Technical Report: Application of Number

Theory to Computational Problems

Introduction
Number theory, a branch of pure mathematics, is dedicated to the study of integers and their
properties. While seemingly abstract, its principles are foundational to numerous computational
problems and modern technologies, particularly in areas like cryptography, algorithm design, and
resource management. This report explores various applications of number theory in computing,
demonstrating its practical relevance through specific problem-solving scenarios.

Activity 1: Application of Number Theory

P1(a): Furniture Arrangement using Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

The Facilities Department requires an efficient arrangement of furniture, ensuring an equal

number of cabinets, office chairs, and office tables in each room. To achieve this, we need to
find the largest possible number of rooms such that the furniture can be divided equally among
them. This problem can be solved by calculating the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of the
number of each furniture item.

Given Data:

 Cabinets: 42
 Office Chairs: 112
 Office Tables: 70

Technique Used: Euclidean Algorithm for GCD The Euclidean Algorithm is an efficient
method for computing the GCD of two integers. It is based on the principle that the greatest
common divisor of two numbers does not change if the larger number is replaced by its
difference with the smaller number. This process is repeated until one of the numbers becomes
zero, and the non-zero number is the GCD. For more than two numbers, we can find the GCD
iteratively: GCD(a,b,c)=GCD(GCD(a,b),c).

Calculation:

1. Find GCD(42, 112):

o 112=2×42+28Error! Filename not specified.
o 42=1×28+14Error! Filename not specified.
o 28=2×14+0Error! Filename not specified.
o So, GCD(42,112)=14.
2. Find GCD(14, 70):
o 70=5×14+0Error! Filename not specified.
 o So, GCD(14,70)=14.

Therefore, the GCD of 42, 112, and 70 is 14.

Results:

 Number of rooms to prepare: 14 rooms.

 Furniture per room:
o Cabinets per room: 42/14=3Error! Filename not specified.
o Office Chairs per room: 112/14=8Error! Filename not specified.
o Office Tables per room: 70/14=5Error! Filename not specified.

This method ensures that each of the 14 rooms will have 3 cabinets, 8 office chairs, and 5 office
tables, fulfilling the requirement for an equal distribution of furniture.

P1(b): Task Scheduling using Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The Facilities Department has four tasks (A, B, C, D) that run periodically. To identify the next
day all four tasks will run on the same day, we need to find the Least Common Multiple (LCM)
of their respective periodicities.

Given Data:

 Task A: Every 3 days

 Task B: Every 6 days
 Task C: Every 9 days
 Task D: Every 12 days

Technique Used: Prime Factorization Method for LCM The LCM of a set of numbers can be
found by taking the highest power of all prime factors present in the prime factorization of each
number. For example, to find LCM of a,b,c:

1. Find the prime factorization of each number.

2. For each prime factor, identify its highest power across all numbers.
3. Multiply these highest powers together to get the LCM.

Calculation:

1. Prime Factorization:
o 3=31Error! Filename not specified.
o 6=21×31Error! Filename not specified.
o 9=32Error! Filename not specified.
o 12=22×31Error! Filename not specified.
2. Highest Powers of Prime Factors:
o Highest power of 2: 22 (from 12)
o Highest power of 3: 32 (from 9)
 3. Calculate LCM:
o LCM(3,6,9,12)=22×32=4×9=36Error! Filename not specified.

Results:

 All four tasks will run on the same day every 36 days. If they start on day 1, they will
next run together on Day 37, Day 73, and so on.

This LCM method is crucial in computing for scheduling events, resource allocation, and
synchronizing processes that operate on different cycles.

P2(c): Salary Increment using Arithmetic Progression

The Finance Department's policy involves a fixed annual salary increment. This scenario can be
modeled using an arithmetic progression.

Given Data:

 First year increment (a1): $500

 Second year increment (a2): $550
 Third year increment (a3): $600

Common Difference (d): The common difference is d = a_2 - a_1 = $550 - $500 = $50.

Formulas for Arithmetic Progression:

 n-th term: an=a1+(n−1)dError! Filename not specified.

 Sum of first n terms: Sn=2n(2a1+(n−1)d) or Sn=2n(a1+an)Error! Filename not
specified.

Calculations (Requires Student Data):

 Increment in the t-th year:

o From the student data table, let your specific value for t be [Your Student's 't'
Value Here].
o at=a1+(t−1)dError! Filename not specified.
o at=500+([Your Student’s ’t’ Value Here]−1)×50Error! Filename not specified.
o at=500+([Your Student’s ’t’ Value Here]−1)×50Error! Filename not specified.
 Total salary increments after m years:
o From the student data table, let your specific value for m be [Your Student's 'm'
Value Here].
o Sm=2m(2a1+(m−1)d)Error! Filename not specified.
o Sm=2[Your Student’s ’m’ Value Here](2×500+([Your Student’s ’m’ Value Here]
−1)×50)Error! Filename not specified.
(Once you provide your Student ID, these calculations will be completed with your specific
values.)

P2(d): Drone Distance using Geometric Progression

The Engineering Department needs to calculate the total distance traveled by automated drones,
where the distance increases geometrically with each successive test mission.

Given Data:

 First test mission (a1): 100 meters

 Increase by P% for each successive test mission.

Common Ratio (r): If the distance increases by P%, the common ratio r=1+100P. From the
student data table, let your specific value for P be [Your Student's 'P' Value Here].

 r=1+100[Your Student’s ’P’ Value Here]Error! Filename not specified.

Formula for Sum of First n terms of a Geometric Progression:

 Sn=r−1a1(rn−1) (for r=1)

Calculation (Requires Student Data):

 We need the total distance for the first five tests, so n=5.
 S5=r−1100(r5−1)Error! Filename not specified.
 Substitute your calculated r value into this formula.

(Once you provide your Student ID, these calculations will be completed with your specific
values.)

M1(e): RSA Encryption and Decryption

The Engineering Department is implementing a new quality control system using RSA for secure
communication. RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is a public-key cryptosystem widely used for
secure data transmission. Its security relies on the practical difficulty of factoring the product of
two large prime numbers.

Given Information:

 Plain text message M: 17 and 14

 Prime numbers: p=11, q=5Error! Filename not specified.
 Encryption key e=E (from student data table)

RSA Algorithm Steps:

 1. Key Generation:
o Calculate n=p×q: This is the modulus for both the public and private keys.
 n=11×5=55Error! Filename not specified.
o Calculate Euler's totient function ϕ(n)=(p−1)(q−1): This represents the number
of integers less than n that are coprime to n.
 ϕ(55)=(11−1)(5−1)=10×4=40Error! Filename not specified.
o Choose public encryption key e:
 e must be an integer such that 1<e<ϕ(n) and GCD(e,ϕ(n))=1.
 From the student data table, let your specific value for E be [Your
Student's 'E' Value Here].
 We need to verify if GCD([Your Student’s ’E’ Value Here],40)=1.
 Common choices for e are 3,5,7,11,13,17,19,… as long as they are
coprime to 40.
o Calculate private decryption key d:
 d is the multiplicative inverse of e modulo ϕ(n). This means
e×d≡1(modϕ(n)).
 We can find d using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm or by trial and
error.
 e×d=1+k×ϕ(n) for some integer k.
 [Your Student's 'E' Value Here] ×d≡1(mod40)Error! Filename not
specified.
2. Encryption:
o Ciphertext C=Me(modn)Error! Filename not specified.
o For M=17: C1=17[Your Student’s ’E’ Value Here](mod55)Error! Filename not
specified.
o For M=14: C2=14[Your Student’s ’E’ Value Here](mod55)Error! Filename not
specified.
3. Decryption:
o Plaintext M=Cd(modn)Error! Filename not specified.
o For C1: M1=C1d(mod55)Error! Filename not specified.
o For C2: M2=C2d(mod55)Error! Filename not specified.

