Chapter Three

Course Design

Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………
3.1 Definition of a Course …………………………………………………………………..
3.2 Course Planning ………………………………………………………………………...
3.2.1 Describing the Course Rationale …………………………………………………….
3.2.2 Describing the Entry and Exit level …………………………………………………
3.3 Course Development …………………………………………………………………...
3.3.1 Developing Course Content ………………………………………………………….
3.3.2 Determining the Scope and Sequence ……………………………………………….
3.3.3 Developing the Course Structure ……………………………………………………
[Link] Developing a Syllabus Framework ………………………………………………..
[Link] Developing Instructional Blocks/ Sections ………………………………………..
3.4 Course Evaluation ……………………………………………………………………..
3.4.1 Forms of Course Evaluation ………………………………………………………...
3.4.2 Elements of Course Evaluation ……………………………………………………..
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….
Assignments ……………………………………………………………………………

Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

 Identify the key constituents of a language course;

 Develop an awareness of what makes a course in terms of phases: the
planning, development and evaluation phases; and
 Get insights into the processes involved in every stage (of the three) of
course design.

Introduction

Course planning is one of the required skills that a teacher needs to

develop and keep working on. It involves being able to imagine or anticipate
what is going to happen in the classroom, and thus make choices based on this
anticipated experience. The process of course design, in general, involves the
ability to zoom out, i.e. to see the bigger picture and figure out how a lesson of
an hour or two fits into a hundred-hour course. It equally involves the ability to
zoom in by working out the techniques and skills of how a fifteen-minute
activity will work best.

3.1 Definition of a Course

A course can be roughly defined as a set of classes or a plan of study on

a particular subject, usually leading to an exam or qualification at the end of it
(Cambridge dictionary). Richards (2001) states that course design is the process
and methodology of creating a quality learning environment and experiences for
students studying a specific subject matter (besides other subject matters
included in the curriculum). Course design involves structured development or
selection of instructional materials, including syllabus and textbook(s),
approaches, methods and techniques (such as activities), as well as considering
the time and space allocated to the teaching/learning of that particular course.
 Using research-based teaching/ learning frameworks, teachers can
develop courses aligned with student learning outcomes. It is key to determine
from the start the intended learning outcomes, contents and materials in general,
including syllabus design and textbook selection/use, instructional methodology
as well as assessment required to effectively teach a certain course.

3.2 Course Planning

A number of various steps or levels of planning are involved in course design

based on the goals and objectives that have been established for a language
programme/curriculum. The major two steps to consider when setting grounds
for a course are describing the course rationale and describing the entry and exit
level (Richards 2001).

3.2.1 Describing the Course Rationale

A starting point in course design is a description of the courserationale.

This is a brief written description of the reasons and nature of the course. The
course rationale seeks to answer the following questions:
- Who is this course for? (i.e. the audience)
- What is the course designed to achieve? (i.e. the objectives)
- What kind of teaching and learning will take place in the course?

The course rationale answers these questions by describing the beliefs, values
and goals/objectives that underlie the course. It is usually a two- or three
paragraph statement that has been developed by those involved in planning and
teaching a course and that serves to provide the justification for the type of
teaching and learning that will take place in the course. It provides a concise
statement of the course philosophy for anyone who may need such information,
including learners and teachers. Developing a rationale also helps provide focus
and direction to some of the deliberations involved in course planning. The
rationale, thus, serves the purposes of:
 Guiding the planning of the various components of the course;
 Emphasizing the kinds of teaching and learning the course should
exemplify; and
 Providing a check on the consistency of the various course components in
terms of the course values and goals.

The following is an example of a course rationale:

“This course is designed for working adults who wish to improve their
communication skills in English in order to improve their employmentprospects.
It teaches the basic communication skills needed to communicate in a variety of
different work settings. The course seeks to enable participants to recognize
their strengths and needs in language learning, and to give them the confidence
to use English more effectively to achieve their own goals. It also seeks to
develop the participants’ skills in independent learning outside the classroom.”

In order to develop a course rationale, the course planners need to give careful
consideration to the objectives of the course, the kind of teaching and learning
they want the course to exemplify, the roles of teachers and learners in the
course, and the beliefs and principles the course will reflect.

