CSE30337 Water and Waste Management

Lecture 8 – Disinfection

Instructor: Jinxia Liu

Email: [Link]@[Link]
Outline
• The historical significance of chlorination in reducing infectious diseases
worldwide.
• The distinction between disinfection and sterilization.
• The major methods used for disinfecting drinking water.
• The primary chemical oxidants used for drinking water disinfection.
• The reasons UV light is effective for disinfecting drinking water.
• The fundamentals of disinfection kinetics and their applications.
• The efficiency of different disinfection agents against various pathogens.
• The basic principles and technologies of water treatment in Hong Kong.
 History of Water and Infectious Disease
John Snow’s map of the London 1854
cholera outbreak
First Time Contaminated Water is Connected to Infectious
Disease
Broad Street water pump identified as the source of
cholera

1870-1920
Filtration and chlorination of municipal water supplies have become
common across Europe and North America

1900-1920
Instances of cholera and typhoid dropped by a two-thirds

Today
Centralized water treatment is considered to be one of the most
important inventions of the modern world
Center for Disease Control. July 30, 1999 / 48(29);621-629
 Death Due to Infectious Diseases
• Medical improvements
Medical sanitation and disinfection (end of 1800’s); Use of antibiotics (1945)
• Improvements due to sanitation managed by environmental engineers
Drinking water filtration (1906); Drinking water chlorination (1913)
• General improvements in public health

Death Due to Infectious Diseases in USA Incidence of Typhoid in Philadelphia

1000
Spanish

Mortality per 100,000

10,000
Mortality per 100,000

80 Filtration, 1906
Flu

Number of typhoid cases

800 60
40

600 20
0 Chlorination, 1913
1970 1980 1990 1000
400

200

0 100
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945

Figure 32.1 Year Year Figure 28.7

(in Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 13th edition) (in Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 14th edition)
 Infectious Diseases are Caused by Pathogens
• Host: organism infected by a pathogen
• Pathogen: organism causing a disease (i.e., infect a host).
• They need to recognize the proper “environment” to cause a disease
• They are usually specific to a single species and organs/tissue
• Obligate Pathogen: absolutely need to infect a host to reproduce (e.g., viruses, some eukaryotic
or bacterial parasites)
• Cannot grow in the environment
• Also called parasites
• Opportunistic Pathogen: pathogen grows normally outside a host’s tissues, but will cause a
disease if given the opportunity
• Opportunity can come from a weakened defense of the host such as open skin wounds
 Fecal-oral route for transmission of enteric bacteria or virus
• Human/animal excreta
contaminate oceans, rivers, lakes,
and groundwater through land
runoff and sewage.
• Contaminated water affects
shellfish, recreation water, and
direct water supply.
• Improperly treated irrigation water
contaminates crops and aerosols.
• Solid waste from excreta pollutes
groundwater, leading to unsafe
water supplies.
• Lack of proper sanitation and
clean water barriers spreads
enteric viruses to new hosts.

DOI: 10.1029/2018GH000180
 Sources of Waterborne Infection
• Potable water used for drinking and cooking:
~25 cases in USA/year
• Improperly treated or of low quality
• Nonregulated sources (e.g., private wells)
• Re-contaminated water: heating and
cooling systems, premise piping

• Recreational water from public ponds, lakes,

swimming pools, etc.: ~20 cases in USA/year

Cryptosporidium & Giardia

(in Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 14th edition)

What is the difference between disinfection and sterilization?

• Disinfection (Drinking Water):

• Reduces pathogens to safe levels (per health
standards).
• Targets bacteria, viruses, protozoa (e.g., E.
coli, norovirus).
• Uses chlorine, UV light, ozone, or filtration.
• Leaves harmless microbes; does not kill all
organisms.

• Sterilization (Not Used in Drinking Water):

• Aims to kill 100% of microbes, including
harmless ones and spores.
• Impractical for large-scale water systems
(cost, overkill).
• Reserved for lab/medical settings (e.g.,
autoclaving equipment).
 Disinfection of Drinking Water
• Disinfection: Process of inactivation (killing) of pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria,
protozoan cysts, viruses)

• Characteristics of an ideal disinfectant:

• Effective for inactivating or removing of pathogens
• Nontoxic (humans, animals, & the environment)
• Easy and safe to store, transport and dispense
• Low cost
• Easy to measure the dose and residual in water
• Provides residual disinfection throughout the distribution system
 Disinfection of Drinking Water
• Disinfection: Process of inactivation (killing) of pathogenic microorganisms
(bacteria, protozoan cysts, viruses)
• Major approaches:
• Addition of oxidative agents (free chlorine [HOCl], chloramine [NH2Cl], chlorine
dioxide [ClO2], ozone [O3])
• Attacks chemical surface of cells, some attack of cell insides (cytoplasmic
content).
STOPS METABOLISM.
• Treatment with high energy radiations (mainly UV light, sometimes radioactive
radiations)
• Attacks DNA
STOPS CAPACITY TO REPRODUCE.
 Primary and Secondary Disinfection
• Primary Disinfection: • Secondary Disinfection (Residual): disinfection
disinfection applied in a water applied to water leaving the treatment plant or in
treatment plant to inactivate the distribution system to protect against
microorganisms intrusion in the distribution system and suppress
biofilm formation in pipes

