Foundations of Physics in Medical Physics

Dr. Ankit

Theoretical Astrophysicist and Cosmologist

MECHANICS OF THE BODY

• Muscle and Bone Mechanics: Physics explains how

muscles generate force, how bones bear weight, and
how joints work as levers. Concepts like force, torque,
and elasticity are essential in studying biomechanics.
• Blood Flow and Circulation: The circulatory system
relies on principles of fluid dynamics to explain blood
flow, pressure, and resistance within blood vessels,
which is critical for maintaining blood circulation and
understanding conditions like hypertension.

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ELECTRICITY AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Neuron Function: Neurons transmit signals

via electrical impulses. Physics explains the
electric fields, ion channels, and action
potentials that enable neurons to send
information throughout the nervous system
• Heart Rhythm: The heart’s rhythmic
contraction is regulated by electric signals, and
concepts of electromagnetism are applied in
technologies like ECG to monitor heart health.

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ENERGY AND METABOLISM

• Thermodynamics: The body’s metabolic

processes obey thermodynamic principles, such
as energy conservation and entropy. Physics
helps us understand how energy from food is
converted into the energy that powers cellular
activities.
• Heat Regulation: The body maintains a
stable internal temperature through principles
of heat transfer (conduction, convection, and
radiation) which is vital for enzymatic and
metabolic functions.

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OPTICS AND VISION

• Eye Function: Vision relies on optics to focus

light on the retina. Physics principles explain
how the eye’s lens refracts light and how
corrective lenses compensate for refractive
errors like myopia and hyperopia.
• Imaging Techniques: Technologies like MRIs,
CT scans, and X-rays rely on principles of
physics to create detailed images of the body,
aiding diagnosis and treatment

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SOUND AND HEARING

• Hearing Mechanics: The ear converts sound waves into neural signals. Physics
helps explain how sound waves travel, how the ear amplifies sound, and how
frequencies are interpreted, which is crucial in audiology and hearing aids.

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RADIATION AND MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

• Diagnostic and Therapeutic

Techniques: Radiation physics
underpins the use of X-rays, MRIs, and
PET scans for diagnosis. Radiation
therapy for cancer treatments uses
knowledge of ionizing radiation to
target and kill cancer cells.
• Ultrasound: Ultrasound imaging
uses high-frequency sound waves to
visualize soft tissues, essential in
obstetrics and cardiology.

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FORCE

• In physics, force is an influence that

can cause an object with mass to
change its velocity (i.e., accelerate)
• It is a vector quantity, meaning it has
both magnitude and direction.
• Force can act through contact (e.g.,
pushing a door) or at a distance (e.g.,
gravitational attraction between Earth
and the Moon)
• Unit of Force : N = kg m/s2

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Resolution of Forces:

• Resolution of forces refers to breaking

down a force into its components
along different directions, usually
along the axes of a coordinate system.
• This is useful in analyzing the effect of
a force in various directions, often the
horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis)
directions.

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Newton’s First Law of Motion

• Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia): An object at rest will remain
at rest, and an object in motion will continue to move in a straight line at
constant speed unless acted upon by an external force.
• Implication: This law defines inertia, the tendency of an object to resist changes
in its state of motion

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Newton’s Second Law of Motion

• Newton’s Second Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration): The acceleration of

an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass. Mathematically, this is written as:

F=m×a

• Implication: This law allows us to calculate how a force will affect the motion of
an object, with more force resulting in greater acceleration if the mass is constant.

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Newton’s third Law of Motion

• Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Action and Reaction): For every action,
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Implication: This law explains that forces always occur in pairs. For instance, if
you push against a wall, the wall pushes back with an equal force in the opposite
direction.

