Course Code: [PHY 002] Course Name: Practical Physics (2)

Notebook in

Practical Physics (2)

Basic Science Department

2022
List of Experiments [PHY 002]

1. Ohm's Law

2. Series Connection

3. Meter Bridge

4. RC-Circuit

5. Magnetic Deflection
Practical Physics PHY 002

Dear Learner,
We hope you enjoy studying practical physics in the Department of
Basic Sciences at the Higher Technological Institute on the 10th of
Ramadan city. Like any other branch of science, in Physics too you search
for scientific truth by verifying the facts. Hence, learning by doing has an
important role in especially in Physics. The practical physics is designed
to encourage development of such skills in order to make learning
effective. Therefore, lots of activities have been incorporated even in the
study material of Physics course. In this Physics Laboratory notebook, you
will find a list of experiments in the end. Some of these experiments are
indeed very simple and you will be able to perform them even on your own.
But for others, you may require some guidance. In this Physics Laboratory
notebook, we have tried to incorporate all the required guidelines to
perform the experiments. Each experiment in this Note Book has detailed
instructions about how to perform the experiment and has observation
tables in which you can record your data. Before starting an experiment,
read the instructions given in the laboratory notebook carefully and record
the observations in the tables honestly. I am sure, at the end of each
experiment, you may like to assess your understanding about that
experiment. In case you have any doubts or problems while performing the
experiments or otherwise, feel free to ask your Physics Teacher or write to
us. We hope you will enjoy doing experiments.
Wishing you all the success.
(Basic Science Department, Physics)

1
‫‪Practical Physics‬‬ ‫‪PHY 002‬‬

‫تعليمات معامل الفيزياء‬

‫المعمل مكانك فحافظ عليه‪.‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫االلتزام بالحضور في المواعيد المحددة لكل مجموعة‪.‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫يمنع الحضور بدون مذكرة المعمل‪.‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫مراعاة النظام والهدوء أثناء الدخول إلى المعمل وأثناء الخروج منه‪.‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫الجلوس في األماكن المحددة فقط وعدم الجلوس على المنضدة‪.‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫اغالق الهاتف المحمول‪.‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫ممنوع تناول الطعام والشراب في المعمل‪.‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬

‫عدم العبث باألجهزة الكهربائية‪ ،‬كما يجب التحقق من صحة توصيل الدوائر الكهربية‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫من قبل المعيد المسئول قبل تشغيلها حفاظا ً على سالمتكم وسالمة األجهزة‪.‬‬

‫ترتيب األدوات واألجهزة‪ ،‬وإعادة كل شيء مكانه والحرص على أن يكون المكان نظيفا ً‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫ومرتبا ً بعد االنتهاء من التجربة‪.‬‬

‫‪ 11‬المعمل ليس مكانا ً للعب واللهو‪ ،‬وال مكانا ً للتسلية وتبادل الحديث والسمر‪ ،‬بل هو مكان‬
‫لتحصيل العلم‪.‬‬

‫‪2‬‬
Practical Physics PHY 002

Introduction to Physics Laboratory

The aim of the laboratory exercise is to give the student an insight
into the significance of the physical ideas through actual manipulation of
apparatus, and to bring him or her into contact with the methods and
instruments of physical investigation. Each exercise is designed to teach or
reinforce an important law of physics which, in most cases, has already
been introduced in the lecture and textbook. Thus, the student is expected
to be acquainted with the basic ideas and terminology of an experiment
before coming to the laboratory. The exercises in general involve
measurements, graphical representation of the data, and calculation of a
final result. The student should bear in mind that equipment can
malfunction and final results may differ from expected values by what may
seem to be large amounts. This does not mean that the exercise is a failure.
The success of an experiment lies rather in the degree to which a student
has mastered the physical principles involved, understood the theory and
operation of the instruments used and realized the significance of the final
conclusions.
The student should know well in advance which exercise is to be
done during a specific laboratory period. The laboratory instructions and
the relevant section of the text should be read before coming to the
laboratory. All of the apparatus at a laboratory place is entrusted to the care
of the student working at that place, and he or she is responsible for it. At
the beginning of each laboratory period it is the duty of the student to check
over the apparatus and be sure that all of the items listed in the instructions
are present and in good condition. Any deficiencies should be reported to
the instructor immediately. The procedure in each of these exercises has
been planned so that it is possible for the prepared student to perform the
experiment in the scheduled laboratory period. Data sheets should be

3
Practical Physics PHY 002

initialed by your instructor or TA. Each student is required to submit results

and the discussion requested in the instructions.

