Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.

A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.

The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g.
electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the presence of
a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes in
characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

IOT HARDWARE

Transducer :

• A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

• It converts one type of energy into another type.

• It might be used as actuator in various systems.

Sensors characteristics :

1. Static

2. Dynamic

1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady state
condition.

• Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the
true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and
relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a higher prior system.
Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value

• Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the
sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.

• Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The higher the
resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.

• Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
 • Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from the
slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference in
quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.

• Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line. Linearity is
determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the output amplitude
versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.

• Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at
that value for a long period of time.

• Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same

conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as
not to allow significant long-term drift.

Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems

• Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does
not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.

• First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.

• Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.

Sensor Classification :

• Passive & Active

• Analog & digital

• Scalar & vector

1. Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and
temperature sensors.

2. Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.

3. Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter. Ex-
Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.

4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along
with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion. Example –
Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).

5. Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a
function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input
parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.

6. Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of
 input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector
sensors.

Types of sensors –

• Electrical sensor :

Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.

Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an electrical
circuit.

Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction for
detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.

• Light sensor:

Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.

Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.

The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light
i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise versa.

• Touch sensor:

Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.

It’s name suggests that detection of something.

They are classified into two types:

1. Resistive type

2. Capacitive type

Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.

Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

• Range sensing:

Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing position,
although they can also be used as proximity sensors.

Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing, between a few
millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical capacitance, inductance and
magnetic technique.

Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg radio waves,
sound waves and lasers.

• Mechanical sensor:

Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount of force is
required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.

• Pneumatic sensor:

These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.

The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be used where
light components may be blown away.

• Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which falls onto a
light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact sensors. Care must be
exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for example optical sensors can be blinded
by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and smoke clouds may impede light
transmission etc.

• Speed Sensor:

Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as speed
sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .

• Temperature Sensor:

Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s measurement as an
electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be in the form of
voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature measurement .

• PIR Sensor:

PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the tracking and
measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view and is also known as
Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion and movement detection .

• Ultrasonic Sensor:

The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR in which the
interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of a target by
generating the high frequency sound waves .

An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors + Actuators +
Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the
mechanism of the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are
generated for the actuators according to the actions needed to perform.

A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a
given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the
motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the
sensor data to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy
and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a
mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given
below.

Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –

A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a
cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion,
according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators
because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.

2. Pneumatic Actuators –

A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert
into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human
fingers by using compressed air.

3. Electrical Actuators –

An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical
energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.

Other actuators are –

• Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or
Magnetic Shape-Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a
thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.

• Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It
involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A crankshaft.

• Soft Actuators

• Shape Memory Polymers

• Light Activated Polymers

• With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial
and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share resources and information.
These devices can include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware. Networks allow for the
efficient exchange of data, enabling various applications such as email, file sharing, and internet
browsing.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

• Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to
enable communication and data exchange.

• Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers,
Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.

• Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over
a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.

• Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a
network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.

• Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network
Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include
Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
 • IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device on
a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between
them.

• DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable
domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.

• Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access
and other security threats.

Communication protocol:

A communications protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to transmit or exchange data,
especially across a network. A standardised communications protocol is one that has been codified
as a standard. Examples of these include WiFi, the Internet Protocol, and the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP).

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed in a large
number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system, physical, or
environmental conditions.

Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing
unit in the WSN System. The base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to
share data. WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) architecture is structured into three main layers:

• Physical Layer: This layer connects sensor nodes to the base station using technologies like
radio waves, infrared, or Bluetooth. It ensures the physical communication between nodes
and the base station.

• Data Link Layer: Responsible for establishing a reliable connection between sensor nodes
and the base station. It uses protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4 to manage data transmission
and ensure efficient communication within the network.

• Application Layer: Enables sensor nodes to communicate specific data to the base station. It
uses protocols like ZigBee to define how data is formatted, transmitted, and received,
supporting various applications such as environmental monitoring or industrial control.
M2M Technology:

Machine-to-machine, or M2M, is a broad label that can be used to describe any technology that
enables networked devices to exchange information and perform actions without the manual
assistance of humans. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) facilitate the
communication between systems, allowing them to make their own autonomous choices.

M2M technology was first adopted in manufacturing and industrial settings, where other
technologies, such as SCADA and remote monitoring, helped remotely manage and control data from
equipment. M2M has since found applications in other sectors, such as healthcare, business and
insurance. M2M is also the foundation for the internet of things (IoT).