3.2.2 Describing the Entry and Exit level

In order to plan a language course, it is necessary to determine the level of

the learners at the start of the course and the level they are expected to reach at
the end of the course. Language programs and commercial materials typically
distinguish between elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels, but these
categories are very broad for the kind of detailed planning that course and
material development involves. For such purposes, more detailed descriptions
are needed of students’ proficiency levels before they start a course and targeted
proficiency levels at the end of it. Information may be available on students’
entry level from their results on specially-designed tests (such as
proficiencytests). Information from such tests enables the target level of the
course to be assessed and may require adjustment of the course objectives if
they appear to be aimed at a “very high” or “very low” level.

An approach that has been widely used in language course planning is to

identify different levels of performance or proficiency in the form of band levels
or points on a proficiency scale. These levels describe what a student is able to
do at different stages in a language course. An example of the use of proficiency
descriptions in large-scale course planning is the one used in the Australian
Migrant Education On-Arrival course, as illustrated in the following:
“In order to ensure that a language course is coherent, and systematically moves
learners along the path towards that level of proficiency they require, some
overall perspective of the development path is required. This resulted in the
development of the Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR).
The ASLPR defines levels of second language proficiency as nine (potentially
12) points along the path from zero to native-like proficiency. The definitions
provide detailed descriptions of language behavior in all four macro-skills, and
allow the course developer to perceive how a course at any level fits into the
overall pattern of proficiency development” (Ingram 1982, cited in Richards
2001).
3.3 Course Development

This stage is equally based on the goals and objectives set for a language
programme. There are four basic steps to be taken into a careful consideration
when developing a certain course, as highlighted by Richards (2001):
developing course content, determining the scope and sequence, developing the
course structure, and developing the scope and sequence plan.

3.3.1 Developing Course Content

The question of course content is a key issue in course design. Given that
a course has to be developed to address a specific set of needs and to attain a
given set of objectives, the question raised is “what will the content of the
course look like?” Decisions on course content reflect the planners’ assumptions
about the nature of language, language use, language learning, what the most
essential elements or units of language are, and how these can be organized as
an efficient basis for foreign language learning. For example, a writing course
could potentially be planned around any of the following types of content:
 Topics (e.g. writing about world issues, moral dilemmas, psychological
matters, etc)
 Sub-skills (e.g. developing thesis statements, topic sentences, supporting
ideas)
 Language use (e.g. accuracy of grammar, appropriacy of style)
 Processes (e.g. using prewriting or reviewing strategies/ steps)
 Texts (e.g. writing a business letter, a formal newspaper article)

Similarly, a speaking course could be organized around:

 Functions (expressing opinions, agreeing/ disagreeing, apologizing)
 Interaction skills (opening and closing conversations, turn taking)
 Topics (political, social, environmental or business topics)

The choice of a particular approach to content selection depends on subject-

matter knowledge, the learners’ proficiency levels, current views on second/
foreign language learning and teaching, conventional wisdom and convenience.
Information gathered through a needs analysis (as explained in the previous
stage of planning) contributes to the planning, then development of course
content, as do additional ideas from the following sources:
 Available literature on the topic, especially on the Internet (reliable data);
 Published materials on the topic;
 Review of similar courses offered elsewhere;
 Review of tests or exams in the area;
 Analysis of students’ problems;
 Consultation with teachers familiar with the topic; and
 Consultation with specialists in the area.

A list of possible topics, units, skills, and other units of course

organization is generated. A teacher may suggest an idea that can fit into the
course, and other teachers, on the same teaching team, add their ideas so that
such ideas are compared with other sources of information until final ideas about
the content of the course are agreed on. Throughout this process, the statements
of objectives are continually referred to, and both course content suggestions
and the objectives themselves are revised and fine-tuned as the course content is
being developed. For example, a group of teachers listed the following initial
ideas about what they would include in a course on listening and speaking skills
for a group of intermediate-level learners:
 Asking questions
 Opening and closing conversations
 Expressing opinions
 Correcting misunderstandings
 Describing experiences
 Social talk (or chit-chat)
 Telephone interactive skills
 Situation-specific language, such as at a restaurant/ bank/ airport, etc.
  Describing daily routines
 Using communication strategies

These listed topics, then, have to be carefully reviewed and refined, and the
questions asked about them may include the following:
 Are all the suggested topics necessary?
 Have any important topics been omitted?
 Is there sufficient time to cover them?
 Has sufficient priority been given to the most important areas?
 Has enough emphasis been put on the different aspects of the areas
identified?
 Will the areas covered enable students to attain the learning outcomes?

