are used generate RF carrier signal in a radio transmitters
Oscillators are used to generate clock signal for digital systems;
Oscillators are used to generate sweep signals used in TV and CRO.
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The Wien-bridge Oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for low to moderate frequencies in the range of
5 Hz to about 1 MHz. It is often used in commercial audio generators and is usually preferred for other low-
frequency applications.
Construction - A Wien bridge is an ac bridge which has two arms as one RC series (Lag circuit) network and
another RC shunt (Lead circuit) network. The lead-lag circuit forms the resonant feedback circuit. The output of
the bridge is applied to a non inverting amplifier and the
output of the amplifier is applied as input to the bridge.
The resistors R3 and R4 of the op-amp forms a part of the
bridge (other two arms of the bridge). The feedback
voltage is attenuated but not phase shifted by the feedback
network, the feedback voltage is amplified to produce
oscillations.
Operation - At low frequencies, the series capacitor acts as
open circuit and no input is applied and at high
frequencies, the shunt capacitor acts as short circuit, again
no input is applied. Hence the output is zero in both the
cases.
.
In between these two extremes, at one particular
frequency, the bridge gets balanced and sustained oscillations are produced. This frequency is called resonant
frequency of the bridge.
From the analysis of the bridge, balance is obtained when the following equations are fulfilled.
𝑅4
= 2 The gain of the amplifier Av  1 + 𝑅4 = 3
𝑅3 𝑅3
𝟏
The frequency of Oscillation 𝐟𝐫 = Hz
𝟐𝛑𝐑𝐂

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RC Phase Shift Oscillator

A RC phase shift oscillator basically consists of an amplifier and a ladder type feedback network consisting of
resistors and capacitors.
The phase-shift oscillator with three lead circuits (or lag circuits) in the feedback path. A lead circuit produces a
phase shift between 0° and 90°. Using proper values of R and C, the phase angle  is adjusted to 600.
A RC ladder network is used in the feedback. By cascading 3 similar RC sections each giving a phase angle of
600, a total phase shift of 180 o can be obtained. The inverting amplifier gives 180 0 phase shift, hence the total
phase shift around the loop is 00 or 3600.

At one particular frequency, If AB is greater than 1 at this particular frequency, oscillations can start.
1
The frequency of oscillations are given by f= Hz
2π √6 RC

LC Tuned Oscillators

For generating frequencies beyond funity(1MHz), op-amp amplifiers can not be used. A properly biased BJT or
FET amplifier along with a suitable feedback network is used to produce oscillations up to 500MHz.
Hartley Oscillator:
A LC oscillator which uses two inductors and one capacitor in its feedback circuit along with an amplifier
constitutes a Hartley Oscillator.
Hartley Oscillator (BJT version)
The amplifier uses an active device as a
transistor in CE configuration. The
circuit uses voltage divider bias provided
by resistors R1 and R2. A Radio
frequency choke (RFC) is used in the
collector circuit which acts as a short
circuit under dc and an open circuit at
high frequencies, hence provides

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isolation between dc and ac operations. The CE amplifier provides a phase shift of 180 o, the feedback circuit
another 180o phase shift. The feedback circuit consists of two series connected inductors L 1 and L2 connected
across the capacitor C forms the resonant circuit and Q of this tank circuit is usually greater than 10.
The output voltage appears across L1 and the feedback voltage appears across L2. The feedback fraction in this
𝐿
type of oscillator is given by:  = ( 1 ) and the gain of the amplifier A  (L 2 )
𝐿2 L1

Expression for frequency:

At the resonant frequency, the total reactance of the resonant circuit is zero and maximum voltage appears at
the output and the resonant frequency is given by
1
𝑓𝑟 = Hz where Leq = L1 + L2
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐶

Colpitts Oscillator:
A LC oscillator which uses two capacitors and one inductor in its feedback circuit constitutes a Colpitts
Oscillator.