(Once you provide your Student ID and thus your 'E' value, I will perform the calculations for d,
C, and M and explain the backward substitution of the Euclidean algorithm to find d.)

D1(f): Importance of Prime Numbers in Computing

Prime numbers are fundamental to the field of computing, particularly in the realm of
cybersecurity and cryptographic systems. Their unique properties make them indispensable for
ensuring data integrity, confidentiality, and authenticity.

1. Cryptography (RSA and other Public-Key Cryptosystems):

o The most prominent application of prime numbers in computing is in public-key
cryptography, such as the RSA algorithm. RSA relies on the computational
difficulty of factoring large numbers that are products of two large prime
numbers.
 o When p and q are very large primes (hundreds of digits long), finding their
product n=p×q is easy. However, reversing this process—factoring n back into p
and q—is extremely difficult and time-consuming for current computers.
o This "one-way function" forms the basis of RSA's security. The public key (e,n)
can be freely shared, allowing anyone to encrypt messages. However, only
someone with the private key (d, which is derived from p and q) can decrypt the
message. Without knowing p and q, deriving d is computationally infeasible.
o This ensures secure communication over insecure channels, protecting sensitive
data like financial transactions, personal information, and confidential
communications.
2. Hashing and Digital Signatures:
o Prime numbers are also used in hash functions to distribute data evenly across
data structures (e.g., hash tables), minimizing collisions. While not always
directly involving prime factorization, properties related to modular arithmetic
with primes can improve hash function performance.
o Digital signatures, which rely on public-key cryptography, use prime numbers to
verify the authenticity and integrity of digital documents, ensuring that data has
not been tampered with and originated from the claimed sender.
3. Random Number Generation:
o Some pseudo-random number generators (PRNGs) utilize modular arithmetic
with large prime numbers to produce sequences of numbers that appear random.
These are crucial for simulations, games, and security protocols.
4. Error Detection and Correction Codes:
o Concepts from number theory, including properties of prime fields, are applied in
the design of error-correcting codes (e.g., Reed-Solomon codes). These codes add
redundancy to data, allowing for the detection and correction of errors that occur
during transmission or storage, which is vital for reliable data communication and
storage systems.
5. Algorithm Efficiency and Optimization:
o The properties of prime numbers are indirectly used in optimizing algorithms. For
example, in algorithms involving modular arithmetic, understanding prime
properties can lead to more efficient computations.

By leveraging the unique and computationally challenging properties of prime numbers, MGR
can ensure the integrity of their quality control processes, track sensor deliveries securely, and
maintain a robust reputation by preventing counterfeit products from entering the production
line. This integration enhances the overall security, efficiency, and reliability of their
manufacturing processes.

(Please provide your Student ID to allow me to complete the specific calculations for P2(c),
P2(d), and M1(e).)
Technical Report: Application of Probability
Theory to Computational Problems
Introduction
Probability theory is a fundamental branch of mathematics concerned with analyzing random
phenomena. It provides a robust framework for quantifying uncertainty, predicting outcomes,
and making informed decisions in situations where unpredictability is inherent. In computing,
probability theory is indispensable, playing a critical role in areas such as machine learning, data
analytics, network design, algorithm efficiency, and cybersecurity. This report will explore
various applications of probability theory, including conditional probability (Bayes' Theorem),
binomial distribution, and normal distribution, through practical computational problems.

Activity 2: Application of Probability Theory

P3(a): Defective Parts and Conditional Probability (Bayes' Theorem)

The Data Analytics Department has compiled data on computer parts suppliers and their
defective rates. We need to determine the probability of defective parts from three suppliers and
deduce the conditional probabilities that a defective part came from each specific supplier using
Bayes' Theorem.

Given Data:

 Supplier X: 45% of parts, 6% defective.

o P(X)=0.45Error! Filename not specified.
o P(Defective∣X)=0.06Error! Filename not specified.
 Supplier Y: 25% of parts, 3% defective.
o P(Y)=0.25Error! Filename not specified.
o P(Defective∣Y)=0.03Error! Filename not specified.
 Supplier Z: 30% of parts, 5% defective.
o P(Z)=0.30Error! Filename not specified.
o P(Defective∣Z)=0.05Error! Filename not specified.

Technique Used: Bayes' Theorem Bayes' Theorem describes the probability of an event, based
on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the event. The formula is:
P(A∣B)=P(B)P(B∣A)×P(A)Error! Filename not specified.

First, we need to calculate the overall probability of a part being defective, P(Defective), using
the law of total probability: P(Defective)=P(Defective∣X)P(X)+P(Defective∣Y)P(Y)
+P(Defective∣Z)P(Z)Error! Filename not specified.
Calculation of Overall Probability of Defective Part:
P(Defective)=(0.06×0.45)+(0.03×0.25)+(0.05×0.30) P(Defective)=0.027+0.0075+0.015
P(Defective)=0.0495Error! Filename not specified.

So, the probability that an assembled computer has a defective part is 4.95%.

Calculation of Conditional Probabilities (using Bayes' Theorem):

1. Probability that the defective part came from Supplier X, P(X∣Defective):

P(X∣Defective)=P(Defective)P(Defective∣X)P(X) P(X∣Defective)=0.04950.06×0.45
=0.04950.027≈0.5455Error! Filename not specified.
2. Probability that the defective part came from Supplier Y, P(Y∣Defective):
P(Y∣Defective)=P(Defective)P(Defective∣Y)P(Y) P(Y∣Defective)=0.04950.03×0.25
=0.04950.0075≈0.1515Error! Filename not specified.
3. Probability that the defective part came from Supplier Z, P(Z∣Defective):
P(Z∣Defective)=P(Defective)P(Defective∣Z)P(Z) P(Z∣Defective)=0.04950.05×0.30
=0.04950.015≈0.3030Error! Filename not specified.

Results:

 The overall probability of a defective part is 0.0495 (4.95%).

 The conditional probabilities are:
o P(X∣Defective)≈0.5455 (54.55%)
o P(Y∣Defective)≈0.1515 (15.15%)
o P(Z∣Defective)≈0.3030 (30.30%)

These results are crucial for the Data Analytics Department to identify the most problematic
suppliers and focus quality control efforts effectively.

P4(b): Web Server Requests using Binomial Distribution

The Web Development Department monitors web server requests, which are assumed to follow a
binomial distribution.

Given Information:

 Mean arrival rate: R requests per minute.

 From the student data table, let your specific value for R be [Your Student's 'R' Value
Here].

For a binomial distribution, the mean is given by μ=np, where n is the number of trials and p is
the probability of success. Since this is modeling arrival rate, it's more typical for this to be a
Poisson distribution. However, the problem explicitly states "binomial distribution with a mean
arrival rate of R requests per minute". This implies that 'R' is the expected value of a binomial
distribution. If we assume a very large number of "trials" (e.g., individual requests arriving or
not) over a minute, and a very small probability for each, it approximates a Poisson. However,
adhering to the prompt's explicit statement of binomial distribution and given only 'R', it implies
n and p are implicitly chosen such that np=R. For a discrete random variable where we are
looking for the number of requests in a minute, and given only R, it's challenging to define n and
p for a binomial directly without more context.

Given the phrasing "calculate the probability of receiving exactly 3 requests in a minute" and
"fewer than 2 requests", along with "mean arrival rate of R", it strongly suggests a Poisson
distribution would be more appropriate for arrival rate. However, if we must interpret it as a
binomial, we would need n and p. Since only R is given, and typically R is the mean of a Poisson,
I will assume the question intends a Poisson distribution for the probability calculations, as it fits
the "mean arrival rate" context for discrete events over time much better than a pure binomial
where n would be explicitly known. If it is strictly binomial, n is missing.

Reinterpretation for a practical solution: If R is truly the mean arrival rate, and assuming the
problem implies a Poisson process (which is often used for arrival rates and can be approximated
by binomial under certain conditions), then for Poisson distribution:

 λ=R (average number of events in a fixed interval)

 Probability Mass Function (PMF): P(X=k)=k!e−λλkError! Filename not specified.
 Expected Value: E(X)=λ=RError! Filename not specified.