Laboratory Manners

1 Eating and drinking are not permitted in the labs.

2 You are responsible for reading and understanding the section in the
manual on the scheduled experiment before coming to the lab class.

3 Apparatus should not be taken from another position. If something is

missing, notify the instructor, and either equipment will be replaced
or appropriate adjustments will be made.

4 Students should be distributed as evenly as possible among the

available positions.

5 At the end of the period the equipment should left neatly arranged
for the next class. Nonfunctioning equipment should be reported
before leaving. All papers and personal items have to be removed.

Laboratory Notebook
Each student will keep a lab notebook, which is a vital practice for
any scientist. The purpose of the notebook is to record all aspects of the
experiment. If you are unsure if something is important then write it down
anyway. Be neat, concise, clear and legible when writing in your notebook.

Graphical Representation of Data

Graphs are an important technique for presenting scientific data.

Graphs can be used to suggest physical relationships, compare
relationships with data, and determine parameters such as the slope of a

4
Practical Physics PHY 002

straight line. There is a specific sequence of steps to follow in preparing

a graph.

1 Arrange the data to be plotted in a table.

2 Decide which quantity is to be plotted on the x-axis (the abscissa),

usually the independent variable, and which on the y-axis (the
ordinate), usually the dependent variable.

3 Choose a scale for each axis, that is, how many units on each axis
represent a convenient number of the units of the variable
represented on that axis.

4 Scales should be chosen so that the data span almost all of the graph
paper, and also make it easy to locate arbitrary quantities on the
graph.

5 Label the major divisions on each axis.

6 Write a label in the margin next to each axis which indicates the
quantity being represented and its units.

7 Plot each point. The recommended style is a dot surrounded by a

small circle. A small cross or plus sign may also be used.

8 Draw a smooth curve that comes reasonably close to all of the points.
Whenever possible we plot the data or simple functions of the data
so that a straight line is expected.

9 If the slope of the line is to be determined, choose two points on the

line whose values are easily read and that span almost the full width
of the graph. These points should not be original data points.

5
Practical Physics PHY 002

10 The uncertainty of the slope may be estimated as the larger

uncertainty of the two end points, divided by the interval between
them.

Example:
Use the following results to find the value of the resistance as it follows
ohm's law (V=IR).
I (mA) 10 20 30 40 50 60

V (v) 1.2 1.5 2.9 4.8 6 7.9

∆V 6.8 − 3.6
Slope = = = 94.11
∆I (74 − 40)x10−3
V
R= = Slope
I
R = Slope = 94.11 Ω

6
Practical Physics PHY 002

SI Units
"SI" stands for "System International" and is the set of physical units
agreed upon by international convention. The SI units are sometimes also known
as MKS units, where MKS stands for "meter, kilogram, and second." In 1939,
the CCE recommended the adoption of a system of units based on the meter,
kilogram, second, and ampere. The name International System of Units (SI) was
given to the system by the 11th CGPM in 1960. At the 14th CGPM in 1971, the
current version of the SI was completed by adding the mole as base unit for
amount of substance, bringing the total number of base units to seven. The seven
fundamental units are summarized in the following table.

Physical quantity Symbol Unit abbreviation Unit name

Length l m Meter

Mass m kg Kilogram

Time t s Second

Current I A Ampere

Temperature T K Kelvin

Luminous Intensity Lv cd Candela

Amount of Substance n mol Mole

The derived SI units consist of combinations of the seven base units, and
are summarized in the following table.