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Types of motion

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Work (Constant force, Constant direction)

• In physics, work is a measure of

energy transfer that occurs when a
force is applied to an object, causing it
to move. For work to be done, the
force must have a component in the
direction of the object’s displacement.
W =F ·d = Fd cos θ
Work is a scalar quantity: It has
magnitude but no direction.
Positive Work: (θ < 90◦ )
Negative Work: (θ > 90◦ )

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Torque

Torque is a measure of the rotational effect

of a force applied to an object about a
pivot or axis. It is the rotational analog of
force and depends on three factors:
• The magnitude of the force (F )
• The distance from the axis of rotation
to the point where the force is applied
(r ), called the lever arm.
• The angle (θ) between the force
vector and the lever arm.
• τ = r F sin θ

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Friction

Friction is a force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of such motion
of two surfaces in contact. It acts parallel to the surfaces and plays a crucial
role in everyday life, influencing how objects move and interact.

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Types of Friction

1. Static Friction:
• This frictional force prevents two surfaces from sliding past each other.
• It acts when there is no relative motion between the surfaces.
• The force increases with the applied force until it reaches a maximum value, beyond
which motion begins. This maximum value is known as the limiting friction.

Flimiting = µs N
µs Coefficient of static friction (dimensionless), which depends on the materials of
the surfaces in contact

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2. Kinetic (or Sliding) Friction:
• This force acts on moving objects.
• It opposes the motion of one surface sliding over another.
• Kinetic friction is usually less than static friction.

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3. Rolling Friction:
• This occurs when an object rolls over a surface.
• It is significantly smaller than both static and kinetic friction.

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4. Fluid Friction:
• This is the resistance experienced by objects moving through fluids (liquids or gases).
• It depends on the object’s shape, speed, and the fluid’s viscosity.

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Causes of Friction

Friction arises due to:

• Surface Roughness: Even smooth surfaces have microscopic irregularities that
interlock, creating resistance.
• Intermolecular Forces: When surfaces come in contact, molecular attractions
between the materials contribute to friction

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Guess the image?

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Laws of Friction

1. Friction is independent of the area of contact: For a given normal force,

friction does not depend on the contact area but on the nature of the surfaces.
2. Friction is proportional to the normal force: The frictional force F is given by:

F = µN

Where

• µ is the coefficient of friction (a dimensionless constant depending on the

materials).
• N is the normal force acting perpendicular to the surface.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

• Advantages:
• Enables walking and driving by providing grip.
• Helps in braking and stopping vehicles.
• Allows for holding objects securely.

• Disadvantages::
• Causes wear and tear of machinery.
• Generates heat, leading to energy loss.
• Reduces efficiency in mechanical systems.

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Methods to Reduce Friction

• Lubrication: Using oils or greases to smooth surfaces.

• Polishing: Reducing surface roughness.
• Using Ball Bearings: Reducing sliding friction by converting it to rolling friction.
• Streamlining: Reducing fluid friction by designing aerodynamic shapes.

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SIMPLE MACHINES

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What is a Mechanism?

A mechanism is a system of interconnected parts or components designed to transmit

or transform motion and force from one form to another in a controlled manner. It is
the functional arrangement of simple or complex machine elements, enabling them to
perform specific tasks or operations.

• Key Features of a Mechanism:

• Purpose: A mechanism is created to achieve a specific objective, such as motion
conversion or force amplification.
• Components: Includes elements like levers, gears, cams, pulleys, and linkages
• Motion Transmission: Converts input motion (e.g., rotary, linear) into desired output
motion.
• Force Modification: Changes the magnitude or direction of an applied force.

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Simple Machines:

Simple machines are basic mechanical devices that change the direction or
magnitude of a force, making tasks easier to perform.
1. Reduce Effort: They allow a smaller
force to move a larger load.
2. Change Direction: They can alter the
direction of the applied force (e.g.,
pulling down to lift up).
3. Increase Speed: Some machines
increase the speed of a motion.
4. Transfer Force: They transmit force
from one location to another.
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What is Mechanical Advantage?
Definition: Mechanical Advantage (MA)
is the ratio of the output force (load) to
the input force (effort) in a simple
machine. It is expressed as:

Load (Output Force)

MA =
Effort (Input Force)