If we must stick to binomial (and assuming n is not explicitly given, which makes the problem
ill-defined for a strict binomial calculation without further assumptions on n and p): The phrasing
"mean arrival rate of R requests per minute" usually points to Poisson. If this is strictly a
binomial problem, we are missing n (total trials) and p (probability of success in one trial).
Without them, we cannot calculate specific binomial probabilities.

Assuming the intent is Poisson due to "mean arrival rate": Let

λ=[Your Student’s ’R’ Value Here].

1. Calculate the probability of receiving exactly 3 requests in a minute (P(X=3)):

P(X=3)=3!e−λλ3 P(X=3)=6e−[Your Student’s ’R’ Value Here]
([Your Student’s ’R’ Value Here])3Error! Filename not specified.
2. Determine the probability of receiving fewer than 2 requests in a minute (P(X<2)):
P(X<2)=P(X=0)+P(X=1) P(X=0)=0!e−λλ0=e−λ P(X=1)=1!e−λλ1=λe−λ P(X<2)=e−
[Your Student’s ’R’ Value Here]+[Your Student’s ’R’ Value Here]e−[Your Student’s ’R’
Value Here]Error! Filename not specified.
3. Find the expected number of requests per minute: For a Poisson distribution, the
expected number of requests is simply λ. Expected requests = [Your Student's 'R' Value
Here]

(Once you provide your Student ID, these calculations will be completed with your specific
values using the Poisson distribution interpretation, as it's the standard for arrival rates. If you
have clarification on how "binomial distribution" specifically applies to an arrival rate R
without n or p, please let me know.)
P4(c): Website Visitor Purchase Probability (Binomial Distribution)

The Web Development Department wants to calculate the probability of a certain number of
purchases out of selected website visitors, using the binomial distribution.

Given Information:

 Probability of a single website visitor making a purchase (p): 0.2 (20%)

 Number of randomly selected website visitors (n): 10
 Number of successes (exactly 3 purchases) (k): 3

Technique Used: Binomial Probability Formula The probability of exactly k successes in n

trials, with the probability of success p on each trial, is given by: P(X=k)=(kn)pk(1−p)n−k where
(kn)=k!(n−k)!n!Error! Filename not specified.

Calculation: P(X=3)=(310)(0.2)3(1−0.2)10−3 P(X=3)=3!(10−3)!10!(0.2)3(0.8)7 P(X=3)=3!7!

10!×0.008×0.2097152Error! Filename not specified.

First, calculate (310): (310)=3×2×110×9×8=10×3×4=120Error! Filename not specified.

Now, complete the probability calculation: P(X=3)=120×0.008×0.2097152

P(X=3)=0.96×0.2097152 P(X=3)≈0.2013Error! Filename not specified.

Result: The probability that out of 10 randomly selected website visitors, exactly 3 of them will
make a purchase is approximately 0.2013 or 20.13%.

This demonstrates how binomial distribution helps in predicting outcomes of a fixed number of
independent trials, useful in A/B testing, conversion rate analysis, and resource planning.

D2(d): Hashing and Load Balancing Efficiency

The Web Development Department is designing a distributed key-value store system and needs
to evaluate the probability theory behind hashing and load balancing algorithms to optimize
system performance, specifically regarding hash collisions and their impact on efficiency.

Evaluation of Probability Theory in Hashing and Load Balancing:

1. Hash Collisions and the Birthday Problem:

o Hashing: A hash function maps data of arbitrary size to a fixed-size value (the
hash). In distributed systems, hashes are often used to determine which server or
node a piece of data should reside on (e.g., consistent hashing).
o Hash Collision: A collision occurs when two different inputs produce the same
hash output. While ideally a hash function distributes keys uniformly across the
address space, collisions are inevitable due to the pigeonhole principle (more
possible inputs than outputs).
 o Birthday Problem Analogy: The probability of hash collisions can be
understood through the "Birthday Problem." This states that in a group of just 23
people, there's a greater than 50% chance that two people share the same birthday.
Similarly, with M possible hash values, the probability of a collision becomes
surprisingly high after a relatively small number of items (N≈M) have been
hashed.
o Impact: Collisions can degrade performance in key-value stores because they
require additional mechanisms (e.g., chaining, open addressing) to resolve,
leading to slower lookup, insertion, and deletion operations. A higher collision
rate means more computational overhead and reduced efficiency.
2. Load Balancing Efficiency:
o Load Balancing: The process of distributing incoming network traffic across
multiple servers to ensure no single server is overloaded, improving
responsiveness and availability. Hashing plays a crucial role in directing requests
to specific servers based on keys (e.g., user ID, session ID).
o Probabilistic Distribution: Ideally, a load balancing algorithm (often using
hashing) aims for a uniform distribution of load across all available servers.
Probability theory helps analyze how well a given hashing strategy achieves this
uniformity.
o Impact of Collisions/Non-Uniformity: If the hash function produces a non-
uniform distribution (i.e., too many keys map to the same server, effectively
creating "hot spots" or "hash buckets"), it leads to:
 Imbalanced Load: Some servers become overloaded while others are
underutilized, negating the benefits of load balancing.
 Increased Latency: Requests directed to overloaded servers experience
delays.
 Reduced Throughput: The overall capacity of the system is bottlenecked
by the most loaded servers.
 Scalability Challenges: Adding more servers might not alleviate the issue
if the hashing doesn't distribute the load correctly.
3. Mitigation Strategies and Probabilistic Analysis:
o To optimize performance, probability theory guides the design of better hash
functions (e.g., cryptographic hash functions, universal hashing families that offer
probabilistic guarantees against collisions).
o Techniques like Consistent Hashing are designed to minimize key remapping
when servers are added or removed, improving system stability and reducing data
migration, thereby enhancing load balancing efficiency in dynamic environments.
Its probabilistic properties ensure a relatively even distribution of keys even with
changing server pools.
o Probabilistic models help in estimating the expected number of collisions,
determining optimal table sizes, and choosing appropriate collision resolution
strategies to maintain desired performance levels.

In conclusion, understanding the probability theory behind hash collisions and their implications
for load balancing is critical for designing efficient and fault-tolerant distributed key-value store
systems. By minimizing the probability of severe load imbalances due to hashing, MGR can
ensure their system efficiently handles millions of requests per second, maintaining data integrity
and fault tolerance for large-scale web applications.

M2(e): Customer Service Call Resolution Time (Normal Distribution)

The Research and Development Department is analyzing customer service call resolution times,
which follow a normal distribution.

Given Information:

 Average resolution time (μ): 20 minutes

 Standard deviation (σ): 4 minutes

Technique Used: Normal Distribution and Z-scores The normal distribution is a continuous
probability distribution that is symmetric about its mean. Many natural phenomena follow this
distribution. To calculate probabilities for a normal distribution, we typically convert the values
to Z-scores.

 Z-score formula: Z=σX−μError! Filename not specified.

o A Z-score represents the number of standard deviations a data point is from the
mean.
 Once the Z-score is calculated, we use a standard normal (Z) table or statistical software
to find the corresponding probability.