7
Practical Physics PHY 002

Quantity Symbol SI symbol SI unit

Area A m2 square meter

Volume V M3 cubic meter

Plane Angle θ rad radian

Solid Angle Ω sterrad steradian

Frequency f Hz Hertz

Velocity v ms-1 meters per second

Acceleration a ms-2 meters per second squared

Force F N Newton

Pressure P or p Pa Pascal

Power P W Watt

Energy E J Joule

Voltage V V Volt

Resistance R Ω Ohm

Conductance G S Siemens

Charge Q C Coulomb

Capacitance C F Farad

Magnetic Flux Φ Wb Weber

Magnetic Flux Density B T Tesla

Inductance L H Henry

Luminous Flux F lm lumen

Illumination E lx lux

Activity A Bq Becquerel

Energy Dose Gy Gray

Equivalent Dose Sv Sievert

8
Practical Physics PHY 002

In 1960, the 11th CGPM adopted a first series of prefixes and

symbols of prefixes to form the names and symbols of decimal multiples
and submultiples of SI units. Over the years, the list has been extended as
summarized in the following table.

SI Prefixes and Symbols

Factor Decimal Representation Prefix Symbol
1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 exa E
1015 1,000,000,000,000,000 peta P
1012 1,000,000,000,000 tera T
109 1,000,000,000 giga G
106 1,000,000 mega M
103 1,000 kilo k
102 100 hecto h
101 10 deka da
100 1
10-1 0.1 deci d
10-2 0.01 centi c
10-3 0.001 milli m
10-6 0.000 001 micro 
10-9 0.000 000 001 nano n
10-12 0.000 000 000 001 pico p
10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001 femto f
10-18 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 atto a

9
Practical Physics PHY 002

The Multimeter
What is a Multimeter?
A digital multimeter or DMM is a useful instrument for measuring
voltage, current and resistance, and some meters have a facility for testing
transistors and capacitors. You can also use it for checking continuity of
wires and fuses. If you like to DIY, do car maintenance or troubleshoot
electronic or electrical equipment, a multimeter is a handy accessory to
have in your home toolkit. The most basic things we measure are voltage
and current.

Parts of a Multimeter
A multimeter is having three parts: Display, Selection Knob and Ports.

How to Measure Voltage

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Practical Physics PHY 002

1. Plug the black ground probe lead into the COM socket on the
multimeter and the red positive probe lead into the socket marked V
(usually also marked with the Greek letter "omega" Ω and possibly a
diode symbol)
2. Select DC volts (to measure DC voltage) or AC volts (to measure AC
voltage) and pick a suitable range to give the required accuracy.
3. The multimeter must be connected in parallel in a circuit in order to
measure voltage.
4. Power up the equipment
5. Take the reading on the LCD display

How to Measure Current

1. Plug the ground probe into the COM socket and plug the red positive
probe lead either into the mA socket or the high current socket which

11
Practical Physics PHY 002

is usually marked 10A (some meters have a 20 A socket instead of

10A). If you estimate that the current will be greater than this value,
you must use the 10 A socket, otherwise you will end up blowing a
fuse in the meter.
2. Select DC volts (to measure DC current) or AC volts (to measure AC
current) and pick a suitable range to give the required accuracy.
3. The multimeter must be connected in series in a circuit in order to
measure current.
4. Power up the equipment.
5. Take the reading on the LCD display.

Overload
What happens if you select a voltage setting that is too low for the
voltage you’re trying to measure? Nothing bad. The meter will simply
display a "1". This is the multimeter trying to tell you that it is overloaded
or out-of-range. Whatever you’re trying to read is too much for that
particular setting. Try changing the multimeter knob to the next highest
setting.

Continuity
Continuity testing is the act of testing the resistance between two
points. If there is very low resistance (less than a few Ωs), the two points
are connected electrically, and a tone is emitted. If there is more than a few
Ωs of resistance, than the circuit is open, and no tone is emitted. This test
helps insure that connections are made correctly between two points. This
test also helps us detect if two points are connected that should not be.