• If MA > 1: The machine reduces the

effort required.
• If MA < 1: The machine increases
speed or changes direction but
requires greater effort.
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Velocity Ratio: A Measure of Motion Efficiency

Definition: Velocity Ratio (VR) is the

ratio of the distance moved by the effort to
the distance moved by the load. It is
expressed as:

Distance moved by Effort(D)

VR =
Distance moved by Load(d)

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Relationship Between MA and VR

The efficiency (η) of a simple machine is given by:

work done at output Ld MA

η= = = × 100%
work done at input ED VR

• The efficiency of a machine η can be increased or decreased based on several

factors.
1. The direction of the force may be altered
2. The magnitude of the force may be altered
3. The speed of the movement may be altered

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The Lever:

A lever is a simple machine that consists of a rigid bar that pivots about a fixed point
called the fulcrum. It is used to transmit and amplify force, making it easier to
perform tasks such as lifting, prying, or cutting.

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Force Lever and Speed Lever:

• A force lever is a type of lever designed to maximize force output. In this case,
the effort arm is longer than the load arm, allowing a smaller effort to move a
larger load.
• In force levers, VR > 1.
• A speed lever is designed to maximize speed or distance moved by the load, with
a trade-off in the force exerted. The load arm is longer than the effort arm,
requiring more effort to move the load quickly over a greater distance.
• In speed levers, VR < 1.

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First-Class Lever:

A first-class lever is a type of lever where the fulcrum (pivot point) is located between
the effort (force applied) and the load (resistance). It is commonly used to either
amplify force or change the direction of force.

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 • Mechanical Advantage: If the effort arm is longer than the load arm, it acts as a
force lever (VR>1). If the load arm is longer than the effort arm, it acts as a
speed lever (VR<1).

Examples: Seesaw ,Crowbar, Scissors (when cutting near the hinge), Pliers

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Pulleys :

• A pulley is a simple machine consisting of a wheel with a groove along its edge,
through which a rope, cable, or belt runs.
• It is used to change the direction of force or gain a mechanical advantage in lifting
heavy loads.

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Types of Pulleys:

1. A single Fixed Pulley:

• The wheel is fixed to a support and

does not move.
• Changes the direction of the applied
force but does not provide mechanical
advantage.
• Mechanical Advantage (MA): 1
• Velocity Ratio (VR): 1
• MA = VR

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Types of Pulleys:

2. A Single movable pulley :

• The wheel is attached to the load and

moves with it.
• Reduces the effort needed to lift the
load.
• Mechanical Advantage (MA): 2 (for a
single movable pulley)
• Velocity Ratio (VR): 2

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Types of Pulleys:

3. Compound Pulley (Block and Tackle):

• A combination of fixed and movable

pulleys.
• Provides significant mechanical
advantage by distributing the load
across multiple pulleys.
• Mechanical Advantage (MA):
Equal to the number of rope segments
supporting the load.
• Velocity Ratio (VR): Equal to the
number of rope segments.
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In a compound pulley system (block and tackle), the lower block moves with the load,
and each pulley in this block effectively doubles the force applied because the load is
shared by multiple rope segments
• MA = 2× (Number of Pulleys in the
lower Block)
• VR = Number of rope segments
supporting the load or
• VA = 2× (Number of Pulleys in the
lower Block)

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Wheel and Axle :

• Effort arm = radius of the bigger

wheel (R)
• Load arm = radius of the smaller
wheel (r)
• Load ×r = Effort ×R
• MA = L
E = R
r
• Distance moved by the effort = 2πR
• Distance moved by the Load = 2πr
• VR = Displacement ratio = 2πR
2πr = R
r

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Principle of Work

The principle of work states that in any ideal machine (without friction or energy
losses), the work input equals the work output. This principle provides the
fundamental relationship between the MA and VR.