Calculations:

1. Probability that a call will be resolved in under 15 minutes (P(X<15)):

o Calculate Z-score for X=15: Z=415−20=4−5=−1.25Error! Filename not
specified.
o Using a Z-table (or calculator), P(Z<−1.25)≈0.10565.
2. The percentage of calls that take longer than 25 minutes to resolve (P(X>25)):
o Calculate Z-score for X=25: Z=425−20=45=1.25Error! Filename not specified.
o Using a Z-table, P(Z>1.25)=1−P(Z≤1.25)=1−0.89435≈0.10565.
o Percentage: 0.10565×100Error! Filename not specified.
3. The time range within which T% of calls are expected to be resolved:
o From the student data table, let your specific value for T be [Your Student's 'T'
Value Here].
o This typically refers to a central percentage, meaning we want to find X1 and X2
such that P(X1<X<X2)=T.
o Assuming T represents the central area, the tails would each have (100−T)
probability.
o Let's find the Z-scores corresponding to the cumulative probabilities of (100−T)/2
and 100−(100−T)/2.
o For example, if T=95, then the tails are (100−95)/2=2.5.
o We need to find Z1 such that P(Z<Z1)=0.025 and Z2 such that P(Z<Z2)=0.975.
o From the Z-table, Z1≈−1.96 and Z2≈1.96.
 o Now, convert Z-scores back to X values:
 X1=μ+Z1σ=20+(−1.96)×4=20−7.84=12.16 minutes
 X2=μ+Z2σ=20+(1.96)×4=20+7.84=27.84 minutes
o So, for T=95, the time range is approximately 12.16 to 27.84 minutes.

(Once you provide your Student ID and thus your 'T' value, I will perform the calculation for the
time range based on your specific 'T' percentage.)

Results:

 Probability of call resolved in under 15 minutes: Approximately 10.57%.

 Percentage of calls longer than 25 minutes: Approximately 10.57%.
 Time range for T% of calls: (Calculation pending Student 'T' value)

Normal distribution analysis is vital in various computational fields, including quality control,
performance analysis, and risk assessment, allowing for effective resource allocation and process
optimization.

(Please provide your Student ID to allow me to complete the specific calculations for P4(b) and
M2(e).)

Technical Report: Application of Geometry

and Vector Methods to Computational
Problems
Introduction
Geometry and vector methods are fundamental mathematical tools that provide a powerful
framework for describing and analyzing spatial relationships, motion, and transformations. In the
realm of computing, these concepts are indispensable for fields such as computer graphics,
robotics, game development, autonomous systems, and data visualization. This report explores
various applications of geometry and vector methods, including identifying shapes, calculating
distances and directions in 2D and 3D space, analyzing geometric transformations, and
evaluating coordinate systems.

Activity 3: Application of Geometry and Vector

Mathematics
P5(a): Identifying Shapes from Vectors and Coordinates

The Engineering Department uses vector methods to model the movement and orientation of
autonomous vehicles. We need to identify the shapes formed by connecting given points or
vectors.

Part 1: Shape formed by points A, B, C, D

Given Points (as position vectors):

 A=2i+3j⇒(2,3)Error! Filename not specified.

 B=6i+3j⇒(6,3)Error! Filename not specified.
 C=6i+7j⇒(6,7)Error! Filename not specified.
 D=2i+7j⇒(2,7)Error! Filename not specified.

Analysis Technique: We can determine the type of quadrilateral by examining the properties of
its sides (lengths and slopes) and angles.

Calculation:

1. Lengths of Sides:
o AB=(6−2)2+(3−3)2=42+02=16=4Error! Filename not specified.
o BC=(6−6)2+(7−3)2=02+42=16=4Error! Filename not specified.
o CD=(2−6)2+(7−7)2=(−4)2+02=16=4Error! Filename not specified.
o DA=(2−2)2+(3−7)2=02+(−4)2=16=4Error! Filename not specified.
o All sides are equal in length.
2. Slopes of Sides (to check for perpendicularity/parallelism):
o Slope of AB: mAB=(3−3)/(6−2)=0/4=0 (Horizontal)
o Slope of BC: mBC=(7−3)/(6−6)=4/0 (Undefined - Vertical)
o Slope of CD: mCD=(7−7)/(2−6)=0/−4=0 (Horizontal)
o Slope of DA: mDA=(3−7)/(2−2)=−4/0 (Undefined - Vertical)

Result: Since AB is parallel to CD (both horizontal) and BC is parallel to DA (both vertical),

and adjacent sides (AB and BC) are perpendicular (horizontal and vertical lines), and all sides
are of equal length (4 units), the shape formed by connecting points A, B, C, and D is a Square.

Part 2: Type of Quadrilateral formed by vectors AB, AC, BC

Given Vectors:

 AB=3i+5jError! Filename not specified.

 AC=6i+6jError! Filename not specified.
 BC=3i+jError! Filename not specified.

Analysis Technique: The problem asks to "find AD first" for a quadrilateral ABCD, but
provides vectors AB, AC, and BC. These three vectors describe a triangle ABC, not a
quadrilateral directly. If ABCD is a quadrilateral, then AD would be a vector from A to D. The
typical way to determine the type of quadrilateral from its side vectors (or coordinates of its
vertices) is to check parallelism, perpendicularity, and lengths of sides. The given vectors seem
to define a triangle.

Let's assume the question implies we are given vectors that form a triangle ABC and we need to
deduce its properties, or that there's a misunderstanding in how the vectors define a quadrilateral
ABCD without additional information about point D relative to A, B, C.

If the vectors AB, AC, and BC are side vectors of a triangle ABC:

∣AB∣=32+52=9+25=34Error! Filename not specified.

∣AC∣=62+62=36+36=72=62Error! Filename not specified.


∣BC∣=32+12=9+1=10Error! Filename not specified.




Since no two sides are equal and 34+10=72, it is a scalene triangle and not a right-angled
triangle.

Re-interpretation for a Quadrilateral ABCD: If AB, AC, and BC are given as relationships
between points that define a quadrilateral ABCD, it's usually interpreted as having vertices A, B,
C, D. The instruction "find AD first" implies that AD is needed to characterize the quadrilateral.
If the vertices are A, B, C, D in order:

 AB=B−AError! Filename not specified.

 BC=C−BError! Filename not specified.
 CD=D−CError! Filename not specified.
 DA=A−DError! Filename not specified.

From the given: AB=(3,5) BC=(3,1)Error! Filename not specified.

To find AC, we know AC=AB+BC if A, B, C are consecutive vertices.

AB+BC=(3+3)i+(5+1)j=6i+6j. This matches the given AC, so the points A, B, C form a triangle.

The problem statement "determine the type of quadrilateral formed by connecting the points A,
B, C and D such that AB=3i+5j, AC=6i+6j and BC=3i+j. In this case, you need to find AD first."
is slightly ambiguous. If A, B, C, D are sequential vertices of a quadrilateral, then:
AD=AB+BC+CD. But CD is unknown.

Alternatively, if these are simply vector representations of sides of some quadrilateral and not
necessarily sequential, the problem is under-defined without coordinates for at least A, or more
vectors.

Given the phrasing, it's most likely that the intention is to use the relationships between points
and vectors to find AD. Since AC=AB+BC (vector addition for triangle ABC), if ABCD is a
quadrilateral, and A, B, C are consecutive points, we need to know something about D.
Assuming it implies a parallelogram: If ABCD is a parallelogram, then AD=BC. So, AD=3i+j.
Then, the vertices could be: A = (0,0) (for simplicity of starting point) B = (3,5) C = (6,6) (since
OC=OA+AC=(0,0)+(6,6)) D = (3,1) (since OD=OA+AD=(0,0)+(3,1))

Let's check if ABCD is a parallelogram by checking if AB=DC and AD=BC. AB=(3,5)

BC=(3,1) CD=D−C=(3−6)i+(1−6)j=−3i−5j DA=A−D=(0−3)i+(0−1)j=−3i−jError! Filename
not specified.

Here, AB=DC and AD=BC. So it is not a parallelogram directly from this interpretation.

Most plausible interpretation: The problem is giving vectors AB, AC, and BC as components
and then asking to find AD and then identify a quadrilateral. This is a common setup if AB and
BC are two sides, and AD is another side.

Given A,B,C define a triangle where AC=AB+BC holds, it strongly indicates that these are
vectors representing two sides and a diagonal (or three sides of a triangle). If it's a quadrilateral
ABCD, then AD is not directly defined by AB,AC,BC without more context.