Colpitts Oscillator (BJT version)

The amplifier uses an active device as a transistor in CE configuration. The circuit uses voltage divider bias
provided by resistors R1 and R2. A Radio frequency choke (RFC) is used in the collector circuit which acts as a
short circuit under dc and an open circuit at high frequencies, hence provides isolation between dc and ac
operations. The CE amplifier provides a phase
shift of 180o, the feedback circuit gives
another 180o phase shift. The feedback circuit
consists of two series connected Capacitors C1
and C2 connected across the Inductor L forms
the resonant circuit and Q of this tank circuit
is usually greater than 10.
The output voltage appears across C1 and the
feedback voltage appears across C2. The
feedback fraction in this type of oscillator is
C
given by:  = ( 1 ) and the gain of the amplifier A  ( C2 )
C2 C1

Expression for frequency:

At the resonant frequency, the total reactance of the resonant circuit is zero and maximum voltage appears at
the output and the resonant frequency is given by
1 C C
f = Hz where Ceq = 1 2
r 2√LCeq C1 + C2

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Problem: For the transistor Colpitts oscillator circuit, calculate the oscillation frequency:
if L = 100 mH, C1 = 0.005 mF, C2 = 0.01 mF
Solution: C = C1C2
= (0.005mF )(0.01mF ) = 3300 pF
eq C1+C2 (0.005+0.01)mF
1 1
f = = = 277 kHz
o 2π√ LC eq 2π√100×10−6 (3300 ×10−12 )

Problem: Calculate the oscillator frequency for an FET Hartley oscillator C = 250 pF, L1 = 1.5 mH,
L2 = 1.5 mH.
Solution: Leq =L1 + L2 + 2M = [1.5 + 1.5 + 2(0.5)]mH = 4 mH
1 1
f = = = 159.2 kHz
o 2π√Leq C 2π√4×10−3 (250×10−12 )

Problem: In a transistorized Hartley oscillator, the two inductances are 2 mH and 20µH while the
frequency is to be changed from 950 kHz to 2050 kHz. Calculate the range over which the capacitor is to
be varied.
Solution: Leq =L1 + L2 = 2mH + 20 µH = 2.02 mH
1
fmax = 2050 kHz = 1 =  Cmin = 2.98 pF
2π√Leq Cmin 2π√2.02×10−3 C min

fmin = 950 kHz = 1

= 1  Cmax = 13.89 pF
2π√Leq Cmax 2π√2.02×10−3 Cmax

Hence C must be varied between 2.98 pF to 13.89 pF to get the required frequency variation.
Problem- What is the frequency of oscillation in the circuit shown below What is the feedback fraction?
How much voltage gain does the circuit need to
start oscillating?
Solution: C =
C1C2
=
(0.001μF)(0.01μF)
= 909 pF
eq C1 +C 2 (0.001+0.01)μF
1 1
r= =
2π√ LCeq 2π√15 × 10−6(909 × 10−12)
fr = 1.36 MHz
C1 0,001
 =( )= = 0.1 and
C2 0.01
C2 0,01
gain of the amplifier 𝐴𝑉(𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = ( )= = 10
C1 0.001
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank circuit.
The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater frequency stability and are used in communication transmitters and
receivers.

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Characteristics of a Quartz Crystal

Piezo Electric Effect: Crystals like Quartz exhibits electro-mechanical resonance characteristics that when
mechanical stress is applied across one set of its faces, a difference of potential develops across the opposite
faces. This property of a crystal is called the piezoelectric effect. Similarly, a voltage applied across one set of
faces of the crystal causes mechanical distortion in the crystal shape.
When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal, mechanical
vibrations are set up—these vibrations having a natural
resonant frequency dependent on the crystal. The crystal is
represented by an equivalent electrical resonant circuit as
shown in figure. The inductor L and capacitor Cs represent
electrical equivalents of crystal mass and compliance,
respectively, whereas resistance R is an electrical equivalent of
the crystal structure’s internal friction. The shunt capacitance
Cm represents the capacitance due to mechanical mounting of the crystal. The equivalent Crystal’s Q (quality
factor) is very high—typically greater than 20,000..
Figure shows a Crystal Oscillator circuit. The transistor
operates in CE mode with voltage divider bias with proper
operating point and the tank circuit is formed by series
capacitors C1 and C2 in parallel with the crystal.
The series resonant frequency is given as
1
f = Hz
s 2π√L C

The parallel resonant frequency is given by

1
f = Hz where C eq = Cp CS
P
2π√LCeq C P + CS

Applications of Crystal Oscillators:

The most important feature of crystal oscillator is its stability. Temperature compensated crystal
oscillators(TXCO) are used in many digital IC’s. Voltage controlled crystal oscillators (VCXO) are used in
PLL circuits where in the frequency is controlled by applied external voltage. Oven controlled crystal
oscillators(most precise and highly stable) are used in wireless systems and base stations.
Problem :A crystal has a mounting capacitance of 10 pF. The inductance equivalent of mass is 1 mH, the
frictional losses are 1 k and the compliance is 1 pF. Find the series and parallel resonant frequency.
Solution: The series resonant frequency is given by
1 1
fs = = = 5.033 MHz
2π√L C 2π√1 × 10−3 (1 × 10−12)
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Cm CS 10 (1)
The equivalent capacitance C = = = 9.09 pF
eq Cm + CS 10+ 1
The parallel resonant frequency is given by
1 1
fP = = = 5.275 MHz
2π√L Ceq 2π√1 × 10 (9.09 × 10 )
−3 −12

Problem: A 2 MHz quartz crystal is specified to have L = 0.52H, CS = 0.012pF, Cm = 4 pF and R = 120.
Find fo, fS and fp
Solution – fo = 2MHz
1 1
fs = = = 2.015 MHz
2π√L CS 2π√0.52 (0.012 × 10 )
−12

The equivalent capacitance C = CP C S

= 4 (0.012) = 0.01196 pF
eq CP + CS 4+ 0.012
1 1
fP = = = 2.018 MHz
2π√L Ceq 2π√0.52 (0.01196 × 10−12)
ωOL 2πfO L 2π(2 × 106)(0.52)
Q= = = = 54455
R R 120

Comparison between LC oscillator and Crystal Oscillator

LC oscillators Crystal oscillator
1 Separate L and C components are necessary in The single crystal serves the purpose of tuned circuit
the tuned circuit
2 The Q Value of the tank circuit is less The Q value is very high compared to LC circuits
compared to crystal
3 The frequency stability is less Very high frequency stability
4 The bandwidth of operation is more Narrow band width
5 Changes in temperature affects the frequency Frequency is independent of changes in temperature.
6 Used for general applications like in signal Used for specific and precise applications like
generators, FM tuners etc watches, computers, counters etc

Review Questions
1. What is an Oscillator? Explain the principle of oscillator.
2. State the conditions for generating sustained Oscillations.
3. With neat circuit diagram, explain the working of (i) Wien bridge oscillator (ii) RC phase shift oscillator
(iii) Colpitt’s Oscillator (iv) Hartley Oscillator (v) Crystal Oscillator Write the expression for frequency.
4. Compare LC and Crystal Oscillators.

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555 Timer & its Applications

Introduction: The 555 timer is a highly stable monolithic device for generating accurate time delays or
oscillation. Signetics Corporation first introduced this device as SE555 / NE 555 and it is available in two
package styles, 8 pin circular style TO-9 Can or 8 pin mini DIP. Also NE 556 which contains two 555
timers is available in 14 pin DIP.
Features: (i) The timer can be used with supply voltage in the range of + 5V to +18V and can drive a
load up to 200 mA and is compatible to both TTL and CMOS logic circuits. (ii) It has a high temperature
stability (0o C to 70o C) and operates in two modes as Monostable multivibrator and Astable
multivibrator.(iii) Has an adjustable duty cycle, timing is from micro seconds through hours.
Applications: The timer can provide time delays ranging few micro seconds to hours. The various
applications of timer includes oscillator, pulse generator, ramp, square wave and triangular wave

IC 555 Timer Pins description:

Pin 1: Ground : All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.
Pin 2: Trigger: This is the inverting terminal of the lower comparator, when the signal level at the trigger
VCC
terminal goes below the reference level of the comparator( ), the comparator output goes high and resets the
3
flip-flop. Hence the output of the timer is low.
̅ of the flip-flop
Pin 3: Output: The output terminal is connected to 𝑄
through an output stage which has a power amplifier and an inverter.
̅ = 0, the out will be high and 𝑄̅= 1, the output will be
Hence when 𝑄
low.
Pin 4: Reset The reset input provides a mechanism to reset the flip-flop
overriding the inputs. When not used, it is connected to Vcc to avoid false triggering.
Pin 5 : Control Voltage: Control voltage can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to
(2/3 )Vcc. By applying a voltage on this pin, the pulse width (duty cycle) of the output waveform can be varied
(pulse width modulation).
Pin 6 : Threshold: This is the non-inv input terminal of the comparator 1, by applying signal more than the
2
reference level of this comparator( ) VCC , the flip-flop can be set, hence the output of the timer goes high.
3

Pin 7 : Discharge This pin is connected to the collector terminal of the NPN transistor. This pin provides a path
for charging and discharging for the external capacitor connected across it.
Pin 8 : Supply + VCC : The 555 timer can work with any dc supply voltage in between + 4.5 V to + 15 V.