12
Practical Physics PHY 002

How to Check Continuity and Fuses

A multimeter is useful for checking breaks in flexes of appliances,
blown filaments in bulbs and blown fuses, and tracing paths/tracks on
PCBs as follow:
1. The probes are connected to the meter in the same way as for
measuring voltage
2. Turn the selecting dial on the meter to the continuity range. This is
often indicated by a symbol which looks like a series of arcs of a circle
3. If a conductor on a circuit board/ a wire in an appliance needs to be
checked, make sure the device is powered down
4. Place the tip of a probe at each end of the conductor or fuse which
needs to be checked
5. If the resistance is less than about 30 ohms, the meter will indicate this
by a beep tone or buzzing sound. The resistance is usually indicated
on the display also. If there is break in continuity in the device being
tested, an overload indication, usually the digit "1", will be displayed
on the meter.

13
Practical Physics PHY 002

1. Ohm's Law
Aim:
1. …………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………
Theory:
Battery

Rheostat

A
R

V
Ohm's law:
At constant temperature, the electric current passing through a device is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied.
V∝I
V = RI
where:
I is the current through the resistor in units of amperes

V is the potential difference across the resistor in units of volts

R is the resistance of the resistor in units of ohms.

Apparatus:
Unknown resistance, voltmeter, ammeter, battery, rheostat and connecting
wires.

14
Practical Physics PHY 002

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown above.
2. Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current.
3. Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter
4. Take at least six sets of readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually
5. Tabulate the results.
6. Plot a graph with I along x- axis and V along y-axis.
7. The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm's law
8. Determine the slope of the (V-I) graph.
9. Calculate the value of the resistance [R= slope = ........... Ω].
Results and Calculations:

I (………)

V (………)

𝐑 = 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (… … … … … )

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Practical Physics PHY 002

2. Series Connection
Aim:
…………………………………………………………………………
Theory:
R1 R2 R3
I

V1 V2 V3

Battery

Since a series circuit has just one current path, it follows that all the
components in a series circuit carry the same current I.
In a series circuit, the applied voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage
drops. V T = V 1 + V 2 + V3
By Ohm’s law, the voltage drop is equal to the current I times the
resistance R
i.e. IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
or: RT = R1 + R2 + R3
In the general case of ‘‘n’’ resistances connected in series the battery sees
a total resistance of:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +….. Rn
where, RT is the total resistance

16
Practical Physics PHY 002

Apparatus:
Circuit training system, DC power supply, set of different resistors, digital
multimeters and set of connection wires
Procedure:
1. Connect the DC series circuit as shown in figure above.
2. Use the digital multimeter to record the current (I), the total potential
(VT) and the potential drop across each resistor (V1, V2 and V3)
3. Tabulate the results.
4. Calculate the value of the total resistance (RT) and the value of each
resistor R1, R2, R3 using Ohm's law [ R= V/I ........ Ω].
5. Calculate the sum of R1, R2 and R3, it must be equal to the total resistance
RT to verify the series connection law.
Results and calculations:

I = ……………………………………… RT (…........) = VT/I = …………………………

VT = ……………………………………… R1 = V1/I = ………………………………

V1 = ……………………………………… R2 = V2/I = ………………………………

V2 = ……………………………………… R3 = V3/I = ………………………………

V3 = ……………………………………… Req (…........)= R1 + R2 +R3

= ………………………………………………

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Practical Physics PHY 002

3. Meter Bridge
Aim:
…………………………………………………………………………
Theory:

Whetstone bridge

Unknown resistance can be measured using whetstone bridge. This circuit

consists of the unknown resistance R1, three known resistors R2, R3, R4
(where R2 is a calibrated variable resistor), galvanometer and a source of
e.m.f.
The known resistor R2 is varied until there is no current from (b) to (d).
under this condition the bridge is said to be balanced
At balance:
The potential at the point (b) is equal to the potential at the point (d)
i.e. [ Vab = Vad and Vbc = Vdc ]

Then:
[ I1 R1 = I2 R 3 (1) and I1 R 2 = I2 R 4 (2) ]
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we get:

18
Practical Physics PHY 002

I1 R1 I2 R 3
=
I1 R 2 I2 R 4
Or:
R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
Then, the unknown resistance R1 can be determined by:

𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑
[𝐑 𝟏 = ]
𝐑𝟒
The meter bridge