The Internet of Things Functional Blocks is the foundation of the IoT ecosystem. Companies are fast
discovering ways to leverage the Internet of Things (IoT) to improve their efficiency as it grows in
popularity. While the Internet of Things has numerous advantages, businesses are trying to
comprehend how to incorporate technology into their work and daily lives. This article will look at
that the IoT functional blocks and how they interact to produce a functional IoT system.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a rapidly growing industry, with more and more devices becoming
connected on a regular basis. The Internet of Things devices range from small sensors to huge
machines and systems, but they all have one thing in common: they generate data. IoT systems use
functional blocks to make sense of this data and extract value from it. These blocks are distinct
components of the IoT system that carry out specialized functions.

IoT Functional Blocks

IoT systems are composed of a number of building blocks, including sensors/actuators, connectivity,
security, services, etc. The functional blocks are responsible for sensing, verification, actuation,
management, and communication.

These functional blocks are made up of devices that handle interactions between a web server and
the client, enable controls and monitoring functions, manage data transfer, secure the IoT system
through authentication and various purposes, and offer an interface for monitoring and managing
various concepts. Let’s gather more information about the IoT Functional Blocks.

Sensor/Actuator block

The sensor/actuator block serves as the data entry point in an IoT system. Sensors collect data from
their surroundings, whereas actuators drive physical processes. Sensors gather data on temperature,
humidity, light, motion, and other variables, whereas actuators turn on lights, open doors, and
control machines. These gadgets work together to collect data and operate in the physical world.
Connectivity Block

Once the sensor/actuator block has collected data, it must be sent to the remainder of the system.
This is when the connection block enters the picture. The connectivity block is in charge of creating
and managing communication channels amongst IoT system devices. This can be accomplished with
the use of several technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, and cellular networks.

Data Processing Block

The obtained data is examined and processed in the data processing block. This block is in charge of
filtering out noise and irrelevant data, converting the data into an easily studied format, and
recognizing patterns and anomalies in the data. This block can also execute real-time analysis,
enabling speedy data-driven decisions.

Application Block

The application block is the component of the IoT system that gives value to the end user. This block
is in charge of utilizing the processed data to provide a specified function or service. An application
block, for example, could be used to provide insights into energy usage in a building or to adjust the
temperature in a greenhouse.

Security Block

The security block is in charge of assuring the IoT system's security and protection against illegal
access. This block is in charge of authentication and authorization, as well as data encryption during
transmission and storage. It also handles intrusion detection and response, assisting in the
prevention and mitigation of threats.

Management Block

The management block is in charge of overseeing the overall operation of the IoT system. This block
is capable of handling device configuration, firmware updates, and system monitoring. It can also
give analytics and reporting, allowing system administrators to understand how the system is
operating and find areas for improvement.

Physical Design of IOT:

Logical Design of IoT

Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things )

IoT devices are found everywhere and will enable circulatory intelligence in the future. For
operational perception, it is important and useful to understand how various IoT devices
communicate with each other. Communication models used in IoT have great value. The IoTs allow
people and things to be connected any time, any space, with anything and anyone, using any
network and any service.

Types of Communication Model :

1. Request & Response Model –

This model follows a client-server architecture.

• The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This request is usually in
the encoded format.

• This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained and each request
is independently handled.

• The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and its resource
representation. This data is converted to response and is transferred in an encoded format to
the client. The client, in turn, receives the response.

• On the other hand — In Request-Response communication model client sends a request to

the server and the server responds to the request. When the server receives the request it
decides how to respond, fetches the data retrieves resources, and prepares the response,
and sends it to the client.

2. Publisher-Subscriber Model –
This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.

• Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are managed by the
broker. They are not aware of consumers.

• Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.

 • Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to the appropriate
consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the consumer to which a
particular topic belongs to which the publisher is unaware of.

3. Push-Pull Model –
The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.

• Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.

• Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The consumers, present on
the other side, pull the data out of the queue. Thus, the queue acts as the buffer for the
message when the difference occurs in the rate of push or pull of data on the side of a
publisher and consumer.

• Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer. Queues also
act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch between the rate at
which the producers push the data and consumers pull the data.

4. Exclusive Pair –

• Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including full-duplex communication among client
and server. The connection is constant and remains open till the client sends a request to
close the connection.

• The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.

• This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open connections.

• WebSocket based communication API is fully based on this model.