Functional Diagram and Description

The 555 Timer consists of a potential divider network of three 5 k resistors, which provides a reference
2 1
voltage levels of ( ) VCC and ( ) VCC to upper and lower comparators respectively and the output of these
3 3
comparators will set or reset the SR flip-flop.

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In the standby (stable) state, the output of

the flip flop Q is high; hence the output at
pin 3 is low. A negative going trigger
pulse is applied to pin 2 and should have
1
its dc level greater than (3) (the
𝑉𝐶
𝐶

threshold level of lower comparator). At

the negative edge of the trigger pulse, as
the trigger passes through (1/3)VCC, the
output of the lower comparator goes high
and will set the flip flop, hence 𝑄̅=1 and
Q = 0. Hence output is high
Similarly during positive excursion, when
the threshold voltage at pin 6
2
exceeds( ) VCC , the output of the upper
3

comparator becomes high and it resets the

flip-flop. (Q = 1 & Q̅= 0) .Output goes to low.
The reset input (pin4) provides a mechanism to reset the flip-flop over-riding the inputs. When not used, it is
connected to Vcc. The transistor acts as a discharge transistor. When the output is high, Transistor is OFF
making the discharge terminal (pin7) open. When the output is low, Q1 is forward biased to ON condition. Then
the Discharge terminal appears as a short circuit to ground.
555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator
A Multivibrator is a two-state circuit that has
zero, one, or two stable output states.
A Monostable multivibrator has only one stable
state. When trigger is applied, it produces a pulse
at the output and returns back to its stable state.
The duration of the pulse depends on the values of
R and C.
Operation
Initially the output is low, hence the flip-flop
output Q is high; this drives the transistor into
saturation. The capacitor discharges completely
and voltage across it is nearly zero. When a

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negative going trigger pulse is applied as input at

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pin 2 and when the trigger input falls to slightly less than (1/3) VCC, the lower comparator resets the flip-flop (Q
̅ = 1). Since Q has changed to low, the transistor goes into cutoff, allowing the capacitor to charge.
=0&Q
Hence capacitor starts charging through resistance R. The voltage across capacitor increases exponentially. The
charging time depends upon the externally connected Resistor R and Capacitor C. When the capacitor voltage
2
VC ≥ ( ) VCC ; then comparator 1 output goes high. This makes the flip-flop output
3

(Q = 1 & Q̅ = 0) and hence the out changes to low. The transistor is driven into saturation and hence capacitor
voltage instantaneously discharges to zero (discharges through transistor).

Expression for Pulse Width:

The voltage across the capacitor is given by VC = VCC (1 − e−t/RC )

2
At t = TON, VC = ( ) VCC
3
2 −T/RC
( ) VCC = Vcc(1 − e ) or TON = – RC ln (1/3) = 1.1 RC sec
3
Hence the timing interval is independent of the supply voltage.

Problem: Design a Monostable multivibrator using 555 timer to obtain a pulse width of 10 msec.
T 10×10−3
Solution: T = T = 1.1 RC  RC = = = 9.09 msec
ON 1.1 1.1
9.09×10−3
Let C = 1µF, then R= = 9.09 k
1×10−3

555 Timer as Astable Multivibrator

An Astable multivibrator is also called as free running multivibrator, which does not have any stable states, is a
rectangular wave generating circuit. This circuit does not require any external trigger to change the state of the
output. Hence it is called as free running multivibrator.
Working: When the power supply is VCC is connected to the circuit, the external timing capacitor C charges
towards VCC with a time constant (R1 +R2)C. During this time, output (pin 3) is held high (equal to V CC) as the
flip-flop is reset due to which Q = 0. When the capacitor voltage is greater than or equal to (2/3) VCC, the upper

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̅ = 0. The timer output at pin

comparator output becomes high, which makes the flip-flop output Q=1, hence Q
3 goes to low and the transistor Q turns on. Now the capacitor C starts discharging towards ground potential
through the resistor R2 and transistor with a time constant R2C. Once the capacitor voltage reaches (1/3) VCC,
̅ = 1, the transistor turns-off, making
the lower comparator triggers making the flip-flop output Q = 0 and Q
the output at pin 3 high. Now the capacitor starts charging towards VCC and the process repeats.