Chlorine contact tank (clear well) Chlorination booster station

 Disinfection Kinetics
• Chick-Watson Kinetics: Rate of number of microorganisms killed is
proportional to number of microorganisms.
• Batch Mass Balance – pseudo first order kinetics
N = number of microorganisms
= × = exp ×
K = first order rate constant
tc = contact time (min)

• Concentration of the disinfectant affects the magnitude of K (= k Cn)

• The Ct (= C x t) approach – “dose of the disinfectant”, “contact time”
• C – concentration of the disinfectant, mg/L
• t – the time required to achieve a level of inactivation
 Disinfection Kinetics
• UV: Exposure = Dose, Energy = Intensity (power) × time (tc)

= :

dN
k Intensity N N tc
dt ln
N0

N tc
exp k Intensity tc
N0
Slope = -k
exp k Dose
Dose I tc
N = number of microorganisms n = empirical factor (1 for ideal disinfection)
k = specific disinfection rate constant tc = contact time (min)
Intensity mW/cm2 Dose, Energy mJ/cm2
 Example of disinfection kinetics
The table presents the inactivation of poliovirus type I, using the disinfectant bromine.
Determine the Chick’s law rate constant for each of the two disinfectant concentrations

Solution:
Plot log(N/N0) as a function of t
 Log-Removal Concept: Describe in Log10 instead of Ln
• Microbes are present in very high cell numbers: 10x/100 mL
• Water treatment and disinfection require the cell removals by several orders of
magnitude (several 10x)
• 10(Nt/N0)
• Log-removals with successive processes are additive
Influent Water to Treat

Turbidity treatment: 90% bacterial removal

Disinfection: 99% bacterial removal

Overall bacterial removal: 99.9%

 Log-Removal Concept: Describe in Log10 instead of Ln
• Ln (natural logarithm) used for kinetics
• Log (base 10) used for standards/regulations

• Log-removal credit: The number of credits assigned to a specific treatment process (e.g.,
chlorine disinfection, UV oxidation, etc.), expressed in log units, for the inactivation of a
given pathogen

• Log-Removal: a base-10 logarithmic scale used to describe the level of pathogen reduction
achieved by a treatment process
• e.g., “2-
N/N0 = 1/100 = 1/(102
• Log-removal = number of 9’s in percentage (99.9% = 3-log removal)
• Log credits are additive
 Log-Removals: Examples

N Percentage Log10[N(t)/N Log-

Time N(t)/N0 Removal
(#/100 mL) 0] removal
(1 - N(t)/N0)*100%

0 103 = 1000 1 0% 0 None

1 102 = 100 0.1 90% -1 1

2 101 = 10 0.01 99% -2 2

3 100.3 = 2 0.002 99.8% -2.7 2.7

 Disinfection Agents
Chlorine Disinfection
Bleach!
• Addition of Cl2 gas, NaOCl, or Ca(OCl)2
• All these compounds form hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which can dissociate to
form hypochlorite ion (OCl-)

Cl 2(g) H 2 O HOCl (aq) H (aq) Cl (aq)

pKa 7.54
HOCl H OCl

• Measured as Free Chlorine (i.e., Ct,OCl)

Free available chlorine HOCl OCl Ct ,OCl
 Disinfection Agents
Chlorine Disinfection
pKa 7.54
HOCl H OCl

• HOCl is around ~80X more effective disinfecting agent compared to OCl-

• Effectiveness of chlorine disinfection is pH dependent (pKa = 7.54)
• Chlorine residual: protects water in distribution system after leaving the
treatment plant (secondary disinfection)
 Disinfection Agents
Chlorine Disinfection
• Disadvantages of free chlorine (HOCl) disinfection
• Chlorine taste and odour are generated
• Formation of carcinogenic halogenated organic disinfection by-products (DBP)

Organic Matter HOCl Organic Matter Cl

• Examples trihalomethanes (e.g. chloroform), haloacetic acid.