R1 R2

L1 L2 = (100- L1)

Battery

The meter bridge has the same idea of Wheatstone bridge, but an equal
cross-sectional area wire is used instead of R3 and R4 (its resistance is
directly proportional to its length)
The electric resistances (R) of a length (L) of a wire of a uniform cross-
sectional area (A) can be written as:
ρL
R=
A
where  is the resistivity of the material of the wire

19
Practical Physics PHY 002

Since,
R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
Therefore,
ρL1
R1
= A
R 2 ρL2
A
Or:
R1 L1
=
R 2 L2
Then,
the unknown resistance R1 can be determined by:
𝐋𝟏
[𝐑 𝟏 = 𝐑 𝟐 ]
𝐋𝟐
Apparatus:
Meter bridge, galvanometer, power supply, resistance box, unknown
resistance and connecting wires.

Procedure:
1. Connect the meter bridge circuit as shown above.
2. Take a suitable value of the known resistance R2 from the resistance box.
3. Move the slider on the wire of the bridge till the balance is reached.
4. Measure L1 and L2 (L2 = 100-L1).
5. Calculate R1 from the relation [R1 = R2 (L1/L2)].
6. Repeat the experiment for different values of R2.
7. Tabulate the results.
8. Calculate the average value of the unknown resistance R1.

20
Practical Physics PHY 002

Results and calculations:

R2 (………) L1 (………) L2 = (100-L1) (………) R1 = R2 (L1/L2) (………)

[𝐑 𝟏 ]𝐚𝐯𝐠 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (… … )

21
Practical Physics PHY 002

4. RC-Circuit
Aim:
1. …………………………………………………………………………..
2. …………………………………………………………………………..
Theory:
1. Charging of a capacitor:

Figure (1)

Consider a circuit as shown in Fig. (1), If the switch S connected to position

(a), a current I is setup in the loop and the capacitor begins to charge
according to the following relations.

22
Practical Physics PHY 002

t t t
q(t) = qo (1 − e−τ ) V(t) = Vo (1 − e−τ ) I(t) = Io e−τ
where:
q(t) is the charge of the capacitor as a function of time
qo is the maximum charge
V(t) is the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time
Vo is the maximum voltage
I(t) is the current as a function of time
Io is the maximum current
is the time constant of the R-C circuit  =RC].
R is the resistance.
C is the capacitance].

It is clear that, each of charge, voltage and current is exponentially

depended on the time as shown in Fig. (2).
Therefore, by plotting q, V or I versus t, the time constant τ can be
determined.

2. Discharging of a capacitor:
when the switch S connected to position (b), the power supply is
disconnected from the circuit and the capacitor starts to discharge through
the resistor according to the relations:

t t t
q(t) = qo e−τ V(t) = Vo e−τ I(t) = −Io e−τ

It is also clear that, each of charge, voltage and current is exponentially

depended on the time as shown in Fig. (3) and hence, the time constant τ
can be also determined.

23
Practical Physics PHY 002

Figure (2)

24
Practical Physics PHY 002

Figure (3)

25
Practical Physics PHY 002

Determination of the time constant (  ) using the voltage

equation:
t
−
V(t) = Vo e τ

Taking the ln of both sides, we get:

t
ln V = ln Vo −
τ

Ln V

 Ln V

t

t()

∆ 𝐥𝐧 𝐕
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 =
∆𝐭

𝟏
𝛕=
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞

26
Practical Physics PHY 002

Apparatus:
Power supply, resistor, capacitor, millimeter, stopwatch and connection
wires.
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1 (make sure that the lead of the
capacitor at the arrow head side is connected to the ground).
2) Wait till the capacitor full charged.
3) Turn off the power supply and take the value of the maximum voltage
Vo at (t=0).
4) Record the value of the voltage V every 10 seconds till the voltage
reaches its minimum value (nearly zero) at which the capacitor is fully
discharged.
5) Tabulate the results.
6) Plot a graph with t along the +ve (x- axis) and ln V along the ve (y-axis)
then calculate the slope.
1
7) Find the time constant  from [τ = ]
Slope

.
Results and calculations:
t (………)