Without further clarification, it's highly probable the question expects a property of the

AD=BC. If AD=BC=3i+j, then we have a parallelogram ABCD. Length of sides: ∣AB∣=34

triangle ABC and then how D relates to it, perhaps forming a parallelogram where

∣BC∣=10 ∣CD∣=∣AB∣=34 ∣DA∣=∣BC∣=10Error! Filename not specified.

Since adjacent sides (34 and 10) are not equal, and the diagonals are not equal (e.g., ∣AC∣=72),
this is a parallelogram.

Let's assume the task is to identify the quadrilateral ABCD where AD is defined such that it
forms a standard quadrilateral type. If we take A,B,C as points, and AD=BC, then it is a
parallelogram.

Result: Assuming the intent is to form a parallelogram where AD is parallel and equal in length
to BC, then:

 AD=3i+j.
 The quadrilateral formed is a Parallelogram.

P6(b): Direction and Distance in 3D Space

An autonomous vehicle needs to orient itself toward a target in 3D space.

Given Information:

 Current location: (1,3,4)Error! Filename not specified.

 Target location: (5,9,12)Error! Filename not specified.

Technique Used: Vector Subtraction, Magnitude, and Unit Vector

 1. Direction Vector: The direction vector from point P1(x1,y1,z1) to P2(x2,y2,z2) is given
by P1P2=(x2−x1)i+(y2−y1)j+(z2−z1)k.

vector) is ∣P1P2∣=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2+(z2−z1)2.
2. Magnitude (Distance): The distance between two points (magnitude of the direction

3. Unit Vector: A unit vector in the direction of v is v^=∣v∣v.

Calculation:

1. Determine the direction vector:

o v=(5−1)i+(9−3)j+(12−4)kError! Filename not specified.
o v=4i+6j+8kError! Filename not specified.
2. Calculate the distance between the points:
o Distance =∣v∣=42+62+82Error! Filename not specified.
o Distance =16+36+64Error! Filename not specified.
o Distance =116≈10.77 units
3. Normalize it to get the unit vector:
o Unit vector v^=1164i+6j+8kError! Filename not specified.
o v^=1164i+1166j+1168kError! Filename not specified.
o v^≈0.371i+0.557j+0.743kError! Filename not specified.

Results:

 Direction Vector: 4i+6j+8kError! Filename not specified.

 Distance: 116≈10.77 units
 Unit Vector: ≈0.371i+0.557j+0.743kError! Filename not specified.

These calculations are crucial for autonomous navigation systems to determine precise
movements and orientations.

P6(c): Properties of a Circle

The Engineering Department has provided the equation of a circle. We need to identify its center
and radius, and determine if a given point lies inside, outside, or on the circle.

Given Information:

 Equation of a circle: 3x2+3y2−6x+9y+5=0Error! Filename not specified.

 Point (x,y) to test (from student data table): [Your Student's '(x,y)' Value Here]

Technique Used: Completing the Square and Distance Formula

1. Standard Form of a Circle: The general equation of a circle is (x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2,

where (h,k) is the center and r is the radius.
2. Completing the Square: To convert the given equation to standard form, we divide by
the coefficient of x2 and y2 (if not 1) and then complete the square for both x and y
terms.
 3. Distance Test: For a point (xp,yp) and a circle with center (h,k) and radius r:
o If (xp−h)2+(yp−k)2<r2, the point is inside the circle.
o If (xp−h)2+(yp−k)2=r2, the point is on the circle.
o If (xp−h)2+(yp−k)2>r2, the point is outside the circle.

Calculation:

1. Convert to Standard Form:

o Divide by 3: x2+y2−2x+3y+35=0Error! Filename not specified.
o Rearrange terms: (x2−2x)+(y2+3y)=−35Error! Filename not specified.
o Complete the square for x: (x2−2x+1)⇒(x−1)2Error! Filename not specified.
o Complete the square for y: (y2+3y+(23)2)⇒(y+23)2Error! Filename not
specified.
o Add constants to both sides: (x−1)2+(y+23)2=−35+1+(23)2 (x−1)2+(y+23)2=−35
+1+49 (x−1)2+(y+23)2=12−20+12+27 (x−1)2+(y+23)2=1219Error! Filename
not specified.
2. Identify Center and Radius:
o Center (h,k)=(1,−23) or (1,−1.5)Error! Filename not specified.
o Radius r=1219≈1.5833≈1.258Error! Filename not specified.
3. Determine if point (x,y) lies inside, outside, or on the circle (Requires Student Data):
o Let the given point be (xp,yp)=[Your Student’s ’(x,y)’ Value Here].
o Calculate D2=(xp−1)2+(yp+23)2.
o Compare D2 with r2=1219.
o If D2<1219, the point is inside.
o If D2=1219, the point is on the circle.
o If D2>1219, the point is outside.

(Once you provide your Student ID, these calculations will be completed with your specific
values.)

P6(d): Triangle Properties in 3D Space

The Engineering Department has provided the vertices of a triangle in 3D space. We need to
determine the vectors between vertices, the angle between two vectors, and the area of the
triangle.

Given Information:

 Vertices:
o A=(3i+2j+9k)⇒(3,2,9)Error! Filename not specified.
o B=(−5i+11j+6k)⇒(−5,11,6)Error! Filename not specified.
o C=(4i+0j−8k)⇒(4,0,−8)Error! Filename not specified.

Technique Used: Vector Subtraction, Dot Product, and Cross Product

 1. Vector between two points: PQ=Q−P.
2. Angle between two vectors: cosθ=∣u∣∣v∣u⋅v.
3. Area of a triangle: Area =21∣u×v∣, where u and v are two sides of the triangle originating
from the same vertex.

Calculations:

1. Determine the vectors AB and AC in component form:

o AB=B−A=(−5−3)i+(11−2)j+(6−9)k=−8i+9j−3kError! Filename not specified.
o AC=C−A=(4−3)i+(0−2)j+(−8−9)k=1i−2j−17kError! Filename not specified.
2. Determine the angle BAC to the nearest degree:
o This is the angle between AB and AC.
o Calculate dot product: AB⋅AC=(−8)(1)+(9)(−2)+(−3)(−17)=−8−18+51=25Error!
Filename not specified.

 ∣AB∣=(−8)2+92+(−3)2=64+81+9=154Error! Filename not specified.

o Calculate magnitudes:

 ∣AC∣=12+(−2)2+(−17)2=1+4+289=294Error! Filename not specified.

o Calculate cos(BAC): cos(BAC)=154×29425=4527625=212.78125
cos(BAC)≈0.1175Error! Filename not specified.
o Angle BAC =arccos(0.1175)≈83.25∘≈83∘ (to the nearest degree)
3. Determine the area of the triangle ABC:
o Calculate the cross product AB×AC: AB×AC=ijk −89−3 1−2−17 =i((9)(−17)−
(−3)(−2))−j((−8)(−17)−(−3)(1))+k((−8)(−2)−(9)(1))

o Calculate the magnitude of the cross product: ∣AB×AC∣=(−159)2+(−139)2+72

=i(−153−6)−j(136+3)+k(16−9) =−159i−139j+7kError! Filename not specified.

=25281+19321+49=44651≈211.31Error! Filename not specified.

o Area of triangle ABC =21∣AB×AC∣=2144651≈21×211.31≈105.66 square units.

Results:

 AB=−8i+9j−3kError! Filename not specified.

 AC=1i−2j−17kError! Filename not specified.
 Angle BAC ≈83∘Error! Filename not specified.
 Area of triangle ABC ≈105.66 square units

Vector methods are critical for analyzing motion, collision detection, and spatial relationships in
3D environments, vital for robotics, animation, and autonomous systems.

M3(e): Coordinate System for a Simple Output Device

The Engineering Department is considering an 8×8 pixel graphical display or LED grid. We
need to evaluate the coordinate system used in programming this device, considering resolution,
pixel addressing, and programming factors.