Developing ideas for course content often takes place simultaneously with
syllabus planning, because the content of a course will often depend on the type
of syllabus framework that will be used as the basis for the course (“Types of
Syllabus” will be discussed in more details in the next chapter: “Syllabus
Design”).

3.3.2 Determining the Scope and Sequence

Decisions on course content need to address the distribution of content

throughout the course. This involves determining the scope and sequence of the
course. Scopeis concerned with the breadth and depth of coverage of items in
the course. Two questions could be helpful:
 What range of content will be covered?
 To what extent should each topic be studied?
For example, in relation to the course on listening and speaking skills referred to
previously, one area of potential content identified was “Describing
experiences.” The questions raised are: How much will be included in relation to
this topic? and Should two, four, or sessions be devoted to it?
The sequencingof content in the course also needs to be determined. This
involves deciding which content is needed early in the course, and which
provides a basis for things that will be learned later. Sequencing of content may
be based on the following criteria.

 Simple to Complex:
One of the commonest ways of sequencing material is by difficulty level.
Content presented at earlier stages is expected to be simpler than later items.
This is typically the case in language-based courses such as grammar content,
but any type of course content can be graded in terms of difficulty. For example,
in a reading course, reading texts may be simplified at the beginning of the
course and unsimplified at later levels. Alternatively, simple skills such as
“literal comprehension” may be required early on, and more complex skills such
as “inferencing” may be taught at a later stage in the course.

 Chronology:
Content may be sequenced according to the order in which events occur in the
real world. For example, in a writing course, the organization might be based on
the sequence writers are assumed to employ when composing: (1)
brainstorming; (2) drafting; (3) revising; (4) editing. In a proficiency course,
skills might be sequenced according to the sequence in which they are normally
acquired: (1) listening; (2) speaking; (3) reading; (4) writing.

 Need:
 Content may be sequenced according to when learners are most likely to need
it outside the classroom. For example, the reason for the sequencing of content
in a social skills-based course is given as follows: “The topics and cross-topics
in the curriculum are sequenced “in order of importance to students’ lives, ease
of contextualization and their relationship to other topics and cross-topics.” The
sequence is:
 Pre-requisite Learning:

The sequence of content may reflect what is necessary at one point as

afoundation for the next step in the learning process. For example, a certain set
of grammar aspects (such as tenses, prepositions and the passive) may be taught
as a pre-requisite to paragraph writing. In an oral/aural production course, as
another example, the various phonological sounds and places of articulation can
be taught to learners as a pre-requisite to speaking English.

 Whole-to-Part or Part-to-Whole:
In some cases, materials at the beginning of a course may focus on the overall
structure or organization of a topic before considering the individual
components that make it up. Alternatively, the course might focus on practising
the “parts” before the “whole”. For example, students might read short stories
and react to them as whole texts before going on to consider the elements that
constitute an effective short story. In a writing course, students might study first
how to write paragraphs before going on to practise putting paragraphs together
to produce an essay.

 Spiral Sequencing:
This type of sequencing course content involves the recycling of items. It is
done to ensure that learners have repeated opportunities to learn them. For
example, in a Grammar course, learners may learn tenses and practise using
them in one lesson. Later on, when they deal with another lesson, such as the
passive or conditional sentences and their types, the teacher may ask some
questions about tenses to reinforce information, check if students still remember
how to use the taught aspects, or even provide other opportunities to use those
tenses.

3.3.3 Developing the Course Structure

The next process or step in course development involves mapping the
course structure into a form and sequence that provide a suitable basis for
teaching. Two aspects of this process, however, require more detailed planning:
selecting a syllabus frameworkand developing instructional [Link]
issues are closely related and sometimes inseparable, but also involve different
kinds of decisions.

[Link] Developing a Syllabus Framework

A syllabus describes the major elements that will be used in a language
course and provides the basis for its instructional focus and contents. For
example, for a speaking skills course, the syllabus could be:
 Situational:organized around different situations and the oral skills
needed in those situations; for instance, At a restaurant, At the airport, In
England, etc.
 Topical:organized around different topics and how to talk about them in
English; for instance, global warming, freedom of opinion, social
relationships, etc.
 Functional:organized around the functions most commonly needed in
speaking; for instance, apologizing, agreeing/ disagreeing, re-phrasing
oneself, correcting misunderstandings, etc.
 Task-based:organized around different tasks or activities that the learners
would carry out in English; for instance, describing something to a
 classmate in order to accomplish a puzzle, giving directions to a classmate
so that s/he draws a map or figure based on those directions, etc.
(N.B: Types of syllabus are described and exemplified in the next chapter:
Syllabus Design.)