Calculations:
The voltage across the capacitor subjected to step input Vcc is given by Vc = Vcc(1 − e−t/RC )
The time T taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to (2/3) Vcc is given by 2 = V (1 − e−T1/RC )
1 ( ) VCC CC
3

T1 = – RC ln (1/3) = 1.1 RC sec

The time T taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to (1/3)Vcc is given by 1 =V (1 − e−T2/RC )
2 ( ) VCC CC
3

T2 = – RC ln (2/3) = 0.405RC sec

Hence the time taken by the capacitor to charge from (1/3) Vcc to (2/3) Vcc is given by
TC = TON = T1 – T2 = (1.09 – 0.405)RC = 0.69 RC
During charging both R1 and R2 are used, hence TON = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C
The output is low while the capacitor discharges, the time taken by the capacitor to discharge from (2/3) Vcc
to (1/3) Vcc is given by
1 2 /RC
( ) VCC = ( ) VCC (1 − e −TOFF )  TOFF = – RC ln (1/2) = 0.693RC
3 3

Only R2 is used while discharging, hence TOFF = 0.693R2 C

The total time T = TON + TOFF = 0.693 (R1 + 2R2) C seconds

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1 1 1.45
The frequency f = = = Hz
T 0.693(R 1 +2R2)C (R1 +2R2)C

Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of On time (TC) to the total time T
Ton Ton R1 +R 2
%D = T
= Ton +Tlo ff
=
R1 +2R2

A 555 timer Astable multivibrator has R1 = 2.2K , R2 = 6.8 K and C=0.01µF. Calculate Thigh, Tlow, free
running frequency and Duty cycle. Draw the circuit.

Solution: Thigh = 0.69(RA + RB) C = 0.69(2200+6800)× 0.01×10-6 = 0.062 m sec

Tlow = 0.69 RB C = 0.69(6800)× 0.01×10-6 = 0.047 m sec
T= Thigh + Tlow = 0.109 m sec
T Thigh 0.062
Free running frequency f = 1/T = 9.14 kHz and %D = high = = = 56%
T Thigh +Tlow 0.109

Design a square wave form generator of frequency 100 Hz and duty cycle 75%.
1
Solution: T = = 1 = 10 m sec
f 100 D 0.75
D=
Thigh  𝐓 = DT = = = 7.5 msec
T 𝐡𝐢𝐠𝐡 f 100
Tlow = T – Thigh 10 – 7.5 = 2.5 msec
Also T = 0.69 R C let C = 1 µF, then R Tlow 2.5×10−3 = 3.62 k
low 2 B = =
0.69 C 0.69 ×1×10−6

7. Design a square wave generator of frequency 1 kHz with D = 0.25

1
Solution: T = 1 = = 1 m sec = 0.69(RA +2 RB) C
f
R +R 1000
D = 0.25 = A B or ( R + 2R ) = 4 (R + R ) or R = 3 R
A B A B B A
RA +2RB
Let C = 0.1µF, then T = 0.001 = 0.69(RA +3 RA)×0.1×10-6  RA = 3.623 k and RB  12 k


Review Questions
1. Draw and explain the functional diagram of 555 timer.
2. Explain with a neat diagrams and waveforms the 555 timer as Monostable multivibrator.
3. Draw the internal schematic of IC 555 timer and configure it for Monostable operation and explain its
working with necessary equations.
4. Explain the working of a Monostable multivibrator using 555 timer with a neat functional diagram and
wave forms. Derive the equation for its pulse width.
5. Explain with a neat diagrams and waveforms the 555 timer as Astable multivibrator.
6. Draw the internal diagram of IC 555, configure it for Astable operation and explain with necessary
equations and waveforms.

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