Evaluation of Coordinate System:

 1. Resolution Factors:
o Definition: An 8×8 pixel display has a very low resolution, meaning it can
display only 64 distinct points of light. The resolution directly impacts the level of
detail and complexity of graphics that can be rendered.
o Implications: For such a low resolution, complex shapes or high-fidelity images
are not feasible. Simple geometric shapes (lines, squares, basic characters) or low-
resolution sprites are the primary output. The coordinate system must effectively
map these simple shapes to the limited grid.
o Scaling: Any drawing commands (e.g., drawing a line from (0,0) to (7,7)) are
directly tied to these discrete pixel positions. Upscaling or downscaling would
lead to significant pixelation or loss of detail.
2. Pixel Addressing Factors:
o Origin (0,0): Typically, in computer graphics, the origin (0,0) for a 2D display is
located at the top-left corner of the display. The x-coordinate increases to the
right, and the y-coordinate increases downwards. This is common in many display
systems and programming environments (e.g., HTML Canvas, various GUI
toolkits).
o Addressing Scheme: Each pixel can be uniquely addressed using its (x,y)
coordinates, where x ranges from 0 to 7 and y ranges from 0 to 7.
o Discrete Nature: The coordinate system is discrete; there are no fractional pixel
positions. All drawing operations must snap to the nearest integer pixel
coordinates. This simplifies calculations but limits precision.
o Memory Mapping: Pixels are often stored in a linear array in memory, and the
2D (x,y) coordinate is mapped to a 1D array index (e.g., index = y * width +
x).
3. Programming Factors:
o Simplicity: For an 8×8 grid, a simple 2D integer-based coordinate system is
highly effective. Transformations (translation, rotation, scaling) would be applied
to these integer coordinates.
o Direct Pixel Manipulation: Programming would often involve direct
manipulation of pixel states (on/off, color). Functions like setPixel(x, y,
color) or getPixel(x, y) would be common.
o Loops: Iterating through pixels would involve nested loops: for y from 0 to
7, for x from 0 to 7.
o Graphics Primitives: Basic drawing functions (e.g., line drawing algorithms like
Bresenham's, circle drawing algorithms) would need to be implemented or
provided by a low-level graphics library that operates on these discrete
coordinates.
o Memory Efficiency: An 8×8 display requires very little memory to store pixel
states, making it suitable for embedded systems or microcontrollers.

In summary, the coordinate system for an 8×8 pixel output device is typically a top-left origin,
integer-based 2D grid. Its simplicity aligns with the low resolution and facilitates direct pixel
manipulation and basic graphical programming, which is suitable for the intended use in
programming simple output devices.
D3(f): Scaling and Rotation of a Pentagon

The Engineering Department wants to apply geometric transformations (rotation and scaling) to
a pentagon described by vector coordinates.

Given Information:

 Pentagon Vertices: A(−1,−1),B(−5,−2),C(−6,−4),D(−4,−7),E(−2,−3)Error! Filename

not specified.
 Rotation: 180∘ clockwise about the origin
 Scaling factor: F (from student data table)

Technique Used: Transformation Matrices Geometric transformations (rotation, scaling,

translation) can be efficiently performed using matrix multiplication.

1. Rotation Matrix (180° clockwise about origin): A 180∘ clockwise rotation about the
origin is equivalent to a 180∘ counter-clockwise rotation, which means (x,y)→(−x,−y).
The rotation matrix R180∘=(cos(180∘)−sin(180∘) sin(180∘)cos(180∘))=(−10 0−1).
2. Scaling Matrix: Scaling by a factor F about the origin: The scaling matrix SF=(F0 0F).

Calculations:

1. Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the image after 180∘ clockwise rotation
about the origin: Apply the rotation matrix to each vertex (x,y): x′=−1×x+0×y=−x y
′=0×x+(−1)×y=−yError! Filename not specified.
o A′=(−(−1),−(−1))=(1,1)Error! Filename not specified.
o B′=(−(−5),−(−2))=(5,2)Error! Filename not specified.
o C′=(−(−6),−(−4))=(6,4)Error! Filename not specified.
o D′=(−(−4),−(−7))=(4,7)Error! Filename not specified.
o E′=(−(−2),−(−3))=(2,3)Error! Filename not specified.
2. Scale this pentagon by a factor of F (Requires Student Data): First, the rotation is
applied, then the scaling. We will scale the rotated vertices A′,B′,C′,D′,E′. From the
student data table, let your specific value for F be [Your Student's 'F' Value Here].
Apply the scaling factor to each rotated vertex (x′,y′): x′′=F×x′ y′′=F×y′Error! Filename
not specified.
o A′′=([Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here]×1,[Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here
]×1)Error! Filename not specified.
o B′′=([Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here]×5,[Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here
]×2)Error! Filename not specified.
o C′′=([Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here]×6,[Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here
]×4)Error! Filename not specified.
o D′′=([Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here]×4,[Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here
]×7)Error! Filename not specified.
o E′′=([Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here]×2,[Your Student’s ’F’ Value Here
]×3)Error! Filename not specified.
(Once you provide your Student ID, these calculations will be completed with your specific
values.)

Results:

 Rotated Vertices: A′(1,1),B′(5,2),C′(6,4),D′(4,7),E′(2,3)Error! Filename not specified.

 Scaled Vertices: (Calculation pending Student 'F' value)

Geometric transformations are crucial in computer graphics for rendering 2D and 3D scenes,
animating objects, and processing images. In autonomous vehicles, these transformations are
used for tasks like map manipulation, sensor data processing, and path planning.

(Please provide your Student ID to allow me to complete the specific calculations for P6(c) and
D3(f).)

Technical Report: Application of Differential

and Integral Calculus to Computational
Problems
Introduction
Differential and integral calculus are powerful branches of mathematics that deal with rates of
change and accumulation of quantities, respectively. These concepts are indispensable in
computing for tasks requiring optimization, modeling continuous phenomena, data analysis,
machine learning, and simulations. This report will explore various applications of differential
and integral calculus, including finding derivatives of functions, determining areas under curves,
analyzing maxima and minima, and solving optimization problems, all within the context of
computational challenges.

Activity 4: Application of Differential and Integral Calculus

P7(a): Derivative of the Logistic Function

The Engineering Department uses logistic regression for binary classification, which relies on
the logistic function. We need to find the derivative of this function.

Given Function: The logistic function is given by: f(x)=1+e−x1Error! Filename not specified.
Technique Used: Quotient Rule or Chain Rule We can rewrite the function as f(x)=(1+e−x)−1
and apply the chain rule, or use the quotient rule:

 Quotient Rule: If f(x)=v(x)u(x), then f′(x)=(v(x))2u′(x)v(x)−u(x)v′(x). Here, u(x)=1⇒u′

(x)=0 v(x)=1+e−x⇒v′(x)=−e−xError! Filename not specified.

Calculation (using Quotient Rule): f′(x)=(1+e−x)2(0)(1+e−x)−(1)(−e−x) f′(x)=(1+e−x)2e−x

Error! Filename not specified.

Alternatively, notice that f(x)=1+e−x1. The derivative can also be expressed in terms of f(x): f′
(x)=(1+e−x)2e−x=1+e−x1⋅1+e−xe−x=f(x)⋅(1−f(x)) So, f′(x)=f(x)(1−f(x))Error! Filename not
specified.

Result: The derivative of the logistic function f(x)=1+e−x1 is f′(x)=(1+e−x)2e−x or f′(x)=f(x)

(1−f(x)).

This derivative is crucial in machine learning algorithms like gradient descent for training
logistic regression models, as it indicates the rate of change of the probability with respect to the
input, guiding the optimization process.

P8(b): Area of the Region Bounded by a Parabola and a Line

The Engineering Department needs to determine the area covered by a car's sensors, defined by a
region bounded by a parabola and a line.

Given Information:

 Parabola: y=x2−2x+1Error! Filename not specified.

 Line: y=x+1Error! Filename not specified.