3.4 Course Evaluation

Evaluation provides an opportunity to reflect on the progress achieved

throughout the course. There are two major formsof course evaluation:
formative and summative. In addition, five elements must be considered in any
course evaluation: the course objectives, the syllabus of the course, the
textbook(s) used in the course, the methodology put into practice, and the testing
tools employed.

3.4.1 Forms of Course Evaluation

Kurt (2020) emphasizes that being thoughtful about the entire teaching
experience when a certain course is going on and when it comes to an end can
help the teacher make better decisions when the course is taught next time.
Evaluation of a course has two forms:

 Formative Evaluation:

It is carried out at the end of every lesson or unit to check understanding and
the extent to which the unit, chapter or lesson objectives have been attained
(specific objectives). An example of formative evaluation of a course is the
assignments given to learners at the beginning or during the course, such as
problem-solving-tasks or quick quizzes.
  Summative Evaluation:

It is undertaken in order to check the extent to which the course objectives

have been achieved (overall objectives). A typical example of this form of
course evaluation is final examinations done at the end of the course.

There are a number of steps that need to be followed in designing a course, as

seen previously in this lesson (See 3.2 Planning a Course and 3.3 Developing a
Course). These steps are interrelated. Each step is made with the other steps in
mind. Likewise, each step is refined every time the course is taught.

3.4.2 Elements of Course Evaluation

It is an inevitable step to reflect on and assess what (contents) and how

(methodology) the teacher has taught and tested students. A course is a
continuous process, rather than a product, that leads to the enhancement of
teaching and learning, if time and efforts are given to reflecting on and assessing
the results of that process. The aim of evaluation is to examine information that
indicates the extent to which the teaching and learning practices have led to the
learning outcomes outlined by the teacher (course objectives), and why such
practices worked well or did not. This last step involves consideration of a
whole range of issues, including assumptions about teaching and learning, as
well as issues related to the results of the decisions made at each of the previous
stages of course design: planning and development. The various processes
in the three stages of course design (planning, development
and evaluation) do not necessarily occur in a linear order. Some
may take place simultaneously, and many aspects of a course
are subject to ongoing revision each time the course is taught
(Richards 2001).
 Evaluation of a course has to consider five elements, as illustrated by the
following figure:

Elements of Course Evaluation

 Course objectives: the extent to which the overall objectives of the entire
course, set at the beginning, have been attained.
 Syllabus: the extent to which the syllabus content (selection of material)
as well as the order of such content (sequencing of lessons) have been
well handled, and then achieved the intended specific objectives of every
lesson at a time, and the general objectives of the entire course.
 Textbook(s): whether the textbook(s) used in the course match with the
overall objectives, and the extent to which such textbook(s) have helped
attain those objectives.
  Methodology: the extent to which the approach which the course is based
on, as well as the teaching methods and techniques implemented have
been effective enough in achieving the outlined course objectives. Any
pedagogical practices that take place in the teaching and learning
situations fall within the methodology framework, and thus need to be
carefully evaluated in terms of efficiency and feasibility.
 Testing tools: the extent to which the testing tools have been efficient in
assessing whether, and to what degree, the provided instruction and
learner assessment have been successful in attaining the overall course
objectives. The testing tools used must enable the teacher to carry out a
formative and summative evaluation of the course. When evaluating the
course testing tools, it is important to take into account the suitability of
the types of testing: diagnostic, achievement, proficiency or placement.
Three basic criteria have to be considered in any type of assessment:
validity, reliability and practicality (or usability).

Conclusion

Careful planning of a course is more likely to make teaching easier and

more enjoyable. It is worthwhile to allow enough time to carefully plan, develop
and eventually evaluate the course. It is of equal importance to get in touch with
other teachers who have taught a similar course and discuss various strategies as
well as student overall reactions to that course. In the case of team-teaching,
meeting with the entire staff who teach the same course is necessary in order to
talk about the course goals, contents, methodology, testing and other factors.

If the course is designed appropriately, based on research insights and

frameworks, students will be able to access information faster and more
efficiently. They will also develop more skills and practise higher levels of
thinking such as critical thinking, analyzing and evaluating, rather than merely
understanding, memorizing and applying information in a restricted manner.

List of References Used in Chapter Three

 Kurt, S. (2020). “How to Design a Course”. In Educational Technology.
Retrieved from [Link]

 Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language

Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.