• Work Input and Work Output:

• Winput = Effort × Distance moved by Effort

• Woutput = Load × Distance moved by Load
Displacement of Effort
• ∴ MA = VR ( general case), i.e. = L
E = Displacement of Load
• work spent of a machine = work gained from it

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FLUID MECHANICS

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Properties of Fluids

Property Symbol Description

Density ρ Mass per unit volume of a fluid (kg/m3 )
Viscosity µ, η Resistance of a fluid to flow (Pa · s)
Surface Tension γ Force acting along the surface of a fluid (N/m)
Compressibility k Ability of a fluid to decrease in volume under pressure (Pa−1 )
Specific Heat Capacity c Heat required to raise temperature per unit mass (J/(kg · K))
Pressure P Force exerted per unit area (Pa)
Temperature T Measure of the thermal energy of a fluid (K)
Thermal Conductivity kt Ability of a fluid to conduct heat (W/(m · K))

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Viscosity

Definition: Viscosity is the measure of a

fluid’s internal resistance to deformation or
flow under an applied force.
• The internal resistance tries to destroy
the motion of the liquid.

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Co-efficient of Viscosity (η)

• Two separated (dx) layers moving

with relative velocity (dv ),
• dv
dx : the velocity gradient
• According to Newton, the tangential
viscous force (F) acting on a layer, is
proportional to its area (A) and • η : The tangential force per unit area
velocity gradient ( dv
dx ). of a layer, required to maintain unit
• F ∝ −A dv
dx F = - A η dv
dx
velocity gradient normal to the
direction of the flow.

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Temperature effect on Viscosity

• For Liquids:
• Viscosity decreases with increasing temperature.

• For Gases:
• Viscosity increases with increasing temperature.

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Streamline Flow (Laminar Flow)

• Definition: In streamline or laminar

flow, fluid particles move in smooth,
parallel layers without crossing paths.
• Characteristics:
1. The flow is orderly and predictable.
2. Fluid velocity at any point remains
constant over time.
3. Layers of fluid slide over one another
without mixing.

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Turbulent Flow

• Definition: In turbulent flow, fluid particles move chaotically, creating eddies and
vortices, leading to mixing between layers.
• Characteristics:
1. The flow is irregular and unpredictable.
2. Velocity and pressure vary randomly with time and space.
3. Energy dissipation is higher due to friction and mixing.

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Differences Between Streamline and Turbulent Flow

Property Streamline Flow Turbulent Flow

Nature of Flow Smooth and regular Chaotic and irregular
Energy Loss Low High
Mixing of Layers None Significant
Velocity Profile Parabolic Flattened
Predictability High Low

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Surface Tension

• Surface tension is a physical property of liquids that arises due to cohesive forces
between liquid molecules.
• It is defined as the force acting per unit length along the surface of a liquid at
rest, which acts to minimize the surface area of the liquid.

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Cause of Surface Tension

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Excess pressure in spherical liquified drop

• A soap bubble consists of two

spherical surface films very close
together with liquid between.

• T : surface tension of soap water.

• Work done : R to R + dR

• Pi and Po be the pressure inside and • With excess pressure (Pi − Po ) inside the
bubble exerts the force on its 4πR 2 area.
outside of the bubble respectively.
• Under this force (F) (Pi − Po )4πR 2 the
• Since, the surface of the bubble is
displacement of the film is dR only.
curved outside Pi > Po

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• The work performed (W) = force × displacement
• W = (Pi − Po )4πR 2 dR
• If we consider the size(S) of the bubble S = 4πR 2 .
• So the increment in the surface for the radius R to (R + dR) is,

dS = 4π(R + dR)2 − 4πR 2

= 4π(R 2 + 2RdR + dR 2 ) − 4πR 2
2
=
4πR + 8πRdR + 4πdR 2 − 
4πR 2
X 
X
X X
X X 

dS = 8πRdR

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• For soap bubble, there are two free surfaces, therefore the increase in the area of
the surface, dS = 16πRdR
• W = TdR = 16πRdR

16πRdR = (Pi − Po )4πR 2 dR

4T
(Pi − Po ) =
R

• In case of the liquid drop or the air bubble in side the water, the free surface is
only one.

2T
(Pi − Po ) =
R

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Questions?

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