Technique Used: Integral Calculus for Area Between Curves The area between two curves,
f(x) and g(x), over an interval [a,b] where f(x)≥g(x), is given by ∫ab(f(x)−g(x))dx.

Calculations:

1. Identify the points of intersection of the curve and straight line: Set the equations
equal to each other to find the x-coordinates of intersection: x2−2x+1=x+1 x2−3x=0
x(x−3)=0 So, the points of intersection occur at x=0 and x=3.

To find the y-coordinates: For x=0,y=0+1=1. Intersection point: (0,1). For x=3,y=3+1=4.
Intersection point: (3,4).

2. Evaluate the area of the region where the sensor detects objects: First, determine
which function is "above" the other in the interval [0,3]. Test a point, e.g., x=1:
o Parabola: y=12−2(1)+1=0Error! Filename not specified.
 o Line: y=1+1=2 Since 2>0, the line y=x+1 is the upper function. Area =∫03((x+1)−
(x2−2x+1))dx Area =∫03(x+1−x2+2x−1)dx Area =∫03(−x2+3x)dx Area =[−3x3
+23x2]03 Area =(−333+23(32))−(−303+23(02)) Area =(−327+227)−(0) Area
=(−9+13.5) Area =4.5 square units.

Results:

 Points of intersection: (0,1) and (3,4).

 Area of the region: 4.5 square units.

This application of integral calculus allows engineers to precisely quantify sensor coverage
areas, which is vital for designing robust object detection and tracking systems in autonomous
vehicles.

P7(c): Differentiation of Engineering Functions

The Engineering Department requires the application of basic differentiation principles to

various engineering functions.

Technique Used: Product Rule, Quotient Rule, Chain Rule, Implicit Differentiation, and
Parametric Differentiation.

 Product Rule: (uv)′=u′v+uv′Error! Filename not specified.

 Quotient Rule: (vu)′=v2u′v−uv′Error! Filename not specified.
 Chain Rule: dxdy=dudydxduError! Filename not specified.
 Implicit Differentiation: Differentiate both sides with respect to x, treating y as a
function of x.
 Parametric Differentiation: dxdy=dx/dθdy/dθError! Filename not specified.

Calculations:

(i) y=3eθsinθ (assuming θ is the variable of differentiation, y is a function of θ) This requires

the product rule. Let u=3eθ and v=sinθ. u′=3eθ v′=cosθ dθdy=u′v+uv′=(3eθ)(sinθ)+(3eθ)(cosθ)
dθdy=3eθ(sinθ+cosθ)Error! Filename not specified.

(ii) y=tln(5t) (assuming t is the variable of differentiation) This requires the product rule. Let
u=t=t1/2 and v=ln(5t). u′=21t−1/2=2t1 v′=5t1×5=t1 (using chain rule for ln(5t)) dtdy=u′v+uv
′=(2t1)(ln(5t))+(t)(t1) dtdy=2tln(5t)+t1 dtdy=2tln(5t)+2Error! Filename not specified.

(iii) y=5e2tt3=5e2tt3/2 (assuming t is the variable of differentiation) This requires the quotient
rule. Let u=t3/2 and v=5e2t. u′=23t1/2 v′=5×2e2t=10e2t (using chain rule for e2t) dtdy=v2u′v−uv
′=(5e2t)2(23t1/2)(5e2t)−(t3/2)(10e2t) dtdy=25e4te2t(7.5t1/2−10t3/2) dtdy=25e2t7.5t1/2−10t3/2
dtdy=25e2t2.5t1/2(3−4t) dtdy=10e2tt(3−4t)Error! Filename not specified.

(iv) y=sin2x3cosx (assuming x is the variable of differentiation and sin2 is a constant) Since
sin2 is a constant, we can treat y=sin21(x3cosx). This requires the product rule for x3cosx. Let
u=x3 and v=cosx. u′=3x2 v′=−sinx dxdy=sin21(u′v+uv′)=sin21((3x2)(cosx)+(x3)(−sinx)) dxdy
=sin23x2cosx−x3sinxError! Filename not specified.

(v) y=x3+y3+2xy2=16 (Implicit Differentiation) Differentiate both sides with respect to x: dxd
(x3)+dxd(y3)+dxd(2xy2)=dxd(16) 3x2+3y2dxdy+(2⋅y2+2x⋅2ydxdy)=0 (using product rule for
2xy2) 3x2+3y2dxdy+2y2+4xydxdy=0 Group terms with dxdy: (3y2+4xy)dxdy=−3x2−2y2 dxdy
=3y2+4xy−3x2−2y2Error! Filename not specified.

(vi) x=4cosθ, y=sinθ (Parametric Differentiation) We need to find dxdy. First, find dθdx and
dθdy: dθdx=−4sinθ dθdy=cosθ Now, apply the parametric differentiation formula:
dxdy=dx/dθdy/dθ=−4sinθcosθ=−41cotθError! Filename not specified.

Results:

 (i) dθdy=3eθ(sinθ+cosθ)Error! Filename not specified.

 (ii) dtdy=2tln(5t)+2Error! Filename not specified.
 (iii) dtdy=10e2tt(3−4t)Error! Filename not specified.
 (iv) dxdy=sin23x2cosx−x3sinxError! Filename not specified.
 (v) dxdy=3y2+4xy−3x2−2y2Error! Filename not specified.
 (vi) dxdy=−41cotθError! Filename not specified.

These differentiation skills are fundamental for analyzing rates of change, optimization
problems, and modeling dynamic systems in various engineering and computational contexts.

M4(d): Maxima and Minima of an Oscillatory Needle Path

The Engineering Department is analyzing the path of an oscillatory needle, modeled by a

function, to predict component behavior in autonomous vehicles. We need to analyze its
increasing/decreasing behavior and determine its minimum and maximum values using
differentiation.

Given Function: F(x)=x3−2x2−3x+5 From the student data table, let your specific value for F
for the point of interest be [Your Student's 'F' Value Here]. Note that this 'F' in the table seems
to be a coordinate or value related to the problem, not necessarily the function itself. The
function F=x3−2x2−3x+5 will be analyzed independently for its critical points.

Technique Used: First and Second Derivative Tests

1. First Derivative Test:

o Find the first derivative F′(x).
o Set F′(x)=0 to find critical points. These are potential local maxima or minima.
o Test intervals around critical points to determine where the function is increasing
(F′(x)>0) or decreasing (F′(x)<0).
2. Second Derivative Test:
o Find the second derivative F′′(x).
o Evaluate F′′(x) at each critical point.
 If F′′(x)>0, it's a local minimum.
If F′′(x)<0, it's a local maximum.
If F′′(x)=0, the test is inconclusive (could be an inflection point).
3. To analyze behavior:
o Function is increasing when F′(x)>0.
o Function is decreasing when F′(x)<0.

Calculations:

1. First Derivative: F′(x)=dxd(x3−2x2−3x+5)=3x2−4x−3Error! Filename not specified.

2. Find Critical Points (F′(x)=0): 3x2−4x−3=0 Use the quadratic formula x=2a−b±b2−4ac:
x=2(3)−(−4)±(−4)2−4(3)(−3) x=64±16+36 x=64±52 x=64±213 x1=32−13≈32−3.605
≈−0.535 x2=32+13≈32+3.605≈1.868Error! Filename not specified.
3. Analyze Increasing/Decreasing Behavior (First Derivative Test):
o Interval (−∞,x1≈−0.535): Test x=−1. F′(−1)=3(−1)2−4(−1)−3=3+4−3=4>0.
Function is increasing.
o Interval (x1≈−0.535,x2≈1.868): Test x=0. F′(0)=3(0)2−4(0)−3=−3<0. Function
is decreasing.
o Interval (x2≈1.868,∞): Test x=2. F′(2)=3(2)2−4(2)−3=12−8−3=1>0. Function is
increasing.
4. Determine Minimum and Maximum Values (Second Derivative Test):
o Second Derivative: F′′(x)=dxd(3x2−4x−3)=6x−4Error! Filename not specified.
o At x1≈−0.535: F′′(x1)=6(32−13)−4=2(2−13)−4=4−213−4=−213<0. Since F′′(x1
)<0, there is a local maximum at x1≈−0.535.
F(−0.535)=(−0.535)3−2(−0.535)2−3(−0.535)+5≈−0.153−0.572+1.605+5≈5.88Er
ror! Filename not specified.
o At x2≈1.868: F′′(x2)=6(32+13)−4=2(2+13)−4=4+213−4=213>0. Since F′′(x2)>0,
there is a local minimum at x2≈1.868.
F(1.868)=(1.868)3−2(1.868)2−3(1.868)+5≈6.51−6.98−5.60+5≈−1.07Error!
Filename not specified.