V (……)

Ln V

th = RC = ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

exp = ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

27
Practical Physics PHY 002

5. Magnetic Deflection
Aim:
…………………………………………………………………………….
Theory:

The magnetic field intensity (H) at a point (P) at a distance (d) from the
center of a bar magnet of length (2L) and pole strength (m) as shown in
figure is given by:
m m
H=[ 2
]−[ ]
(d − L) (d + L)2
m(d + L)2 − m(d − L)2
=[ ]
(d − L)2 (d + L)2
md2 + 2mdL + mL2 − md2 + 2mdL − mL2
=[ ]
(d2 − L2 )2
4mdL
=[ 2 ]
(d − L2 )2
2d [m2L]
=[ ]
(d2 − L2 )2

But:
M = m(2L), M is the magnetic dipole moment

28
Practical Physics PHY 002

2d M
∴H=[ ] (1)
(d2 − L2 )2

Also, the magnetic field intensity (H) at the same point (P) using the
deflection magnetometer is given by:

H = H° tan θ (2)
(H° is the horizontal component of earth' magnetic field)
from (1) and (2) we get:
2d M
[ 2 ] = H° tan θ
(d − L2 )2
H° tan θ(d2 − L2 )2
M=[ ]
2d1

For the first bar magnet:

2
H° tan θ1 (d1 2 − L2 )
M1 = [ ] (3)
2d1

For the second bar magnet:

2
H° tan θ2 (d2 2 − L2 )
M2 = [ ] (4)
2d2

29
Practical Physics PHY 002

Dividing (3) by (4) we get:

2
M1 d2 (d1 2 − L2 ) tan θ1
[ =[ 2 ]]
M2 2 2
d1 (d2 − L ) tan θ2

Case #1 [equal distance (d1 = d2 )]

M1 tan θ1
[ =[ ]]
M2 tan θ2

Case #2 [zero deflection(θ1 = θ2 )]

2
M1 d2 (d1 2 − L2 )
[ =[ 2 ]]
M2 d1 (d2 2 − L2 )

Apparatus:
Deflection magnetometer and two bar magnets.
Procedure:
Case #1 [equal distance (𝐝𝟏 = 𝐝𝟐 = 𝐝)]
1. Adjust the magnetometer in Gaussian position as shown in Fig. (1).
2. Put the first bar magnet M1 on one arm of the magnetometer at a distance
(d) measured from the center of the needle to the center of the bar magnet
and the find the deflection angle θ1 as shown in Fig. (2).
3. Find the deflection angle θ1 again when the bar magnet is placed on the
other arm of the magnetometer.
4. Find the mean value of θ1.
5. Put the second bar magnet M2 instead of the first bar magnet at the same
distance (d).
6. Repeat steps (3) and (4) to find the deflection angle θ2 for the second bar
magnet.
7. Find the ratio M1 to M2 using the relation:

30
Practical Physics PHY 002

M1 tan θ1
[ = ]
M2 tan θ2
Case #2 [zero deflection(𝛉𝟏 = 𝛉𝟐 )]
1. Adjust the magnetometer in Gaussian position as shown in Fig. (1).
2. Put the first bar magnet M1 on one arm of the magnetometer at a distance
(d1) measured from the center of the needle to the center of the bar
magnet.
3. Put the second bar magnet M2 on the other arm of the magnetometer,
then adjust its position till there is no deflection to find (d2).
4. Find the ratio M1 to M2 using the relation:
2
M1 d2 (d1 2 − L2 )
[ =[ 2 ]]
M2 d1 (d2 2 − L2 )

Fig. (1): Gaussian position.

Fig. (2): Finding the deflection angle θ of a bar magnet.

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Practical Physics PHY 002

Results and calculations:

Case #1 Case #2

equal distance [zero deflection]

θ1 = ……………… d1 = ………………

θ2 = ……………… d2 = ………………

2
M1 tan θ1 M1 d2 (d1 2 − L2 )
=[ ] =[ 2]
M2 tan θ2 M2 2
d1 (d2 − L )2

M1 M1
= ⋯…………………… = ⋯……………………
M2 M2

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