• Thus, may need alternatives to free chlorine (HOCl)

 Disinfection Agents
Alternative to Free Chlorine (HOCl)
Chloramines (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3)
• Formed when HOCl reacts with ammonia (NH3) which is naturally present in the source
water
• Speciation depending the molar ratio of Cl:NH3
HOCl NH 3 NH 2Cl H 2O (monochloramine) Increasing
HOCl NH 2Cl NHCl 2 H 2 O (dichloramine) Cl:NH3 ratio
HOCl NHCl 2 NCl3 H 2 O (trichloramine)

• Can also be manufactured and added directly as a disinfectant

• Efficiency: Less powerful disinfectant (takes higher c to kill)
• DBPs: same as HOCl but much less concentrations
• Taste and odours: Some chlorine taste and odors
• Residual: Lower decay rate (i.e, longer protection) => GOOD
 Disinfection Agents
Alternative to free chlorine (HOCl)

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)

• Efficiency: More powerful disinfectant than HOCl
• DBPs:
• Reduced formation of halogenated organic DBPs
• Formation of toxic chlorite and chlorate
• Taste and odour: Some chlorine taste and odours.
• Residual: possible residual, but often HOCl or chloramine are used for protection
in distribution
• Typically, more expensive than HOCl
 Disinfection Agents
Alternative to free chlorine (HOCl)
Ozone (O3) Gas
• Must be generated and used onsite
• Formed by flowing air (or oxygen)
between two electrodes
• Efficiency: most powerful chemical
disinfectant
• Kills rapidly
• Very effective against resistant
protozoa cysts and viruses
 Disinfection Agents
Alternative to free chlorine (HOCl)
Ozone (O3) Gas
• DBP: Reduced formation of halogenated
organics
If bromide (Br ) present:
• Formation of brominated organics
• Formation of toxic bromate
• Residual: no residual, HOCl or
chloramine are used for protection in
distribution
• More costly than HOCl
 Disinfection Agents
Alternative to free chlorine (HOCl)
Ultraviolet (UV) Light
• The high energy allows UV light to penetrate and interact with materials
• UV light can break chemical bonds, being effective for sterilization and disinfection

Higher Energy Photons

UV-C UV-B UV-A Visible

(200 280 nm) (280 320 nm) (320 390 nm) (390 780 nm)

Most common water

treatment lamps Sunlight: 280 – 700+ nm

Sunburns

95% output
at 254 nm Sun damage
 Disinfection Agents
Alternative to free chlorine (HOCl)
Ultraviolet (UV) Light
• UV lamps submerged in water
• Need good transmission
• Fouling of lamps
• Turbidity of water
• High maintenance
• Efficiency:
• Very good
• Better against protozoa cysts
• DBP: none
• Residual: none
 DNA Replication During Growth
Base-pairing rules (A with T, C with G)
• During bacterial DNA replication, A C T T G
complementary base pairing ensures precise
duplication of the genome

Bacterial T G A A C
Cell A C T T G
Growth
A C T T G
T G A A C

DNA
T G A A C
 Mechanisms of UV Disinfection
Enough Mutations Stops the Bacteria to Grow

UV reacts with adjacent T A C T=T G

forming Thymine dimers

T G ? ? C

A C T=T
T T G
G
DNA mutation prevents replication

A C T T G
T G A A C

T G A A C
Protozoa (Eukarya)
Chloramines HOCl ClO2 O3 UV
Bacteria

Virus

Efficiencies
of
Disinfection
Agents
Against
Various
Pathogens
 Protozoa (Eukarya) Efficiencies of Disinfection Agents
Against Various Pathogens
Bacteria
Thicker, more impermeable, less fragile cell limits
Virus

• Required [ c] or [ c] for the

removal of 99% cells
• Higher [ c] means higher Smaller
resistance to disinfection genomes
• Stronger (more reactive) oxidant
chemicals require lower [ c] for
same disinfection.
• For chemical oxidants, resistance
to disinfection: Protozoa >
Bacteria > Virus
Larger
• For UV, resistance to disinfection: genomes
Virus > Bacteria > Protozoa

Thinner, less impermeable, more fragile limits

Why Are Chemical Disinfectants Better Against Bacteria and
UV is Better Against Cysts?
Active Bacteria Giardia Cyst
Cyst Coat
20-100 nm ~300 nm
Peptidoglycan
6-8 nm
Cell membrane
Protein Chemical

Virus DNA
(104 nucl. pairs)
DNA DNA
UV DNA
(10 nucl. pairs)
7

• Cell wall is porous and relatively thinner

• Least UV-resistant due to large genome size and lack
• Protein on cell surface need to be intact for
of protective mechanisms.
bacteria to grow
• UV easily damages their DNA, requiring lower doses
• Some repair enzymes increase survival
Water treatment in Hong Kong

[Link]
 Water treatment in Hong Kong
How familiar are you with Hong Kong’s distinctive water infrastructure, its sustainability
initiatives, and the adaptive challenges it faces in providing residents with high-quality drinking
water?
• What is the primary source of freshwater for Hong Kong?
• Why does Hong Kong use seawater for toilet flushing?
• Hong Kong’s water treatment plants often use chloramination (chlorine + ammonia) instead
of free chlorine for disinfection. What are the benefits of using chloramination?
• Is drinking water in Hong Kong fluoridated?
• What are the key challenges Hong Kong faces in managing its water supply?
• How does Hong Kong’s “dual water supply” system work, and what are its environmental
benefits?
• Climate change may reduce rainfall in southern China. How could this impact Hong Kong’s
water security, and what strategies could mitigate these risks?
Questions?