Results:

 Behavior: The function F(x) is increasing on (−∞,32−13) and (32+13,∞), and decreasing
on (32−13,32+13).
 Local Maximum: At x≈−0.535, with value F(x)≈5.88.
 Local Minimum: At x≈1.868, with value F(x)≈−1.07.

This analysis of function behavior, maxima, and minima using derivatives is crucial for
optimizing system performance, predicting oscillatory patterns, and ensuring component
reliability in autonomous vehicles.

D4(e): Optimizing Cylindrical Container Volume and Material Usage

The Engineering Department wants to design cylindrical tin containers to maximize volume and
then minimize material for a given volume.
Part 1: Maximizing Volume for a Given Surface Area

Given Information:

 Cylindrical tin container with close-fitting lid overlapping by 1 cm.

 Radii of tin and lid are both x cm.
 Area of thin sheet metal (total surface area) = 80 cm2.
 Volume of the tin = V cm3.

Formulas:

 Surface Area of a cylinder (without lid and base): 2πxhError! Filename not specified.
 Area of base: πx2Error! Filename not specified.
 Area of lid: πx2 (top) + 2πx(1) (side overlap) + πx2 (bottom for tight fit)
o This problem describes "a close-fitting lid which overlaps the tin by 1 cm. The
radii of the tin container and the lid are both x cm."
o A typical lid consists of a circular top (area πx2) and a side wall (area 2πx×1). So,
the lid itself uses πx2+2πx of material.
o The tin consists of a base (πx2) and a cylindrical wall (2πxh).
o Total metal used: Area of tin (base + wall) + Area of lid (top + side).
o Total Surface Area (SA) = (Base of tin) + (Wall of tin) + (Top of lid) + (Side of
lid)
o SA=πx2+2πxh+πx2+2πx(1)Error! Filename not specified.
o SA=2πx2+2πxh+2πx=80Error! Filename not specified.
 Volume of a cylinder: V=πx2hError! Filename not specified.

Calculation:

1. Express h in terms of x from the surface area equation: 80=2πx2+2πxh+2πx

80−2πx2−2πx=2πxh h=2πx80−2πx2−2πx=πx40−πx2−πxError! Filename not specified.
2. Substitute h into the volume equation: V(x)=πx2(πx40−πx2−πx) V(x)=x(40−πx2−πx)
V(x)=40x−πx3−πx2Error! Filename not specified.
3. Find the first derivative of V(x) with respect to x: dxdV=40−3πx2−2πxError!
Filename not specified.
4. Set dxdV=0 to find critical points: 3πx2+2πx−40=0 Use the quadratic formula for x:
x=2a−b±b2−4ac x=2(3π)−2π±(2π)2−4(3π)(−40) x=6π−2π±4π2+480π Since x must be
positive (radius), we take the positive root.
x≈6(3.14159)−2(3.14159)+4(3.14159)2+480(3.14159) x≈18.849−6.283+39.478+1507.96
x≈18.849−6.283+1547.438≈18.849−6.283+39.337≈18.84933.054≈1.7535 cm
5. Justify that this value is a maximum using the second derivative test: dx2d2V
=−6πx−2π Substitute x≈1.7535: dx2d2V=−6π(1.7535)−2π=−10.521π−2π=−12.521π<0.
Since the second derivative is negative, the critical point corresponds to a maximum
volume.
6. Determine the maximum value for volume V:
 First, calculate h for x≈1.7535: h=π(1.7535)40−π(1.7535)2−π(1.7535)
o
h≈5.50940−3.14159(3.0757)−3.14159(1.7535) h≈5.50940−9.663−5.509
≈5.50924.828≈4.507 cm
o Now, calculate Vmax: Vmax=πx2h≈π(1.7535)2(4.507)≈3.14159(3.0757)
(4.507)≈43.46 cm3Error! Filename not specified.
7. Determine the percentage of the sheet metal used in the lid when the volume, V is a
maximum:
o Area of lid (Alid) = πx2+2πxError! Filename not specified.
o Alid≈π(1.7535)2+2π(1.7535)Error! Filename not specified.
o Alid≈3.14159(3.0757)+6.28318(1.7535)Error! Filename not specified.
o Alid≈9.663+11.018≈20.681 cm2Error! Filename not specified.
o Total area =80 cm2.
o Percentage used in lid =Total AreaAlid×100Error! Filename not specified.
o Percentage ≈8020.681×100Error! Filename not specified.

Part 2: Minimizing Material for a Given Volume (Cylindrical Container)

Given Information:

 Volume of container (V) = 128 cubic inches.

 Minimize material (surface area). Assume this is a standard closed cylinder (top and
bottom included), without the extra overlap for the lid, for simplicity in a typical
optimization problem.

Formulas:

 Volume of a cylinder: V=πr2h=128Error! Filename not specified.

 Surface Area of a closed cylinder: SA=2πr2+2πrhError! Filename not specified.

Calculation:

1. Express h in terms of r from the volume equation: h=πr2128Error! Filename not

specified.
2. Substitute h into the surface area equation: SA(r)=2πr2+2πr(πr2128)
SA(r)=2πr2+r256Error! Filename not specified.
3. Find the first derivative of SA(r) with respect to r: drdSA=4πr−r2256Error! Filename
not specified.
4. Set drdSA=0 to find critical points: 4πr−r2256=0 4πr=r2256 4πr3=256 r3=4π256=π64
r=3π64=3π4≈1.46464≈2.731 inches
5. Determine the dimensions:
o Radius r≈2.731 inches
o Height h=πr2128=π(π64)2/3128=ππ2/3642/3128=π1/3⋅16128=π1/38=2r
h≈π(2.731)2128≈3.14159×7.458128≈23.43128≈5.463 inches. Notice that h≈2r,
which is a known property for minimizing surface area of a cylinder for a given
volume.
 6. Justify that these dimensions yield a minimum using the second derivative test:
dr2d2SA=4π−drd(256r−1)=4π−(−1)256r−2=4π+r3512 Substitute r=3π4: dr2d2SA
=4π+(3π4)3512=4π+π64512=4π+8π=12π Since 12π>0, the critical point corresponds to a
minimum surface area.

Results:

 For maximum volume (fixed area 80 cm2):

o Radius x≈1.7535 cmError! Filename not specified.
o Height h≈4.507 cmError! Filename not specified.
o Maximum Volume Vmax≈43.46 cm3Error! Filename not specified.
o Percentage of sheet metal used in lid: ≈25.85Error! Filename not specified.
 For minimum material (fixed volume 128 cubic inches):
o Radius r≈2.731 inchesError! Filename not specified.
o Height h≈5.463 inchesError! Filename not specified.
o Justification: Second derivative is positive (12π>0), confirming a minimum.

Optimization problems, solved using differential calculus, are crucial in engineering design for
maximizing efficiency (e.g., volume, throughput) or minimizing costs (e.g., material usage,
energy consumption), directly impacting manufacturing processes and product design.

(Please provide your Student ID to allow me to complete any specific calculations that depend
on your 'F' value from the student data table in problem D4(e) if it was intended to be used in
that section, or any other personalized values in M4(d).)